Chapter XXXIII: Part 33

=Michigan.= One of the Northern Central States of the United States. It was colonized by the French, near Detroit, in the latter half of the 17th century, but, like other French colonies in America, did not progress rapidly. At the peace of 1763, it came, with the other French possessions in North America, under the dominion of Great Britain, and so remained till the breaking out of the American Revolution, when it passed to the United States. On the expulsion of the French, the celebrated Indian chief Pontiac seized the occasion to rid the country of the hated whites by a general uprising, and simultaneous attacks on all the forts of the English on the lakes. Mackinaw was taken by stratagem, and the garrison mercilessly butchered. Detroit was besieged for some months by Pontiac, with 600 Indians; but it held out till the Indian allies, becoming weary of the siege, retired and left Pontiac no choice but to make peace. The British surrendered Detroit to the United States in 1796. In 1805, Michigan, which up to that period had been a part of the Northwest Territory, was formed into a separate government. In 1812, it became the scene of some stirring events in the war with Great Britain. Lying contiguous to Canada, it was invaded in the very commencement of that struggle, and its capital (Detroit) surrendered August 15, 1812, by Gen. Hull, under circumstances which led to his displacement from his command. Previous to this Fort Mackinaw had been taken by the enemy. In January, 1813, a cruel massacre by the savages of a party of American prisoners took place at Frenchtown, but soon after, Gen. Harrison drove the enemy out of the Territory of Michigan, and removed the seat of war into Canada. Michigan became an independent member of the American Confederacy in 1837. During the civil war, she contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and sent over 90,000 men to the field.

=Micmacs.= A tribe of Indians numbering about 4000, who reside principally in New Foundland, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. They were formerly faithful allies of the French in their wars with the New England colonies, and with the English, against whom they maintained a hostile attitude until about 1760.

=Middle Ages.= The ages or period of time about equally distant from the decline of the Roman empire and the revival of letters in Europe, or from the 8th to the 15th century of the Christian era.

=Middle Assembling-bar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Middle-chest.= The front ammunition-chest on the body of the caisson,--so called because it is between the hind chest and the limber-chest when the caisson is limbered.

=Middle-man.= The man who occupies a central position in a file of soldiers.

=Midea.= A town in Argolis, of uncertain site; is said to have been originally called Persepolis, because it had been fortified by Perseus. It was destroyed by the Argives.

=Midianites.= An Arab race, descended, according to Scripture, from Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah. They occupied the greater part of the country between the north side of the Arabian Gulf and Arabia Felix as far as the Plains of Moab. The Midianites were very troublesome neighbors to the Israelites till Gideon’s victory over them (about 1249 B.C.), after which they gradually disappeared.

=Mignon= (_Fr._). Picked soldier, now called _élite_.

=Milan= (_Mediolanum_, capital of the ancient Liguria). A city of Italy, the capital of the province of Lombardy, 78 miles northeast from Turin; is reputed to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B.C. It was conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus, 222 B.C. It was the seat of government of the Western empire in 286; plundered by Attila in 452; taken by the emperor Frederick I., 1158; it rebelled and was taken by Frederick and its fortifications destroyed in 1162; but was rebuilt and fortified in 1169. The Milanese were defeated by the emperor Frederick II. in 1237; and the city was conquered by Louis XII. of France in 1499. The French were expelled by the Spaniards in 1525, and the city annexed to the crown of Spain in 1540; ceded to Austria, 1714. It was conquered by the French and Spaniards in 1743; reverted to Austria upon Sicily and Naples being ceded to Spain in 1748; seized by the French, June 30, 1796, retaken by the Austrians, 1799; regained by the French, May 31, 1800. The Milanese revolted against the Austrians, March 18, 1848, but submitted August 5, 1848. Another insurrection was attempted in 1853, but with disastrous results. On June 8, 1859, by the peace of Villa Franca, Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel became sovereign of Milan.

=Milazzo= (anc. _Mylæ_). A fortified seaport on the north coast of Sicily, 18 miles west of Messina. It was founded about 700 B.C., and has been the scene of many battles. It was taken by Laches in 427 B.C. It was off Mylæ that the Romans, under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took 50 of their ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi with 2500 men defeated 7000 Neapolitans, at Milazzo, and compelled the garrison to evacuate the fortress.

=Mileage.= An allowance for traveling, as so much by the mile; especially in the United States, an allowance made to military officers to defray the expenses of their journeys on duty when not traveling with troops.

=Milesian.= A native or inhabitant of Ireland, descended according to the legendary history of the country from King Milesius of Spain, whose two sons conquered the island 1300 B.C., and established a new order of nobility.

=Milesian.= Pertaining to Ireland, from the tradition that King Milesius of Spain once conquered the country.

=Miletus.= A flourishing Greek city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, was situated on the north side of the peninsula of Mt. Grion, at the entrance of the Gulf of Latmus, nearly opposite the mouth of the Meander. At the time of the Ionian emigration to Asia Minor it existed as a town, but when the Ionians arrived in Asia, Neleus and a company of his followers seized Miletus, put to death all the male inhabitants, who were Carians or Leleges, and took the women for their wives. Miletus became for a time a prosperous city under the rule of Lydia and Persia, but in 500 B.C. it revolted against Persia, and after repeated defeats in the field, the city was besieged by land and by sea, and finally taken by storm in 494 B.C. The city was plundered and its inhabitants massacred, and the survivors were transplanted to a place called Ampe, near the mouth of the Tigris. The town itself was given up to the Carians. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, Miletus threw off the yoke imposed upon her by Athens, and in a battle fought under the very walls of the city, the Milesians defeated their opponents; the Athenian admiral, Phrynichus, abandoned the enterprise. In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great took the city by assault, and destroyed a part of it, but it continued to flourish, until it was destroyed by the Turks and other barbarians.

=Milford Haven.= A town of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, 6 miles northwest from Pembroke. Here the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., landed on his way to encounter Richard III., whom he defeated at Bosworth, 1485.

=Milice.= An old term for militia.

=Militancy.= Warfare. This term is obsolete.

=Militant.= Engaged in warfare; fighting; combating; serving as a soldier.

=Militantly.= In a militant manner. This term is rarely used.

=Militar.= Military. This term is obsolete.

=Militarily.= In a military or soldierly manner.

=Militarist.= One devoted to military pursuits.

=Military.= Pertaining to soldiers, to arms, or to war; having to do with the affairs of war; as, a military parade or appearance; military discipline. Engaged in the service of soldiers or arms; as, a military man. Warlike; becoming a soldier; as, military bravery, military virtue. Derived from the service or exploits of a soldier; as, military renown. Conformable to the customs or rules of armies or militia; as, the conduct of the officer was not military. Performed or made by soldiers; as, a military election.

=Military.= The whole body of soldiers; soldiery; militia; the army.

=Military Academies.= The great improvements made in the art of war in modern times, in weapons, drill, discipline, etc., has made warfare more of a science and less of a trial of brute force than formerly, and hence the necessity for a body of trained officers capable of moving, directing, and bringing into effective operation all the appliances of war with which modern armies are furnished. As this special training cannot be obtained at ordinary educational establishments, special schools for the purpose have been established in all civilized countries. A few of them are here noted.

GREAT BRITAIN.--The _Royal Military Academy_, an establishment at Woolwich, through which must pass all candidates for the artillery and engineers. It was instituted in 1741, but the present structure was not erected until 1805. It usually contains about 200 cadets. The age of admission is sixteen, and the vacancies are open to public competition. The parents or guardians have to make annual payments for the support of the cadets as long as they remain at the academy, the amount being greater for the son of a civilian than of a military or naval officer. When the term of instruction--which comprises the subjects of a thorough general education, the higher mathematics, fortification, gunnery, and military duty--is completed, the cadets compete for vacancies in the engineers and artillery, those who pass the best examination being allowed a choice of either branch of the service. All who obtain commissions in the engineers proceed to Chatham for further instruction in their professional duties; the artillery cadets at once join the artillery as lieutenants.

_Royal Military College, Sandhurst_, is an institution for the training of candidates for commissions in the cavalry and infantry. The course is limited to one year immediately before entering the army, and the subjects of instruction confined to the higher mathematics, modern languages, and military science. Entrance is on the nomination of the commander-in-chief; and the payment by the cadets’ parents or guardians varies according to their circumstances and rank. No payment is made for what are called “Queen’s Cadets,” who must be orphans. Commissions in the cavalry and infantry are given to the cadets in the order of merit at the end of the year.

The _Staff College_ was founded in 1858, about 2 miles from Sandhurst, for the purpose of giving higher instruction to 30 officers aspiring to appointments on the staff. To be entitled to compete for entrance, an officer must have been three years in active service, must have passed the qualifying examination for a captaincy, and must have the recommendation of his commanding officer. A very strict examination decides which among the competitors shall be admitted to the college, one only being eligible from any battalion. The course lasts two years. At the end of each year there is an examination; that of the second fixing the order of the candidates’ choice for staff employment. After passing the Staff College the officer is attached for duty, for a short period, to each of the arms with which he may not have already served. He then becomes eligible for appointment to the staff, as opportunity may occur. There are also the Royal School of Military Engineers at Chatham, for the instruction of engineer officers, the Royal Military School at Dublin, and professional schools for officers and enlisted men, as the School of Musketry at Hythe, and the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness.

FRANCE.--The celebrated _Polytechnic School_ at Paris was established by the National Convention, September 28, 1794. By a decree of July 16, 1804, Napoleon placed it under a military régime. No attempt being made to impart a general education, candidates are required to have a thorough general knowledge before they are admitted. The preliminary examination of candidates for admission comprises mathematics, physics, chemistry, history, German, etc.; in fact, the candidate to be successful should have the degree of Bachelor of Science. Admission is open to competition; a board of examiners passes through the country once every year, and examines all who present themselves, possessing the requisite qualifications of age, etc. A list is made out from the proceedings of the board, and the number of candidates highest in order of merit for whom there are vacancies admitted. The age of admission is from sixteen to twenty years, or if the candidate is in the army, to twenty-five. This school prepares students for various branches of the public service, for the staff, engineers, artillery, for the corps of hydrographical engineers, engineers of roads and bridges and of mines, the department of powder and saltpetre, etc. The number of cadets is usually about 350, and the course of instruction two years. After the final examination the first 30 or 40 candidates usually select civil employment under the government, those next in merit choose the artillery and engineers, and are sent to the School of Application, to pass through a technical course. The remaining students either fail to qualify, and leave the school, or receive commissions in the line, subordinate situations in the government service, civil or colonial, or they retire into civil life altogether.

The _Special Military School_ at St. Cyr, near Versailles, was established for the instruction of candidates for commissions in cavalry and infantry. The age of admission is the same as for the Polytechnic School, and pupils are entitled to partial or entire state aid if they need it, as are also those of the Polytechnic. The course of instruction is two years, at the end of which time the more promising students pass to the Staff School, and thence, after a thorough course, to the _état-major_ of the army; the remaining students pass as subalterns into the cavalry and infantry, selecting the arm of the service in which they desire to serve according to the order of merit in which they graduate. There are also the School of Application for Engineers and Artillery, the School of Application for the Staff, the Cavalry School at Saumur, for one year’s instruction to officers of that arm, and the School of Musketry at Vincennes.

PRUSSIA.--The Prussian system of military education differs from that of France, in that competition is but sparingly resorted to, the object being to give a good general and professional education to all the officers, rather than a specially excellent training to a select few. For this purpose there are established seven cadet schools, one senior, at Berlin, and six junior, situated at Bensburg, Culm, Oranienstein, Ploen, Potsdam, and Wahlstatt. The age of admission to the junior schools is from ten to eleven years, and the usual course of instruction is for four years, and two or three at the senior school, followed by the finishing term of nine months at a division school, when graduates are eligible to commissions. Some, however, are sent to the army to earn their commissions as other candidates. Others pass an additional year at the senior cadet school, in which case the term at the division school is dispensed with. After completing their course at the junior schools, students pass to the senior school without examination. They may also be admitted to the senior school without passing through the junior grade, provided they come up to the required standard of qualification. Aspirants for commissions must enter the ranks, and within six months pass a good examination in general and liberal knowledge if they are not graduates of a cadet school. Those who are graduates are not examined. After some further service the candidate goes for nine months to one of the division schools, which are eight in number, situated at Anclam, Cassel, Engers, Erfurt, Hanover, Metz, Neisse, and Potsdam. Here he completes his professional education, and if he passes the final examination, is eligible for the next vacancy in the line, but cannot be commissioned unless the officers of the corps are willing to accept him as a comrade. Candidates for commissions in the artillery and engineer corps, after graduating from the cadet school or passing an examination from the army, must pass nine months at the Artillery and Engineer School, after which they receive a provisional appointment as sub-lieutenants. Upon graduating, after two more terms of nine months each, they are commissioned as lieutenants. But the culmination of Prussian military education is the Staff School, or War Academy, which presents the highest prizes in the profession, and competition for which is open to all officers of the army who have had three years’ service, and can produce testimonials of good conduct, ability, etc., from their superiors. Admission is by competitive examination, usually about 40 of the applicants being selected. The course of study lasts three years. During three months of each year the officers are sent to do military duty with arms of service or corps not their own. Of the 40 who pass through the Staff School each year, 8 or 10 only are sent to the topographical department of the staff. There they serve two or three years, at the expiration of which time two are selected from the number, and appointed captains on the staff. The remainder return to their regiments or corps, sometimes receiving appointments in the division schools.

AUSTRIA.--The Austrian military system of training is very elaborate, and commences at an early age,--boys intended for military service beginning their professional almost contemporaneously with their general education. There are schools of various orders for training non-commissioned officers and for officers, and senior departments for imparting more extended instruction to both classes. Candidates for appointment as non-commissioned officers pass by competition through the lower houses, where they remain till eleven years old, the upper houses, which detain them till fifteen, and the school companies, whence, after actual apprenticeship to service, a few pupils pass to the academies as aspirants for commissions, and the others are drafted into the service as non-commissioned officers. For the education of officers there are four cadet houses, each containing 200 pupils. The boys are pledged to the service by their parents at the age of eleven, after which the state takes charge of them. At fifteen they pass according to qualification to the academy for the line, the engineer or artillery academy, and four years later receive their commissions in the arms of the service for which they have graduated. The young officer’s chance of entering the Staff School--and therefore the staff--depends upon his place at the final academic examination.

The _Staff School_ consists of 30 pupils selected by competitive examination from all arms of the service, 15 entering each year. The course of instruction is two years. To be qualified for admission a candidate must have served two years with his regiment, and be over twenty-one and under twenty-six years of age. The students receive appointments in the staff corps according to the order of merit, immediately after the final examination, if there are vacancies; if there are none, they return to their regiments until vacancies occur. If the successful candidate is a second lieutenant, he is promoted to the rank of first lieutenant; if a first lieutenant, he is promoted captain after three years’ service.

RUSSIA.--Has 22 military colleges for the guards and line, containing over 7000 cadets, a school of ensigns for the guards, an artillery and an engineer school, averaging over 8000 military students. There is also an imperial staff school, into which 20 or 25 officers enter each year after examination. The term of instruction is for two years. Upon graduation, the most distinguished scholar is at once promoted to the rank of captain on the staff, and all the graduates are, from time to time, as vacancies occur, attached to the staff, but not immediately promoted in it.

Italy, Spain, and other powers have also their military academies, but those already given may be considered a fair type of all. It need only be stated that the educational status of the Italian officers is considered very high.

THE UNITED STATES.--The Military Academy at West Point is the only government institution in the United States for the military training of cadets and their preparation for the duties of officers. The necessity for such an institution was recognized at an early date in the history of the country. A committee of Congress which had visited the Continental army at New York recommended the establishment of a military academy in their report, October 3, 1776. The subject was subsequently brought to the notice of Congress on several occasions, but without result until 1794, when provision was made for the establishment of 4 battalions of engineers and artillerists, 8 cadets to be attached to each battalion. The number was increased to 56 in 1798, and provision made for procuring books and apparatus for their instruction. By the act of March 16, 1802, determining the military peace establishment, the artillerists and engineers were made two distinct corps; 40 cadets were attached to one regiment of artillery, and 10 to the corps of engineers, said corps to be stationed at West Point, and to constitute a military academy. The act also provided that the senior engineer officer present should be superintendent of the academy, and authorized the Secretary of War to procure the necessary books, apparatus, etc., for the institution. Another act, dated February 28, 1803, authorized the President to appoint teachers of French and drawing. At the expiration of five years, however, further legislation was deemed necessary, and on April 12, 1808, a bill was passed which added 156 members to the corps of cadets. By the act of April 19, 1812, it was declared that the Military Academy should consist of the corps of engineers, the teachers of French and drawing already provided for, a professor of natural philosophy, a professor of mathematics, and a professor of engineering, with an assistant for each professor. Provision was also made for a chaplain, who was to officiate as professor of geography, physics, and history. The number of cadets was limited to 260; the requirements for admission, terms of study and service, and rate of pay and emoluments were also prescribed. But the commencement of its great success as an educational institution, and the reputation which the academy possesses for its elevating and disciplinary government, dates from July, 1817, when Brevet Maj. Sylvanus Thayer, of the engineer corps, assumed command as superintendent. He was an early graduate of the academy, had served with distinction in the war of 1812, and having studied in the military schools of France, had acquired matured views for the government of such an institution. He organized and perfected a system of management, which he carried into successful operation for sixteen years, and which, with but little modification, is followed to-day. In 1818 the department of geography, history, and ethics was organized, and the chaplain appointed professor; the clerical and secular duties thus combined have ever since remained inseparable. A professorship of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology was created by act of July 5, 1838, and an assistant authorized, “to be taken from the officers of the line, or cadets.” In May, 1846, the teachers of French and drawing were styled professors, and the appointment of assistants was authorized. In 1857 a professorship of the Spanish language was established. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of professor of the French or Spanish language, both these offices shall cease, and the remaining one of the two professors shall be professor of modern languages. A professorship of law has also been established, which is held by an officer of the bureau of military justice. The academic staff consist of the superintendent; the commandant of cadets, who is instructor of artillery, cavalry, and infantry tactics, and is charged with the discipline of the cadets, having usually 8 officers detailed from the line of the army as assistants; and of the professors of civil and military engineering and science of war, of natural and experimental philosophy, of mathematics, of history, geography, and ethics (chaplain), of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, of drawing, of French, of Spanish, and of law, all of whom have one or more commissioned officers as assistants. There are also detailed on duty several officers of the engineer and ordnance corps as instructors in practical military engineering, military signals and telegraphing, and in ordnance and gunnery. A sword-master is also employed. The military staff consists of an adjutant; a treasurer, quartermaster and commissary, of the battalion of cadets; a quartermaster, surgeon, and assistant surgeon. In 1843 the custom which had prevailed of appointing one cadet from each Congressional district received the sanction of law, and thus the number was limited to the number of Representatives. But as the District of Columbia and the army and navy were not represented, the President was empowered to appoint 1 cadet from the former and 10 cadets “at large,” the latter to be selected annually from the army or navy, or any other quarter at his option, without regard to Congressional districts. The age for admission is from seventeen to twenty-two years, except when the candidate has served one year in the war of the Rebellion, in which case he may be admitted up to twenty-four, and the course of instruction is fixed at four years. Candidates must be able to read and write well, have a good knowledge of grammar, of geography, and history, particularly of the United States, and of arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal fractions. Examinations are held annually on January 1 and June 1. All newly-appointed cadets must report for examination by June 25, and none are examined after September 1, unless detained by sickness or other unavoidable cause, when they may be examined with the fourth class on January 1, and if found competent may proceed with that class. Each cadet on admission takes the oath of allegiance and binds himself to serve the United States for eight years, unless sooner discharged. For purposes of instruction, the cadets are divided into four classes, the fourth being the junior class, and for matters of discipline the permanent organization is that of a battalion of infantry composed of four companies. During their academic course cadets receive $500 a year and one ration a day. Upon graduating, the cadets highest in merit are usually commissioned as second lieutenants and appointed to the engineer corps, those next in order of merit to the artillery, and the remainder to the cavalry and infantry. Those for whom no vacancies exist at graduation are attached to regiments or corps as additional second lieutenants, and promoted second lieutenants as soon as a vacancy occurs in the arm to which they are attached. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1879, each member of the graduating classes of 1879-80 may elect, with the assent of the Secretary of War, to receive the sum of $750 and mileage to the place of his residence in lieu of an appointment in the army, except in the event of war, until two years after his graduation. There is also an artillery school at Fort Monroe, Va., for the training of officers and enlisted men. The school is entirely conducted by commissioned officers, and the course of instruction is one year.

=Military Asylum.= See SOLDIER’S HOME.

=Military Asylum, Royal.= See ASYLUM, ROYAL MILITARY.

=Military College.= See MILITARY ACADEMIES (SANDHURST).

=Military Column.= See COLUMN, MILITARY.

=Military Discipline.= Next to the forming of troops, military discipline is the first object that presents itself to our notice: it is the soul of all armies; and unless it be established among them with great prudence, and supported with unshaken resolution, soldiers become a contemptible rabble, and are more dangerous to the very state that maintains them than even its declared enemies. See DISCIPLINE.

=Military Execution.= The ravaging or destroying of a country or town that refuses to pay the contribution inflicted upon them. Also, the punishment inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.

=Military First Principles.= Is the bodily training for a soldier, to make him hardy, robust, and capable of preserving health amidst fatigue, bad weather, and change of climate; to march at such possible pace, for such length of time, and with such burden, as without training he would not be able to do.

=Military Frontier, The.= A crown-land of the Austrian empire, bounded on the north by Croatia, Slavonia, and the Wojwodschaft, on the east by Transylvania and Wallachia, on the south by Turkey and Dalmatia, and on the west by the Adriatic, comprising an area of 12,800 square miles. The military frontier owes its origin as a crown-land to the necessity of having a permanent body of defenders on the borders during former wars, and especially during wars with the Turks. In the 15th century the Austrians had gained from the Turks certain tracts of territory on the banks of the Save and Danube. These tracts they colonized, making it, however, a condition that the colonists must render military service against the Turks. The Warasdin frontier originated in the same manner under Ferdinand I. In the 17th century the Petrinier frontier, which at a later period received the name of the Banat frontier, was erected. The military stations along the frontier serve a threefold purpose,--the defense of the country, the prevention of smuggling, and the prevention of the spread of contagious disease into the territories of the Austrian empire. The inhabitants of this crown-land enjoy peculiar privileges. Their immigrant ancestors received only the temporary use of lands consigned to them; but in 1850 a law was passed making over the land to the occupiers as their own property. This right of property does not belong, however, to individuals, but to the family in a united sense. The oldest member of a family is intrusted with the management of the land; his partner ranks equal with him, and they each receive a double share of the profits. All who are able to bear arms are sworn to the service from their twentieth year. The soldier of the frontier, who is clothed as well as armed and supplied with ammunition by government, finds it his duty not only to watch and protect the frontier, but to preserve peace and order in the interior, and to go on foreign service when required. Only the smaller portion of the forces of the military frontier is retained in readiness for active service, while the remainder pursue their ordinary employments. To facilitate the accomplishment of the purposes aimed at by the military frontier, the _cordon_, a series of guard-houses along the whole frontier, affording accommodation to from 4 to 8 men, as well as larger ones, accommodating 12 men and a junior officer, has been instituted. Within this line are the officers’ posts. Without announcing himself at the posts, no one is allowed to pass the boundary; and after permission is given the passenger must remain a longer or shorter time at the quarantine establishment, in order that all introduction of disease may be prevented.

=Military Indications.= Officers should study attentively the customs of their enemy, their hours for dining, commencing their marches, etc., and the many indications of intended movements which an enemy may unwittingly afford. The collection of boats, heavy guns, scaling-ladders, gabions, etc., at particular places, are indications that must always precede the passage of rivers, sieges, etc. If large magazines of stores or provisions are collected anywhere, it is clear that no retreat is contemplated; if, on the other hand, the parks of heavy, or spare guns, ammunition, engineer stores, etc., are being sent to the rear, a retreat is imminent, or being prepared for. The dust raised by columns is a fair guide in some countries as to the numbers and composition of the force marching. That raised by cavalry forms a high, light cloud, by infantry, a lower and dense one, by parks and baggage, one more dense still. With a good glass you can sometimes learn from the manner in which troops move, and from their dress, whether they are regulars or militia, or if they belong to any special corps. The manner and bearing of people in a hostile country is usually a fair indication of the public spirit and feeling; if they are gloomy and anxious, it is an indication of want of confidence in their cause, and that their troops are distant; whilst if they are excited and insolent, it shows that they rely upon assistance near at hand, and anticipate success from the number and efficiency of their army. In following a retreating army much can be learned from its trail; if the _débris_ of arms, accoutrements, etc., lie about, there is a want of transport, and it is a sign of demoralization, according to the extent to which it is the case; a large number of graves indicates the existence of disease in the enemy’s army. The places where they halted for the night should be carefully examined; and all indications carefully noted. Did they bivouac or pitch tents; was their camp laid out with regularity; were their cooking-places neatly made. Is their track strewn with dead or dying transport animals; have they plundered the inhabitants or burnt their crops or houses; have they effectually or only partially destroyed the bridges, etc. The most insignificant circumstance affords sometimes whole pages of information to officers who, having studied the manners and customs of an enemy, know how to interpret them aright. Officers commanding small detached parties sent out on reconnoitring duties may many times avoid falling into the hands of strong patrols or detachments by learning their proximity from their track if crossed anywhere; the number and composition of such detachments may easily be estimated from it.

=Military Knights.= See KNIGHTS, MILITARY.

=Military Law.= See LAW, MILITARY.

=Military Mines.= See MINES, MILITARY.

=Military Necessity.= As understood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for securing the ends of war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of war. Military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb of _armed_ enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally _unavoidable_ in the armed contests of war; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy’s country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith, either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modern law of war to exist. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another, and to God. Military necessity does not admit of cruelty, that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering, or for revenge, or of maiming or wounding, except in fight, or of torture to extort confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, or of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy; and in general, military necessity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unnecessarily difficult.

=Military Orders.= Religious associations which arose from the mixture of the religious enthusiasm and the chivalrous love of arms which almost equally formed the characteristic of mediæval society. The first origin of such associations may be traced to the necessities of the Christian residents of the Holy Land, in which the monks, whose first duty had been to serve the pilgrims in the hospital at Jerusalem, were compelled by the necessity of self-defense to assume the character of soldiers as well as of monks. (See SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM.) The order of the Templars (see TEMPLAR, KNIGHTS) was of singular origin. Those of Alcantara and Calatrava (which see), in Spain, had for their immediate object the defense of their country against the Moors. These orders as well as that of Avis in Portugal, which was instituted with a similar view, followed the Cistercian rule, and all three differed from the Templars and the Knights of St. John in being permitted by their institute to marry once. The same privilege was enjoyed in the Savoyard order of Knights of St. Maurice, and the Flemish order of St. Hubert. On the contrary, the Teutonic Knights, who had their origin in the Crusades (see GRAND MASTER), were bound by an absolute vow of chastity. With the varying conditions of society, these religious associations have at various times been abolished or fallen into disuse; but most of them still subsist in the form of orders of knighthood, and in some of them, attempts have recently been made to revive, with certain modifications, the monastic character which they originally possessed.

=Military Positions.= See POSITIONS, MILITARY.

=Military Punishment.= See PUNISHMENT, MILITARY.

=Military Regulations.= The rules and regulations by which the discipline, formations, field-exercise, and movements of the whole army are directed, to be observed in one uniform system. See ARMY REGULATIONS.

=Military Science.= See LOGISTICS, STRATAGEM, STRATEGY, TACTICS, and WAR.

=Military Secretary.= An officer on the personal staff of generals in high command. His duties are to conduct the correspondence of his chief, and to transact a great amount of confidential business, which would dangerously occupy the time of the general himself. In the British service the military secretary to the commander-in-chief is usually a general officer. To a commander-in-chief in the field, he is for most part below that rank, while to a general commanding a division only, an assistant military secretary is allowed. His staff pay is of course additional to the officer’s regimental or unattached pay.

=Military Service.= In the feudal ages, a tenure of lands by knight’s service, according to which the tenant was bound to perform service in war unto the king, or the mesne lord, of whom he held by that tenure. As the king gave to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large possessions forever, to hold of him for this or that service or rent, so they in time parceled out to such others as they liked, the same lands for rents and services as they thought good. And these services were divided into two sorts, chivalry and socage; the first whereof was martial and military, whereby the tenant was obliged to perform some noble or military office unto his lord. This was of two kinds: either regal, that is, held only by the king, or common, when held of a common person. That which was held only of the king was called _servitium_, or _serjeantia_, and was again divided into grand and petit serjeantry. The grand serjeantry was where one held lands of the king by service, which he ought to do in his own person; as, to bear the king’s banner or spear, to lead his horse, or to find a man-at-arms to fight, etc. Petit serjeantry was when a man held lands of the king, to yield him annually some small thing towards his wars, as a sword, dagger, bow, etc. Chivalry that might be holden of a common person was termed _scutagium_, or _escuage_; that is, service of the shield, which was either uncertain or certain. _Escuage uncertain_ was likewise twofold: first, where the tenant was bound to follow his lord, by going in person to the king’s wars, or sending a sufficient man in his place, there to be maintained at his cost so long as was agreed upon between the lord and his first tenant at the granting of the fee. The days of such service seem to have been rated by the quantity of land so holden; as, if it extended to a whole knight’s fee, then the knight was to follow his lord forty days; if but a half a knight’s fee, then twenty days; and if a fourth part, then ten days, etc. The other kind of this escuage was called _castle-ward_, where the tenant was obliged by himself or some other, to defend a castle as often as it should come to his turn.

=Military Stores.= See STORES, MILITARY.

=Military Tenure.= Tenure of land, on condition of performing military service.

=Military Train.= A highly important corps of the army of Great Britain, of which the function is to transport the provisions, ammunition, and all other material, together with the wounded in time of battle. It was formed after the Crimean war, on the dissolution of the Land-Transport Corps. In the year 1863 it comprised 6 battalions, in all 1840 officers and men. The corps ranks after the Royal Engineers, and is classed as Mounted Infantry, the officers receiving infantry rates, and the men cavalry rates of pay. The men are armed with carbine and sword, but rather for defensive than aggressive purposes. Attached to each battalion are 166 horses, with proportionate wagons and ambulances. It is proper to observe that the Military Train constitutes the nucleus of a transport service for a large army, and that in time of war it would be expanded by the addition of thousands of horses or mules, and the incorporation of many hundred drivers, etc. The advantage of possessing even a few men ready trained and capable of directing the movements of others was amply demonstrated by the failures of the Crimea in 1854-56; so that Parliament votes ungrudgingly the expense of this corps, although in time of peace it is comparatively without employment. It is now termed the Army Service Corps.

=Military Ways.= The large Roman roads which Agrippa caused to be made through the empire in the reign of Augustus for the marching of troops and conveying of carriages. They were paved from the gates of Rome to the utmost limits of the empire. The British have constructed a military road throughout India, with wells and other accommodations at certain distances.

=Militia.= From the Latin _miles_, a “soldier,” a term which was formerly synonymous with “military,” or the whole fighting force of a country, but in modern times has come to signify the domestic force for the defense of a nation, as distinguished from the regular army, which can be employed at home or abroad in either aggressive or defensive operations. Every nation has a reserve, under its law military, upon which its defense would fall on the discomfiture of the regular army; but the system differs in each country. France has her _Gardes Nationaux_, Prussia the _Landwehr_ and _Landsturm_, and similar organizations exist in other European states. It also comprehends the volunteer organizations of Great Britain and the United States. The laws of the United States require the enrollment into the militia of all able-bodied males between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years, with certain exceptions specified in general and State laws. The militia of each State is required to be arranged into companies, battalions, regiments, brigades, and divisions, as the Legislature of the State may direct, and it shall be subject to military duty and shall serve a definite time. These organizations are to be officered by the respective States, the grades and number of officers being named in the laws requiring enrollment. The Constitution of the United States has given the power to Congress to provide for “calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions.” Congress by legislation has given the President the authority to call forth the militia under certain exigencies, as has been frequently done. When called into actual service of the United States, the militia receive pay from the government, and are subject to the Rules and Articles of War. The militia is therefore a part and parcel of the army of the United States, although in common use the term is limited to mean the regular army alone. The organized militia of the United States numbers 125,906 men, the number of men available for military duty unorganized, is 6,598,105.

=Militia-man.= One who belongs to the militia.

=Mill, Gunpowder-.= Is a machine used for mixing or incorporating the ingredients of which gunpowder is composed. The operation was formerly effected as follows: The ingredients being duly proportioned and put into the mortars of the mills, which are hollow pieces of wood, each capable of holding 20 pounds of paste, are incorporated by means of the pestle and spindle. There are 24 mortars in each mill, where are made each day 480 pounds of gunpowder, care being taken to sprinkle the ingredients in the mortars with water from time to time, lest they should take fire. The pestle is a piece of wood 10 feet high, and 4¹⁄₂ inches broad, armed at the bottom with a round piece of metal. It weighs about 60 pounds. For more modern methods of incorporation, see GUNPOWDER.

=Mill Springs.= A village of Wayne Co., Ky., about 100 miles south of Frankfort. Near here a Federal force under Gen. Geo. H. Thomas defeated a Confederate army under Gen. G. B. Crittenden, January 19, 1862. In this engagement the Confederate general F. K. Zollicoffer was killed.

=Mill-cake.= The incorporated materials for gunpowder, in the form of a dense mass or cake, ready to be subjected to the process of granulation.

=Milliken’s Bend.= A village of Madison Parish, La., on the right bank of the Mississippi River, about 25 miles above Vicksburg. On June 6, 1863, the Confederates under Gen. McCullough made an attack on this place, which was defended by a body of colored troops and part of an Iowa regiment, and were repulsed after a severe engagement.

=Mim Bashy.= In the East Indies, a commander of 1000 horse.

=Minas, Sabbatha.= A fort in Babylonia, built in the time of the later Roman empire on the site of Seleucia, which the Romans had destroyed.

=Mincio.= A river of Lombardy, Italy. Here the Austrians were repulsed by the French under Brune, December 25-27, 1800, and by Eugene Beauharnais, February 8, 1814, near Valeggio.

=Minden.= A strongly fortified town of Prussia, in Westphalia, situated on the Weser, 35 miles southwest from Hanover. In its neighborhood the battle of Minden was fought, on August 1, 1759, between the English, Hessians, and Hanoverians (under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the French were beaten and driven to the ramparts of Minden. Lord George Sackville (afterwards Lord Germaine), who commanded the British and Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience of orders was tried by a court-martial on his return to England, found guilty, and dismissed April 22, 1760. He was afterwards restored to favor, and became secretary of state, 1776.

=Mines, Military.= Constitute one of the most important departments in military engineering, and a very formidable accessory both in the attack and defense of fortresses. A military mine consists of a gallery of greater or less length, run from some point of safety under an opposing work, or under an area over which an attacking force must pass, and terminating in a chamber, which, being stored with gunpowder, can be exploded at the critical moment. Mines are of use to the besiegers in the overthrow of ramparts and formation of a breach; the _countermines_ of the besieged in undermining the glacis over which the assaulting column must charge, and blowing them into the air, or in destroying batteries erected for breaching, are equally serviceable. But far above the actual mischief wrought by the mine--often very great--is its moral influence on the troops, and especially on the assailants. Mines are either vertical,--when they are called _shafts_,--horizontal, or inclined, in either of which cases they are “galleries,” the word “ascending” or “descending” being added, if there be inclination. The dimensions range from the “great gallery,” 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet, to the “small branch,”--the last diminutive of the gallery,--which has but 2 feet 6 inches height, with a breadth of 2 feet. The most frequent work is the “common gallery,” 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet, which is considered the easiest for the miner.

=Minié Ball.= A ball or bullet of peculiar construction. It is cast hollow for nearly two-thirds of its length, and into the opening of the internal cylinder there is introduced a small concave piece of iron, which the powder at the moment of firing forces into the slug, spreading it open, and causing it to fit perfectly to the barrel. Hence a great increase in the precision of aim and the extent of range.

=Minié Rifle.= A species of fire-arm, invented by Capt. Minié, from whom it receives its name. It is certain in aim, and fatal in its results at 800 yards.

=Mining.= In military affairs, is the art of blowing up any part of a fortification, building, etc., by gunpowder. The art of mining requires a perfect knowledge both of fortifications and geometry; and by these previous helps, the engineer may be qualified to ascertain correctly the nature of all manner of heights, depths, breadths, and thicknesses; to judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars, whether they be such as are parallel to the horizon, or such as are visual; together with the true levels of all kinds of earth. To which must be added, a consummate skill in the quality of rocks, earths, masonry, and sands; the whole accompanied with a thorough knowledge of the strength of all sorts of gunpowder.

=Minion.= An ancient form of ordnance of small size, the caliber of which was about 3 inches.

=Minister.= Is one who acts not by any inherent authority of his own, but under another. Thus, in England all ministers act under a supreme authority, which is vested in the sovereign, lords, and commons, to whom they are responsible. In military matters, there is not only a war minister, but a secretary at war, who likewise acts conjointly with the secretary of state. All dispatches and papers of consequence relating to the army must first pass through the secretary of state, and the war minister, before they are laid before Parliament, or otherwise acted upon by the secretary at war. The common arrangements of corps, directions with respect to marching, are transmitted to the secretary at war, and to the quartermaster-general’s office, without previously passing through the secretary of state, or war minister. See SECRETARY OF WAR.

=Minnesota.= One of the Northwestern States of the American Union. The country was visited by white traders as early as 1654, but very few settlements were made in it until about 1845. The eastern part of the State formed a portion of the French possessions which were ceded to the British in 1763, and by them to the United States in 1783. The remaining part belonged to the Louisiana Territory, which was purchased from the French in 1803. The country was traversed by an exploring expedition under Gen. Pike in 1805. A territorial government was organized in 1849, and in 1853 Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a State. The State suffered severely in 1862 from an inroad of the Sioux, who destroyed whole settlements. They were soon afterwards, however, summarily punished, and removed from the State altogether.

=Minnetarees.= A tribe of Indians, formerly a branch of the Crows, but now affiliated to the Mandans, who reside on the Upper Missouri. They have always been friendly to the whites, and hostile to the Sioux, at whose hands they have suffered severely. They number about 400.

=Minor.= Under age. Minors will not be enlisted in the army of the United States without the consent of their parents or guardians. If any have enlisted and it becomes known, the Secretary of War, on demand, is required to grant the discharges from the army of minors who have enlisted without the consent of their parents or guardians.

=Minorca.= One of the Balearic Islands (which see) in the Mediterranean. It was captured by Lieut.-Gen. Stanhope and Sir John Leake in 1708, and was ceded to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713; taken by the Spanish and French in July, 1756, and Admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation for not relieving it. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1793; besieged by the Spaniards, and taken February 5, 1782; captured by the British under Gen. Stuart, without the loss of a man, November 15, 1798; but was given up at the peace of Amiens in 1802.

=Minturnæ= (_Minturnensis_; now _Trajetto_). An important town in Latium, on the frontiers of Campania; was situated on the Appia Via, and on both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth of this river. It was an ancient town of the Ausones, or Aurunci, but surrendered to the Romans of its own accord, 296 B.C. In its neighborhood Marius was taken prisoner.

=Minute.= A hasty sketch taken of anything in writing. Hence minutes of a general or regimental court-martial.

=Minute-gun.= A gun discharged every minute, as a signal of distress or mourning.

=Minute-man.= A man enlisted for service wherever required, and ready to march at a moment’s notice;--a term used in the American Revolution.