Chapter XII: Part 12

=Corps d’Armée.= In the military organization of large armies two or more divisions form a _corps d’armée_, or army corps, which is complete in itself as an army, with everything needed for service. In European states, where large standing armies are kept, this custom of dividing them into corps, each under an officer of very high rank, and quartering them in different provinces, is followed even in times of peace.

=Correspondence, Official.= Is correspondence carried on officially between military officers and various departments of the service, such as orders, reports, letters, indorsements, etc. All official correspondence between the heads of the different departments of the staff of any command and its commander must pass through the adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant of the command, as the case may be. Communications to or from a commander and those under his command must pass through the adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant on duty with it; excepting only such communications between a disbursing officer and the chief of his particular branch of the staff as relate exclusively to the ordinary routine of business in their own department. All communications, whether from an inferior to a superior, or _vice versa_, are, as a general rule, to be passed through the intermediate commanders. The same rule governs in verbal applications: for example, a lieutenant seeking an indulgence must apply through his captain, the captain through the adjutant, and so on. All correspondence relating to or involving the _personnel_ of the army when forwarded to the Secretary of War for his orders, must be forwarded through the adjutant-general for the consideration of the general of the army.

=Corridor.= The covered way lying round the whole compass of the fortifications of a place.

=Corselet.= A little cuirass, or piece of armor to cover the front of the body, worn formerly by pikemen.

=Corsica.= An island in the Mediterranean, held by the French. This island has been successively occupied by the Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, Saracens, Franks, the popes, and Genoese; and lastly by the French, in whose possession it now remains, and to whom it was ceded by the Genoese in 1768. This island was held by the British from June, 1794, to Oct. 22, 1796.

=Cortege.= The official staff, civil or military.

=Corus=, =Corupedion=, or =Cyropedium=. A plain in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysimachus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 B.C. These two were the only survivors of Alexander the Great’s generals.

=Corygaum.= An insignificant village in the presidency of Bombay; historically interesting in connection with the final subjugation of the Peishwa of the Mahrattas. On Jan. 1, 1818, it was defended for nine hours by a mere handful of men under Capt. Staunton, against a native force numbering at least 3000 infantry and about 20,000 cavalry, the struggle terminating in the repulse of the assailants after terrible slaughter.

=Cossacks= (Russ., _Kasacks_). A military organization of irregulars in the Russian service. They contribute much to the military strength of Russia; but several insurrections, of which the most alarming was that of 1773, have taken place since they became subjects to the Russian government.

=Cossova.= A plain in Servia. Here Amurath I. totally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hungarians, etc.), September, 1389; but was himself killed by an expiring soldier. At this place, in 1448, John Huniades was defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than his own.

=Costa Rica.= The most southern state of Central America; bounded north by Nicaragua, northeast by the Caribbean Sea, south by New Granada, and south and west by the Pacific. The government of Costa Rica was established in 1832, and is accounted as the best and most liberal in Central America.

=Coston’s Lights.= Colored pyrotechnical compositions used for night signaling. Sometimes used in the form of a pistol cartridge.

=Cotice=, or =Cost=. In heraldry, one of the diminutives of the bend. It is a fourth part of the bend, and is usually borne in couples, with a head between.

=Couchant.= In heraldry, a beast lying down, with his head up, is _couchant_. If the head is down, he is _dormant_.

=Coulmiers.= A village 10 miles west of Orleans, Central France. Here the Bavarians under Gen. Von der Tann were defeated by the French army of the Loire under Gen. d’Aurelle de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, Nov. 9, 1870, and regained Orleans.

=Council of War.= A conference of officers in military or naval warfare, on some matter in which the commander wishes to fortify his judgment by an appeal to that of others. The commandant of a garrison generally solicits the opinion of a council of war before surrendering to besiegers.

=Counter-approach.= A trench by which the besieged proceeds to meet the approaches of the besiegers. It is generally zigzag.

=Counter-arch.= A vertical arch connecting the top of the counter-forts.

=Counter-battery.= A battery which returns the fire of an opposing battery.

=Counter-changed.= In heraldry, when several metals and colors are intermixed, one being set against the other, they are said to be counter-changed.

=Counter-forts.= Interior buttresses constructed for the purpose of strengthening masonry revetments.

=Counter-guards.= Sometimes called couvre-faces, are works constructed in permanent fortifications to cover a bastion or demi-lune. They consist of two faces forming a salient angle.

=Counterhurters.= In gunnery, are pieces of iron bolted to the rails on which the gun-carriage moves to check it in front and rear. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Countermand.= To revoke, as a former command; to direct or order in opposition to an order previously given, thereby annulling it, or prohibiting its execution.

=Countermarch.= A change of direction of a company or battalion in column from front to rear, by a flank movement, retaining the same ground.

=Countermine.= A gallery underground so constructed as to facilitate the formation of mines, by means of which those of the enemy may be reached and destroyed.

=Countermine.= To oppose by means of a countermine; to frustrate the designs of, by sinking a well and gallery in the earth, in search of an enemy’s mine.

=Counter-parole.= A word given in any time of alarm, as a signal.

=Counterpoise Carriage.= A gun-carriage which, applied to a gun mounted in _barbette_, allows it to recoil behind the parapet or other shelter, and by means of a counterpoise brings it, or assists in bringing it, again into _battery_ after it has been loaded. Among the best known of these carriages are _Moncrieff’s_ and _King’s_,--the former invented by Capt. Moncrieff, of the British army, and the latter by Capt. W. R. King, of the U. S. Engineers. In Moncrieff’s carriage the counterpoise is a heavy weight between the cheeks of the top carriage. In King’s the weight is in a well under the pintle-block, and is attached to the carriage by a wire cable.

=Counter-round.= A body of officers, whose duty it is to visit and inspect the rounds and sentinels.

=Counterscarp.= In fortification, is the vertical or nearly vertical side of the ditch nearest to the besiegers, and opposite to the scarp or escarp. It is generally faced or _revetted_ in permanent works, to render the descent into the ditch difficult.

=Counterscarp Galleries.= Galleries under the counterscarp at the salients, for the purpose of flanking the ditch.

=Countersign.= In military discipline or manœuvres, is a watch-word given by the commanding officer of an army or garrison daily, in order that a friend may be distinguished from an enemy. The countersign is given to sentinels, and others who are immediately concerned. It is given in garrison to prevent unauthorized persons from passing the guards. The countersign is usually the name of a battle.

=Counter-swallowtail.= In fortification, is a kind of an outwork very much resembling a single tenaille.

=Counter-trenches.= Are trenches made against the besiegers, which consequently have their parapets turned against the enemy’s approaches, and are enfiladed from several parts of the place on purpose to render them useless to the enemy, if they should chance to become masters of them; but they should not be enfiladed or commanded by any height in the enemy’s possession.

=Counter-vair.= A heraldic fur. It differs from _vair_ by having its cups or bells of the same tinctures placed base against base, and point against point. The tinctures are _or_ and _azure_.

=Coup de Grace.= A finishing or decisive stroke.

=Coup de Main.= A sudden and vigorous attack, for the purpose of instantaneously capturing a position.

=Coup d’Œil.= The gift of rapidly grasping and turning to the best account the contingencies of war, and the features of the country which is its scene.

=Couped= (Fr. _coupé_). A term in heraldry, used to describe the head or any limb of an animal cut off from the trunk, and smooth. When crosses, bends, bars, etc., are cut so as not to touch the sides of the escutcheon, they are also said to be couped.

=Coupe-gorge= (_Fr._). Literally means cut-throat. It is used in a military sense to signify any spot or position which affords an enemy so many advantages that the troops who occupy it must either surrender or be cut to pieces.

=Coupures.= In fortification, are passages cut through the glacis, of about 12 or 15 feet broad, in the re-entering angle of the covert way, to facilitate the sallies of the besieged. They are sometimes made through the lower curtain, to let boats into a little haven built in the _re-entrant_ angle of the counterscarp of the outworks.

=Courçon= (_Fr._). A long piece of iron which is used in the artillery and serves to constrain or tighten cannon.

=Courier.= In a military sense, means a messenger sent post or express to carry dispatches of battles gained, lost, etc., or any other occurrences that happened in war.

=Courland.= A duchy of Livonia, subjected to Poland in 1582, conquered by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795.

=Couronement=, or =Couronnement=. In fortification, implies the most exterior part of a work when besieged.

=Courtel.= A military implement which served both for a knife and a dagger.

=Court-martial.= In the army, a tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders against martial law or against good order and discipline. Under the present construction of law, members of courts-martial become judges and jurors. In ancient feudal times the lords had arbitrary power over vassals who held their lands by tenure of military service, and punished them as they saw fit, and courts of chivalry took cognizance of offenses committed by the nobles. With the decline of feudalism the system of military despotism became obnoxious to the English people, and although the necessity for a standing army was admitted in time of peace, it could only exist with the consent of Parliament. The first military act passed after the accession of William to the throne of England is believed to have laid the foundation of the present system of courts-martial, which has also been adopted to a certain extent in the American service. Parliament having been notified that a body of English and Scotch troops who were ordered to Holland had mutinied, that body passed, on April 3, 1689, an act for punishing mutiny, desertion, etc., which has been renewed annually by Parliament to the present day. It authorized the king to grant commissions to certain officers to hold courts-martial for the trial of crimes committed by officers and soldiers. Similar acts were at different times passed in relation to offenses committed in the navy. A court-martial is a court of limited and special jurisdiction called into existence by force of express statute for a special purpose, and to perform a particular duty; and when the object of its creation is accomplished it ceases to exist. The law presumes nothing in its favor. He who seeks to enforce its sentences, or to justify its conduct under them, must set forth affirmatively and clearly all the facts which are necessary to show that it was legally constituted, and that the subject was within its jurisdiction. And if in its proceedings or sentence it transcends the limits of its jurisdiction, the members of the court and its officer who executes its sentence are trespassers, and as such are answerable to the party injured in damages in the courts of common law. Courts are classed into general, garrison, summary, regimental, and field-officers’, according as the authority convening, the nature of the offenses to be inquired into, the punishment to be awarded, or other circumstances may determine. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 72 to 114; also TRIAL.

=Court of Honor.= Is a military court authorized by the regulations of the Prussian service, convened for the purpose of sustaining the honor of the service and of individuals, and of punishing officers who may be found guilty of conduct deviating even in the least from the principles which actuate military men as men of honor. The court of honor of a regiment consists of all commissioned officers in it, except the prosecutor, the defendant, near relations, officers appearing as witnesses in the case, officers on leave, detached service, under arrest, or awaiting trial before any court; and has for its regular business management a council of honor, consisting of the senior captain, senior first lieutenant, and senior second lieutenant. The court has jurisdiction over all acts or omissions (not provided for by any fixed laws) which are unofficerlike or ungentlemanly in their nature, particularly such as contracting debts, improper choice of society, excessive use of intoxicating liquors, gambling, quarrels, carelessness or neglect of duty, and scandal. With the exception of general officers, all officers of the standing army, the reserve, the landwehr, and those of the retired list are subject to the laws of the court of honor. The court to investigate the conduct of a field-officer is made up of the field-officers of the division to which the officer belongs.

=Court of Inquiry.= In the military service of the United States, is a legally constituted court which may be ordered by the President or by any commanding officer to examine into the nature of any transaction of, or accusation or imputation against, any officer or soldier upon a demand by the officer or soldier whose conduct is to be inquired into. It may consist of one, two, or three officers, and a judge-advocate or other suitable person as recorder, all of whom are sworn. It has the same powers as a court-martial to summon witnesses and to examine them on oath. Courts of inquiry cannot award punishment, but must report to the officer by whose order they were assembled. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 115 to 121; also INQUIRY, BOARD OF.) In the British service courts of inquiry are not regulated by any statute or standing regulation, but depend on the will of the sovereign, or of the superior officer convoking the court, both as to the officers who may compose it, and as to every particular of its constitution. It is not a judicial body, but is rather a council, having no power to compel the attendance of witnesses not of the army or navy, nor to administer oaths.

=Courtrai.= A fortified town of Belgium, on the river Lys. Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, July 11, 1302. The conflict was named the “Battle of the Spurs,” from the number of gilt spurs collected.

=Coussinet à Mousquetaire= (_Fr._). A bag formerly worn by a French soldier on his left side beneath the cross-belt. It hung on a hook near the butt of his musket. It likewise signifies a wedge used to support the mortar in its frame.

=Coutere.= A piece of armor which covered the elbow.

=Coutras.= In Southwestern France. Here Henry of Navarre totally defeated the Duc de Joyeuse and the Royalists, October 20, 1587.

=Cover.= Natural or artificial protection from the fire of the enemy, the former being afforded by hills, woods, banks, walls, etc., the latter by fortifications constructed for the purpose. To cover is, in military language, to stand exactly behind another man.

=Covering.= Standing exactly in front or in rear of another man or an object.

=Covering-fascines.= Are those made of stout picket stuff, not less than 1 inch thick, without any mixture of small brush-wood. They may be used in place of planks for the superstructure of wooden bridges; and may also be used, if no stout planks or spars are to be had, for the roofs of field powder-magazines. They may be made of the usual diameter of 9 inches. Their length will depend upon the special purpose for which they are intended. The withes should be particularly good.

=Covert Way=, or =Covered Way=. Is a road or broad path outside the fosse or moat of a fortified place, between the counterscarp and the glacis. It is usually about 30 feet wide, and sunk so far below the crest of the glacis that soldiers standing upon it cannot be seen by the besiegers; hence the name. The covert way is broad enough to allow troops to form on it, either to act defensively or make sorties; and to increase this accommodation enlarged portions, called _places of arms_, are made at certain spots.

=Covinarii.= The soldiers who fought on the _covinus_ were so called.

=Covinus.= A kind of war-chariot used by the ancient Britons and Belgians.

=Cowardice.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 42.

=Cow-boys.= A band of marauders in the time of the American Revolution, consisting mostly of refugees who adhered to the British side, and who infested the so-called “neutral ground” lying between the American and British lines, plundering all those who had taken the oath of allegiance to the Continental Congress. See SKINNERS.

=Cowpens.= A village in Spartanburg Co., N. C. At this place Gen. Morgan defeated Col. Tarleton, January 17, 1781; it is said that Tarleton lost 300 men in killed and wounded, and about 500 prisoners. The American loss was also considerable.

=Cracow.= A city in Austrian Poland, on the left bank of the Vistula. It was taken by Charles XII. in 1702; taken and retaken several times by the Russians and other confederates. The Russians were expelled from the city March 24, 1794; but it surrendered to the Prussians June 15, the same year, and in 1795 was awarded to Austria. It was occupied by 10,000 Russians, who followed the defeated Poles, September, 1831. It was finally incorporated with the Austrian empire, November 16, 1846.

=Cradle.= A narrow frame-work of heavy timbers upon which heavy guns are sometimes placed, to be moved upon rollers.

=Crakers.= Choice soldiers were so called in the time of Henry VIII.

=Crakys.= An old term for great guns.

=Crampets.= The cramp rings of a sword scabbard.

=Crampton’s Gap.= A pass in the South Mountains, Frederick Co., Md. A stubborn fight of four or five hours took place here September 14, 1862, between part of Gen. McClellan’s army under command of Gen. W. B. Franklin and a portion of the Confederate army under Gen. Cobb, which was defending the pass. The Confederates were forced to retire, having suffered severe loss in killed and wounded.

=Cranon.= In Thessaly, Northern Greece. The Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, near Cranon.

=Craonne.= A town of France, in the department of Aisne. Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Blücher, after a severe contest, March 7, 1814.

=Crater.= The pit left by the explosion of a military mine.

=Cravant.= See CREVANT-SUR-YONNE.

=Crécy=, or =Cressy=. A village in France, department of the Somme, famous for a great victory obtained over the French, under Philip of Valois, by Edward III. of England, August 26, 1346. In this battle fell the king of Bohemia, the Count of Flanders, 8 other sovereign princes, 80 bannerets, 1200 knights, 1500 gentlemen, 4000 men-at-arms, with the Duke of Alençon and the flower of the French nobility. The English army was drawn up in three lines; of which the first was commanded by Edward, prince of Wales, assisted by the Earls of Warwick and Oxford; the second led by the Earls of Arundel and Northampton; while the third, or body reserve, was posted along the summit of a hill, under the command of the king in person, attended by the Lords Mowbray, Mortimer, and others. The English loss in this battle was very small.

=Crécy-sur-Serre.= A town of France, department of Aisne. Its castle was taken and razed by Louis le Gros in 1115. The English took the town in 1339, 1358, and 1373; it was taken by the forces of the League in 1589; and it was burned by the Spaniards in 1662.

=Creedmoor.= About 10 miles east of New York, noted for its splendid rifle range, which was established in 1871.

=Creek Indians.= Formerly a numerous and powerful tribe dwelling in Georgia and Alabama. Their number was much reduced by the war of 1814, in which year they waged war against the United States, but were subdued by Gen. Jackson. Of the survivors most removed beyond the Mississippi, and are now settled in Indian Territory, where they are rapidly advancing in the art of civilization. For numbers, etc., see INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Creil.= A town of France, department of the Oise. It was ravaged several times by the Normans; taken by the king of Navarre in 1358; by the English in 1434; by Charles VII. in 1441; pillaged by the Calvinists in 1567, and occupied by forces of the League in 1588.

=Cremaille.= In field fortification, is when the inside line of the parapet is broken in such a manner as to resemble the teeth of a saw. This advantage is gained by the measure, that a greater fire can be brought to hear upon the defile than if only a simple face was opposed to it; and consequently the passage is rendered more difficult.

=Crémaillère= (_Fr._). An indented or zigzag line of intrenchment.

=Cremona.= A fortified city of Northern Italy, the capital of the province of the same name. It was besieged by the Gauls in 200 B.C.; by Primus, a general of Vespasian, in 69; by Frederick Barbarossa in 1160. Prince Eugène took possession of it in 1702; it was taken by the French in 1796 and 1800.

=Crenaux= (_Fr._). In fortification, small openings or loop-holes, made through the walls of a fortified town or place. They are extremely narrow towards the enemy, and wide within; so that the balls from the besiegers can scarcely ever enter, whereas two or three soldiers may fire from within.

=Crenelle=, or =Crenel=. A term used sometimes to denote a battlement, but more frequently an embrasure in a battlement. The adjective crenellated is employed to signify that a building is supplied with crenelles.

=Crépy.= A town of France, department of the Oise; it was captured and sacked by the English in 1339; by the Duke of Lancaster in 1373; occupied by the Burgundians in 1418; by Pothon and Xaintrailles in 1419; it was besieged by the Duke of Burgundy in 1420; taken by the English and their allies in 1431; by Charles VII. in 1433; by the Duc de Mayenne in 1588.

=Crépy en Laonois.= A town of France, department of Aisne. It was sacked by the English in 1339 and 1373, and taken by the Burgundians in 1418 and 1420. A treaty of peace was concluded here between Spain and France, September 18, 1544.

=Crescent.= The figure or likeness of the new moon borne in the Turkish flag or national standard; also the standard itself.

=Crescent.= The name of three orders of knighthood; the first instituted by Charles I., king of Naples and Sicily, in 1268; the second by René of Anjou, in 1448; and the third by the sultan Selim, in 1801. Of these the last is still in existence, and is remarkable for the fact that none but Christians are eligible. See CRESCENT, TURKISH ORDER OF.

=Crescent.= In heraldry, is used both as a bearing or charge, and as a difference or mark of cadency. In the latter case it designates the second son, and those that descend from him.

=Crescent, Turkish Order of the.= In 1799, after the battle of Aboukir, the sultan Selim III. testified his gratitude to Nelson by sending him a crescent richly adorned with diamonds. Selim was flattered by the value which the English admiral seemed to attach to this gift, and it was this circumstance which determined him, in 1801, to found the order of the Crescent, which is only conferred on Christians who have done service to the state. The second person on whom it was conferred was Gen. Sebastiani, for his defense of Constantinople against the English fleet in 1807.

=Cressit.= A small crease or dagger.

=Crest.= Signifies the line which marks the top of a parapet. It is sometimes called the interior crest. The exterior, or sub-crest, is the line marking the meeting of the exterior and superior slopes.

=Crest.= In feudal times was the distinctive ornament of the helmet; hence the term is frequently applied to the helmet itself. In heraldry the crest is shown as an appendage to the shield, placed over it, and usually borne upon a wreath. It is generally either some portion of the coat-armor, or a device commemorative of some incident in the history of a family, and often contains an allusion to the office of the bearer.

=Crete.= In fortification, implies the earth thrown out of the ditch in a fortification, trench, etc. The most elevated part of a parapet or glacis.

=Crete.= See CANDIA.

=Crevant-sur-Yonne.= In Northern France; besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the Earl of Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians; after a severe contest the French were totally defeated.

=Creveldt.= Near Cleves, Western Prussia. Here, on June 23, 1758, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the French under the Count of Clermont.

=Crimea.= A peninsula of Southern Russia, formed by the Sea of Azof and the Black Sea. It was the _Taurica Chersonesus_ of the ancient Greeks, by whom it was colonized about 550 B.C. Here was founded the kingdom of _Bosporus_, which formed part of the dominions of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under Roman protection until the irruption of the Goths, Huns, etc., 258 A.D. It fell into the hands of the Mongols in the 13th century, was subjected to the Ottoman yoke in 1475, and was ceded to Russia in 1783. War having been declared against Russia by England and France, March 28, 1854, an expedition against the Crimea was determined on. Accordingly, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men, commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna September 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th without opposition at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians (40,000 to 50,000 strong), who were intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. It was the scene of several other engagements during the continuance of the war, until the proclamation of peace in April, 1856. The allies quitted the Crimea July 12, following.

=Crimes, Capital.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 21, 22, 23, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 56, 57, 105, and Section 1343.

=Crimes, Military.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=Crimisus.= A river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C.

=Crimping-houses.= Houses in which persons were entrapped into the army; hence the name of “crimp sergeant.” In a riot in London some of these receptacles were destroyed by the populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in endeavoring to escape, September 16, 1794.

=Criques= (_Fr._). Small ditches which are made in different parts of a ground for the purpose of inundating a country, in order to obstruct the approaches of an enemy.

=Croatia.= A province of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. This region was anciently inhabited by the Pannonians, who were conquered by the Romans in the reign of Augustus. It was conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, and was with that country united to Austria in 1526.

=Croats.= In military history, light irregular troops were so called; generally people of Croatia. They were ordered upon all desperate services, and their method of fighting was the same as the Pandours.

=Crochert.= A hagbut or hand-cannon, anciently in use.

=Cronstadt.= A seaport and fortress of Russia, about 20 miles west from St. Petersburg. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1710, the island having been taken from the Swedes by him in 1703. A Swedish fleet was defeated here by the Russians in 1790, and in 1855 an English fleet, commanded by Sir Charles Napier, proceeded to the Baltic, with the view of taking this place or destroying its fortifications; but either from the inadequacy of the means placed at his disposal, or from the great strength of the forts, no attempt was made upon them.

=Cropedy Bridge.= Near Banbury, Oxfordshire, England. Here the royalists defeated Sir William Waller and the army of Parliament, June 29, 1644.

=Cross-belts.= Belts worn over both shoulders, and crossing the breast.

=Cross-bow.= A weapon formerly used in discharging arrows, formed by placing a bow crosswise on a stock.

=Crossen.= A town of the Prussian province of Brandenburg. In 1758 this place was taken by the Russians.

=Cross-fire.= The crossing of lines of fire from two or more points or places.

=Cross, Victoria.= See VICTORIA CROSS.

=Crotchet.= In fortification, an indentation in the glacis of the covered way at a point where a traverse is placed.

=Crotchet.= The arrangement of a body of troops, either forward or rearward, so as to form a line nearly perpendicular to the general line of battle.

=Croton=, or =Crotona=. One of the most celebrated of the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, founded about 710 B.C. About 510 a Crotoniat army of 100,000 men, under Milo, defeated a greatly superior force of Sybarites on the banks of the Tracis, took the city of Sybaris, and utterly destroyed it. (See SYBARIS.) In the second Punic war the Bruttians, with the assistance of the Carthaginian general Hanno, succeeded in making themselves masters of the city of Crotona, with the exception of the citadel, which held out until induced to surrender on terms. The ravages of this war completed the decay of the city, and it sunk into the condition of an obscure provincial town.

=Crown.= The emblem of sovereignty in modern Europe. It was originally an Oriental decoration, and was adopted by Alexander the Great from the kings of Persia. In modern states crowns were of various forms, till heralds devised a regular series of them to mark the various gradations of sovereignty, from that of the emperor down to what are called the coronets of counts and barons. In England, so entirely has the crown been regarded as the symbol of sovereignty, that the word is frequently used as synonymous with the monarchy.

=Crown, Civic.= See CIVIC CROWN.

=Crown, Mural.= See MURAL CROWN.

=Crown, Obsidional.= See OBSIDIONAL CROWN.

=Crown, Triumphal.= See TRIUMPHAL CROWN.

=Crown, Vallary.= See VALLARY CROWN.

=Crowning.= A term in fortifications generally applied to the operation, by the besieged, of establishing works on the crest of the glacis or summit of the breach. It is sometimes used when describing the movements of troops, to signify that they have reached the top of a hill or parapet, which they are said to have crowned.

=Crown-work.= A term used in fortification to signify a work consisting of two or more fronts of fortification, joined by two long branches to the ditch of another work, a river, a village, etc. It is generally used to defend a bridge or suburb.

=Crows=, or =Absorokas=. A tribe of Indians inhabiting the northern part of Wyoming Territory and the southern part of Montana. They are divided into two bands, and belong to the Dakota family. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Crows-foot.= An implement of metal with four points, so formed that, in whatever way it falls, there is one point upward; intended to injure the feet of horses; a caltrop.

=Crucible, Steel.= Steel melted in crucibles; cast steel. See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Crusader.= A knight engaged in the Crusades.

=Crusades.= From the Latin _crux_, a “cross.” A term applied to the military expeditions undertaken by Christian powers in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries for the recovery of Palestine, or the “Holy Land,” from the Mohammedans. They were originated by Peter the Hermit, an enthusiastic French officer of Amiens, who turned pilgrim. There were in all eight crusades, from 1096 to 1270. The last one ended in the Christians being driven out of Syria.

=Ctesiphon= (afterwards _Al Madayn_). On the Tigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, was taken by Trajan in 116, and by Alexander Severus (who made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defenses deterred Julian from the siege, 363. Through the cowardice or treachery of the defenders, it was taken by Omar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed. He built Cufa near it with the remains.

=Cuba.= An island in the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico. It is the largest of the West Indian group, belongs to Spain, and is the most important of the Spanish colonial possessions. It was discovered by Columbus, October 28, 1492, and the Spaniards formed their first settlement on it in 1511, and have remained in possession ever since. Havana, a city of Cuba, was taken by the British in 1762, but was restored to Spain the following year. In May, 1850, and August, 1851, unsuccessful attempts to revolutionize the island were made by bands of adventurers under a Spaniard named Narcisso Lopez. In the latter expedition, the whole 450 who landed were either slain in fight or taken prisoners. In 1868 the inhabitants revolted against Spain, and declared a republic. Spain at once proceeded to crush them into submission, but the patriots held out until, in 1878, abandoning all hope of assistance or recognition from abroad, they were obliged to succumb, and the Spaniards resumed full control of the country.

=Cubical Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Cuddalore= (India). On the coast of the Carnatic, was acquired by the English in 1681. It was reduced by the French in 1758, but recaptured in 1760 by Sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destructive siege by the British under Gen. Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784.

=Cuenca.= A city of Spain, in New Castile, about 84 miles from Madrid. It was captured from the Moors by the kings of Castile and Aragon in 1176.

=Cuirass= (Fr. _cuir_, leather). Originally a jerkin, or garment of leather for soldiers, so thick and strong as to be pistol-proof, and even musket-proof. The name was afterwards applied to a portion of armor made of metal, consisting of a back-plate and breastplate hooked or buckled together. The cuirass is worn in the British army by the Life Guards and the Horse Guards.

=Cuish.= Defensive armor for the thighs, written also _cuisse_.

=Cul-de-sac= (_Fr._). The “bottom of a bag.” A passage with only one outlet; a position in which an army finds itself, with no way of exit but to the front.

=Cullen Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Cullen’s-wood.= In Ireland. A horrible slaughter of the English by the Irish took place at a village near Dublin on Easter or _Black_ Monday, so called from this massacre, March 30, 1209. The English were a colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence they went to divert themselves at Cullen’s-wood, when the O’Byrnes and O’Tooles fell upon them, and destroyed 500 men, besides women and children.

=Culloden=, or =Drummossie Moor=. A wide heath in Scotland, 3 miles east of Inverness, on which the Duke of Cumberland gained a decisive victory over the Highland army in their attempt to restore the Stuart dynasty to the throne, in 1746.

=Culpeper Court-house.= See FAIRFAX.

=Culverin.= A long cannon used from the 14th to the 16th century; generally carried a shot of 18 pounds. The gun at Dover Castle, called Queen Elizabeth’s pocket-pistol, is a specimen of a large culverin. A _demi-culverin_ was a similar piece, carrying a 9-pound shot.

=Cumæ.= An ancient and celebrated Greek city on the coast of Campania, about 6 miles north of Cape Misenum. The Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians attacked it by sea, and were defeated by Hieron, 474 B.C. In 420 the Samnites laid siege to the city, and after repeated attacks succeeded in carrying it by assault. It was given up to pillage and its inhabitants put to the sword. In the second Punic war Hannibal made an attempt upon the city, but was repulsed by Sempronius Gracchus. It was chosen by the Gothic kings as the depository of their regalia and valuables, and was the last place in Italy that held out against Narses.

=Cumberland Gap.= Is a natural gap in the Cumberland Mountains, about 80 miles in length, and about 150 miles south by east from Lexington, Ky. During the civil war it was an important strategic point, and was held at different times by each of the contending forces. It was held by the Confederates without any serious interference until Chattanooga was occupied by the forces of Gen. Mitchell, when it was evacuated about June 18, 1862, and occupied on the same day by the Union general Geo. W. Morgan. It was held by him until September 17, when he was compelled to evacuate it. It was again occupied by the Confederates, who to the number of 2000 under Gen. Frazer surrendered to Gen. Burnside, September 9, 1863. A large quantity of stores and 10 pieces of artillery were captured.

=Cunaxa.= In Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, where Cyrus the Younger was defeated and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had conspired, 401 B.C.

=Cunette=, or =Cuvette=. A trench in the bottom of a dry ditch; an obstacle in the passage of an enemy (especially if filled with water), and also acting as a drain.

=Cunnersdorf=, or =Kunnersdorf=. A village in Bohemia, 12 miles north-northwest of Buntzlau. On August 12, 1759, Frederick the Great with 50,000 men attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first gained considerable advantages; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and wounded.

=Curaçoa.= An island in the Caribbean Sea, settled by the Spaniards about 1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 the French settled on part of this island, quarreled with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802; taken from them by the British in 1807, and again restored in 1814.

=Curiet.= A breastplate made of leather.

=Current Series.= In military administration, orders issued from established commands, such as divisions, departments, etc., being numbered in regular order for each year; this term is frequently used when referring to orders issued in the year passing or current, when the expression is employed.

=Currier.= A small musketoon with a swivel mounting.

=Currytown.= A village in Montgomery Co., N. Y., noted for the attack on and murder of its settlers by nearly 500 Indians and a few loyalists, commanded by a Tory named Doxstader, July 9, 1781. The settlers were unsuspicious of danger, and were generally at work in the fields when the enemy fell upon them. After killing and capturing all they could, the Indians set fire to the buildings, and drove away most of the cattle and horses in the neighborhood. Next day Col. Willett, who was at Fort Plain when the attack was made, pursued the enemy with about 150 men, attacked and killed about 40 of them, and recovered all their plunder.

=Curtain.= In fortification, is that part of the rampart or wall between two bastions or two gates.

=Curtail=, or =Curtald=. An ancient piece of ordnance, apparently a short one.

=Curtatone.= Near Mantua, Northern Italy. Here the Austrians under Radetzky crossed the Minco, and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, May 29, 1848.

=Customs of the Service.= Sometimes called common law of the army. Signifies generally a right or law not written, but established by long usage. To render a custom valid it has been said that the following qualities are requisite: 1, habitual or long established practice; 2, continuance without interruption; 3, without dispute; 4, it must be reasonable; 5, certain; 6, compulsory; 7, customs must be consistent with each other. It may be said that the common law of the army derives its force from the tacit consent of those in the service. Gen. Kautz states that officers of the army have certain duties to perform that are governed by certain laws, rules, and regulations, which are interpreted and executed in a certain way, called “Customs of the Service.” A knowledge of these rules of the service, and their application, constitutes the military profession, and is the true art of war. To this extent it is an exact science, and may be acquired by application and experience.

=Custozza.= Near Verona, Northern Italy. Here the Italians were defeated by Marshal Radetzky, July 23, 1848; and here they were again defeated June 24, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by the Archduke Albrecht.

=Cut Off, To.= To intercept, to hinder from union or return. In a military sense this phrase is variously applicable, and extremely familiar.

TO CUT OFF AN ENEMY’S RETREAT is to manœuvre in such a manner as to prevent an opposing army or body of men from retiring, when closely pressed, either to their intrenchments or into a fortified town from which they had marched or sallied.

=Cut up, To.= To destroy promiscuously. When the cavalry are sent in pursuit of a flying enemy, the latter are generally cut up.

=Cuttack= (anc. _Catac_). A province in the East Indies, ceded to the East India Company in 1803. Cuttack, the capital, was taken by Col. Harcourt, October 14, 1803. This province was captured by the Mahrattas in 1750.

=Cuzco.= A city of Peru, capital of a department, and the ancient capital of the Peruvian empire, in South America. This city was entered by Pizarro in November, 1533, and taken by him in August, 1536, after a five months’ siege.

=Cylinder-gauge.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Cylinder-staff.= See INSPECTION OF CANNON.

=Cyprus.= The most eastern island in the Mediterranean, near the mouth of the Gulf of Iskanderoon. It was divided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus of Persia, who subdued them. It was taken by the Greeks in 477 B.C., and ranked among the proconsular provinces in the reign of Augustus. It was conquered by the Saracens, 648 A.D., but recovered by the Greeks in 957. It was reduced by Richard I. of England in 1191, and given by him to Guy de Lusignan, who became king in 1192, and whose descendants governed it until 1489, when it was sold to the Venetians. It was taken by the Turks in August, 1571, and held by them until June, 1878, when it was awarded to England by the “Peace Congress of Berlin.”

=Czaslau.= A town of Bohemia, 45 miles east-southeast of Prague. Here Frederick the Great gained a victory over the Austrians, May 17, 1742.

D.

=Dacia.= The land of the Daci or Getæ. It comprised the various countries now known as Eastern Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia. The Getæ came originally from Thrace, and were divided into various tribes, and seem to have been the most valiant of the Thracian barbarians. Curio, the first Roman general who ever penetrated as far north as the Danube, did not venture to assail them. Julius Cæsar, however, is said to have intended their subjugation. In 10 B.C., Augustus sent an army up the valley of the Maros. From this time a continual war was waged by the Dacians against the Romans, who actually compelled the latter, in the reign of Domitian, to pay a tribute. In 101 A.D. the Emperor Trajan crossed the Theiss, and marched into Transylvania, where he fought a great battle near Thorda. The Daci, who were commanded by their famous chief Decebalus, were defeated. A second expedition of the emperor’s (104 A.D.) resulted in the destruction of their capital, the death of Decebalus, and the loss of their freedom. In 270 and 275 A.D. the Romans abandoned the country to the Goths, and the colonists were transferred to Mœsia. After a series of vicissitudes, Dacia fell into the possession of the Magyars in the 9th century.

=Dacota.= See DAKOTA.

=Dadur.= A town of Beloochistan, 5 miles to the east of the Bolan Pass. It is said to be one of the hottest places in the world, and is celebrated as the place where, in November, 1840, the British troops routed a Kelat force.

=Dag.= A thick, clumsy pistol, used in the 15th and 16th centuries.

=Dagen.= A peculiar kind of poniard.

=Dagger.= A weapon resembling a sword, but considerably smaller, being used for stabbing at close quarters. Daggers are generally two-edged, and very sharp towards the point.

=Daghestan.= A province of Russia, on the west coast of the Caspian Sea. It was conquered by the czar Peter in 1723; restored to Persia, 1735; but re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I. in 1813.

=Dague= (_Fr._). Dagger, a short thick poniard which was formerly used when individuals engaged in single combat.

=Dahlgren Gun.= So named from Admiral Dahlgren, its inventor. An improved form of ordnance used for howitzers, heavy artillery, and especially in naval gunnery. It having been demonstrated that in ordinary cast guns the weight of the metal forward is greater than is needed, and that by far the greatest strain in firing is at the breech, Dahlgren greatly increased the relative size and weight of the breech, with the best results. These guns are chiefly used by the U. S. forces. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Dahme.= A town of Prussia, on the river of the same name. It is defended by a strong citadel, and inclosed by walls. Here, in 1713, the French were defeated by the Prussians.

=Dahomey.= An independent state of Guinea, Western Africa, extending along the coast from Fort Badagry on the east, to the river Volta, which separates it from Ashantee on the west. The Dahomans, who came into possession of this tract of country about the beginning of the 18th century, are for the most part tall, well formed, and intelligent, and, for an African race, singularly honest and far advanced in agriculture. With the exception of a few Mohammedans, whose religious belief is in no way interfered with, they are all pagans, and practice fetish-worship. The king is the most absolute of despots, having entire control over the lives and property of his subjects. Wholesale murder is one of the chief features in religious and state ceremonies, and the most valued ornaments of the royal residence are human skulls. As many as 2000 human victims are sometimes sacrificed at one “grand custom.” Of the regular army of 12,000, about one-half are Amazons (devoted to celibacy), who are described as much more effective soldiers than their male companions in arms; but at the same time as blood-thirsty and ferocious as tigresses.

=Dahra.= In Algeria; on June 18, 1845, above 500 Kabyles at war with the French, were suffocated in a cave by smoke, the fire having been kindled by order of Gen. Pelissier, afterwards Duke of Malakoff. They had fired on a messenger bearing an offer of truce. The massacre was condemned by Soult, the minister of war, but justified by Marshal Bugeaud.

=Dakota.= A Territory in the north central part of the United States. It was organized under a territorial form of government March 2, 1861, but very extensive alterations have since been made in its boundaries. The Territory has been greatly disturbed by marauding bands of Sioux Indians, or Dakotas, who were in 1862 and 1863 especially daring and aggressive, and though they have frequently been defeated by U. S. troops, notably under Gens. Sully and Sibley in 1863, they are still very troublesome, necessitating the frequent intervention of troops for the protection of the settlers.

=Dakota Indians.= A numerous and powerful tribe or collection of tribes of Indians of common stock, often called Sioux, who formerly roamed over the territory between the Missouri and Mississippi, but have moved farther west since 1851, and are settled on agencies in Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, etc. A great proportion of them still preserve their nomadic habits and are still frequently troublesome. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Dalecarlians.= Natives of Dalecarlia, Sweden, who revolted against Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne of Sweden.

=Dalmatia.= A narrow strip of territory extending along the Adriatic Sea; bounded north by Istria and Croatia, and east by Bosnia and Herzegovina. In ancient times Dalmatia was a considerable kingdom, and, after many unsuccessful attempts, was first subjugated by the Romans in the time of Augustus. After the fall of the Western empire, Dalmatia, which had formed the most southern part of the province of Illyricum, was captured by the Goths, from whom it was taken by the Avari (490), who in their turn yielded it to the Slavonians about 620. It continued under the rule of the Slavonians until the beginning of the 11th century, when King Ladislaus of Hungary incorporated a part of it with Croatia, while the other part, with the title of duchy, placed itself under the protection of the Venetian republic. The Turks afterwards made themselves masters of a small portion, and by the peace of Campo-Formio (1797), the Venetian part, with Venice itself, became subject to Austrian rule, and when Austria, in 1805, had ceded this part to Napoleon, it was annexed to the kingdom of Italy; afterwards (1810) to Illyria. Since 1814, excepting the Turkish portion, it has been reunited with Austria.

=Damages, Barrack.= In the British service, is the term applied to the injuries done to barracks, barrack furniture, etc., by soldiers, when the actual perpetrator cannot be discovered. The term is also applied to the sum levied from the company or regiment generally, to make good the injury. Damages to arms, clothing, etc. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 17.

=Damascus.= A city of Syria, in Asiatic Turkey. During the time of the Hebrew monarchy, it was the capital of Syria, but afterwards passed successively under the rule of the Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and Saracens; and finally, in 1516, it was captured by the Turks (under Sultan Selim I.), in whose hands it has remained ever since. Damascus was at one time celebrated for the manufacture of sword-blades of the finest temper and most exquisite workmanship, but the process by which such unequaled specimens of art were perfected appears no longer to exist.

=Damaskin.= A certain kind of sabre; so called from the manufacture of Damascus.

=Dame= (_Fr._). Among miners any portion of earth which may remain after the explosion of a mine has taken place. It likewise means a piece of wood with two handles used to press down turf or dirt in a mortar.

=Damietta.= A city of Lower Egypt, on the east branch of the Nile. It was taken by the Crusaders, 1219; lost, 1229; retaken by Louis IX., June 5, 1249; surrendered as his ransom when a prisoner, May 6, 1250.

=Damnonii=, =Dumnonii=, or =Dumnunii=. A powerful people who inhabited the southwest of Britain, comprising Cornwall, Devonshire, and the western part of Somersetshire, from whom was called the promontory Damnonium (now Cape Lizard), in Cornwall.

=Danai.= An ancient name of the Greeks, derived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C.

=Danala.= A city in the territory of the Trocmi, in the northeast of Galatia, notable in the history of the Mithridatic war as the place where Lucullus resigned the command to Pompey.

=Dancetté.= One of the lines of partition in heraldry, differing from indented only in the greater size of the notches. See INDENTED.

=Danes=, or =Northmen=. Natives of Denmark; during their attacks upon Britain and Ireland they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Normans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 911. The Danes invaded England, Scotland, and Ireland with varying successes from 783 to 1084.