Chapter XLVI: Part 46

Each of these divisions is subdivided into four sections, two of which are ponton and two abutment sections; the former contain three ponton-wagons and one chess-wagon; the latter, one ponton-, one chess-, and one trestle-wagon each.

The ponton section contains the material for three bays, and should never be subdivided. The division may be increased or diminished at pleasure, by the changing the number of its ponton sections.

The carriages are loaded as follows: Each ponton-wagon contains 1 ponton, 7 long balks, 1 anchor, 1 cable, 5 oars, 2 boat-hooks, 20 lashings, 6 rack-sticks, 1 scoop-shovel, 2 small scoops, 1 axe, 1 hatchet, 1 bucket, and 20 pounds of spun yarn.

Each trestle-wagon (identical with ponton-wagon) contains 7 long balks, 7 trestle balks, 1 trestle complete, 2 abutment sills, 2 coils of 3-inch rope.

Each chess-wagon contains 60 chess.

The forge is identical with forge A furnished by the ordnance department.

Each tool-wagon contains 50 axes, 20 shovels, 20 spades, 15 picks, 25 hatchets, 4 broad-axes, 4 adzes, 4 cross-cut saws, 12 augers (assorted), 2 crow-bars, 2 calking-irons, 12 tin lanterns, 2 monkey-wrenches, 1 sledge, 1 steel square, 1 grindstone, 1 spirit-level, 1 coil telegraph wire, 1 coil 3-inch rope, 1 coil 1-inch rope, 1 coil spun yarn, 50 pounds iron (assorted), 25 pounds paint, 6 paint-brushes, 1 dozen chalk lines, 1 pound red chalk, 4 pounds white chalk, 6 sail-needles, 1 palm, 6 balls twine, 50 pounds 6-inch spikes, 100 pounds 6-, 8-, 10- and 20-penny nails, 2 sets blocks and falls, 2 gross each of 1-, 2- and 5-inch screws, 1 roll canvas, 20 pounds calking cotton. Also 4 boxes of carpenters’ and saddlers’ tools nearly identical with those furnished by the ordnance department for battery-wagon C. If desirable, extra stores to the amount of 500 pounds may be added to the load.

The _supply division_ is provided with articles necessary to replace material lost or worn out, such as balk, chess, spare parts of carriages, a few complete carriages, etc.

The carriages of this division consist of ponton-, chess-, and tool-wagons, and of forges. Their number and proportion will be determined by the nature of the country in which the army is operating, and by the proximity of the main depot.

The ponton-wagon contains 17 long and 7 trestle balks. The chess-wagon, 60 chess. Tool-wagon No. 1 carries the same load as that attached to a ponton division. Tool-wagon No. 2 contains 80 rack-collars; of 6-, 8-, 10-, and 20-penny nails, 2 kegs each; of 4- and 6-inch spikes, 2 kegs each; of 1-, 2-, and 5-inch screws, 4 gross each; of 1- and 3-inch rope, 2 coils each.

The loads may be increased to the extent that circumstances will permit, by adding spare parts of carriages.

The forges are of the patterns A and B issued by the ordnance department.

_Advance-guard Equipage._--The trains of this equipage are composed of 4 ponton divisions, each of which consists of 8 ponton-, 2 chess-, and 2 trestle-wagons.

The load of the _ponton-wagon_ consists of 7 balks, 16 chess, 2 side frames, 1 cable, 1 anchor, and a ponton-chest containing 1 ponton cover, 14 transoms, 5 paddles, 2 scoops, 2 mallets, 20 lashings, 2 boat-hooks, 1 scoop-shovel, and 8 rack-sticks.

The _chess-wagon_ contains 50 chess and 2 spare ponton covers.

The trestle-wagon carries 14 balks, 1 trestle complete, 1 abutment sill, and 1 coil of 3-inch rope and 1 of 1-inch rope.

The forge is forge A of the ordnance department.

When necessary, this load may be reduced by transferring a part of the tools and coal to a forage-wagon.

The ponton-wagon carries all the material necessary for constructing a complete bay. The division may, therefore, be increased or diminished by one or more ponton-wagons without disorganizing it. When a forced march is to be made, and it is desirable to lighten the loads, the chess may be removed from the ponton-wagons, the rope from the trestle-wagons, and the load of the chess-wagons may be reduced to 40 chess. The number of the latter wagons in this case must be increased to five.

The tool-wagon is loaded with the necessary tools, materials, etc., suitable to the advance-guard equipage.

There are four methods of constructing a ponton-bridge: by successive pontons; by parts; by rafts; and by conversion.

_By Successive Pontons._--The location of the bridge having been selected, the ponton-wagons are brought as near the river-bank as practicable, with the rear of the carriage toward the stream. The pontons are unlashed and slid from the wagon-bed into the water; cables are attached to the anchors; one of the former is coiled in the bow of each ponton with its anchor on the top, the flukes projecting over the gunwale.

Those pontons which cast up-stream anchors are moored above the approach to the bridge, and the others below.

A trench about 1 foot in width and depth is excavated to receive the abutment sill; this should be laid horizontally, and exactly perpendicular to the axis of the bridge; it is secured by four pickets, two driven in front and two in rear, about 8 inches from each end. A ponton is brought up opposite to the abutment, and close to the shore. The ponton is then pushed off and adjusted in its place by means of shore-lines, which are made fast to mooring-posts.

As soon as the first set of balks is laid, a chess is placed on edge in the trench above mentioned, and in contact with the ends of the balks. Its upper edge should be 1¹⁄₂ inches above the balks. Earth is rammed behind it, crowding it firmly against the balks. The chess is then laid on.

The ponton which has cast the first up-stream anchor, having dropped down to the head of the bridge, is entered by the pontoniers. Five balks are then brought up and delivered to the lashers in the second ponton, which is pushed off; the shore ends of the balks are delivered to the lashers in the first ponton, who place them on the down-stream side, and in contact with those of the first set, their cleats against the outside of the interior gunwale. They lash the balks firmly together and to the lashing-hooks at both gunwales, and then step into the third ponton.

When a bay is covered with chess, the side-rails are laid. They are placed directly over the outside balks, to which they are lashed at three points,--at the middle and immediately over the axis of each ponton, at which point the two side-rails and balks of two bays lap and are all lashed together.

In constructing a ponton-bridge there are two points that require particular attention: the anchorage, and the lashing; the men who are intrusted with their execution should be selected from the most intelligent and experienced pontoniers in the command.

_The Anchorage._--The distance of the anchor from the bridge should be at least ten times the depth of the stream; with a less distance the bows of the ponton would sink too deeply in the water.

The direction of the cable when made fast to the bridge must coincide with that of the current,--_i.e._, a ponton in the bridge must have the same position which it would assume if riding freely at anchor. It will be remembered that the cable is not finally made fast to the ponton which casts its anchor, but to the one following it in the bridge; and due allowance must be made for this in selecting the place for casting anchor.

The number of anchors required will depend somewhat on the strength of the current. It is generally sufficient to cast an anchor up-stream for every alternate ponton, and half that number down-stream; but where the current is very rapid it may be necessary to anchor every up-stream boat, especially near the middle of the bridge. The number of anchors cannot be much diminished, however moderate the current, as the anchorage has a very marked effect in checking the horizontal oscillation to which bridges are subject when troops are marching over them.

_The Lashings._--With respect to the lashings, the corresponding balks of adjacent bays lap each other by 6 feet, and are lashed together and to the gunwales at two points about 5 feet apart. Thus a strong splice is formed, making five continuous beams running the entire length of the bridge. The stability of the bridge is further increased by the manner of placing and securing the side-rails.

_By Parts._--The abutment bay is formed as in the previous method. The parts are constructed at suitable points along the shore above the bridge, and for each is required the material for three bays. They are constructed as follows:

A ponton is moored bow and stern close to the shore, and five chess are temporarily laid from the bank to its interior gunwale, for the convenience of the pontoniers during the construction of the part.

The other two pontons are brought up in succession, and two bays are constructed in the ordinary manner, except that six chess are omitted from the roadway at both ends. Twenty-six chess and seven balks are loaded on the parts thus formed, which is then pushed off and conducted to the line of up-stream anchors, where it casts its anchor and drops down to its place in the bridge.

The first part is connected with the abutment bay by the pontoniers on shore, who construct one length of bridge flooring in the usual manner, to join the abutment ponton with the first ponton of the part.

The other parts are united as they come in position, by bays formed from the balks and chess with which they are loaded.

The down-stream anchors are cast by separate pontons provided for the purpose; and it may sometimes be necessary to cast the up-stream anchors in the same way, as the parts are not easily managed in a rapid current.

When the current is moderate, the parts may be constructed below as well as above the bridge.

_By Rafts._--The abutment bay is laid in the same manner as in the last method, and the rafts differ from the parts only in having the roadway completed,--that is, the six chess at each end are not omitted. The rafts are not loaded with extra balks and chess, but are provided with two false balks, 6 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 5 inches, and with four rack-collars and wedges.

The rafts cast their up-stream anchors, and drop down to their places in the bridge. The outer pontons of the adjacent rafts are in contact, and are lashed together bow and stern by their mooring-posts. False balks are laid over the side-rails of the two rafts at their junction; and two rack-collars embrace each false balk, and the side-rails and balks under them. These collars are placed on each side, and 2 feet from, the junction of the side-rails. The wedges are driven between the false balks and the tops of the collars.

_By Conversion._--The position of the bridge having been determined, and the width of the stream accurately measured, a suitable place at some distance above the position of the abutment is selected for the construction of the bridge. This place may be at a considerable distance from that which the bridge is to occupy; it is frequently on some tributary of the stream to be bridged, out of sight of the enemy’s shore.

The bridge is constructed parallel to the shore; side-rails are lashed on all except the extreme bays. The balks, chess, etc., for the abutment bay on the enemy’s side, are embarked on the next to the last bay of the bridge; a ponton is lashed to the last ponton in the bridge; this contains, in addition to the articles necessary for constructing the abutment, two strong pickets. The up-stream anchors are deposited in the bows of the boats on the wheeling flank, 10 or 15 yards of their cables coiled, the remainder stretched along the bridge. Two strong spring-lines are extended and lashed, the one over the bows, the other over the sterns of all the pontons; these lines should be considerably longer than the bridge, and the ends coiled on the platform. The bridge is then allowed to float down to within 15 yards of the first abutment.

The material for the first abutment and bay is brought down in a ponton. Two strong pickets are planted to receive the spring-lines and two to receive the shore-lines, which are coiled on the platform between the first and second pontons.

The wheeling flank is pushed off, and men are stationed in the bow and stern of each ponton with oars and boat-hooks to increase or retard the progress of their ponton, as may be necessary. A detachment is stationed at the first abutment to manœuvre the spring-lines; another to prevent the pivot flank from touching shore; a turn of the shore-line is also taken around the mooring-post of the ponton, and this line is eased off, as the case may require. The anchors are cast as the pontons in which they are carried come in their proper places, and their cables are shifted to the pontons to which they are to be attached. The progress of the bridge is checked when it arrives opposite the abutments, which should be constructed during the conversion of the bridge, if the force be strong enough.

The down-stream anchors are cast by the spare pontons, as in the bridge by successive pontons.

_Flying Bridge._--This term is applied to any floating support anchored to a fixed point (usually in the stream), and driven from shore to shore by the oblique action of the current on its sides.

Although these bridges do not afford a continuous communication, yet they possess some decided advantages, viz.:

They are readily established, even over the most rapid streams.

They require but little material for their construction.

They may be worked by very few men.

They permit the passage of troops of all arms, and of the heaviest carriages.

The entrance to and exit from them is easy.

They do not interrupt navigation; and they are not liable to be injured by floating bodies which, either by accident or design, are carried down-stream by the current.

The current should not be less than one yard per second.

_To Construct the Raft._--The raft is formed of six pontons. Two pontons are lashed stern to stern, and to these a third, breaking joints. A second set similar to the above are placed at a distance from the first of 26 feet from set to set. The two sets are connected by six balks over which four courses are lashed. Then fifteen balks in a manner suitable for receiving chess. The extreme chess are nailed down, and the outer courses secured by side-rails. The length of the cable should be at least one and a half times the width of the river. One, two, or three anchors are used, depending on the strength of the current. The cable is supported by pontons. The boat nearest the anchor is the largest; the distance between the boats should be such that the cable shall not touch the water between the first boat and the raft; each boat is fitted with a staging, composed of two short balks, and a supporting block, on which the cable rests and to which it is lashed. The cable is also connected with the bow of the boat by a line of such length that the boat is allowed to turn just enough to keep parallel with the raft. After the raft is attached to the cable it is passed from shore to shore once or twice, using a stern veering-line if necessary, until the anchors are firmly imbedded and the cable is stretched; the two abutments are then constructed; these do not differ from the first bay of the ordinary bridge.

The proper angle for the axis of the boat to make with the current is about 55°. This angle is gradually increased on nearing the shore, until the way of the raft is diminished sufficiently to prevent it from striking the abutment with a shock.

_Trail Bridges._--When the river is not more than 150 yards wide, a sheer-line may be used in place of the anchor and cable; the sheer-line must be taut enough to keep above water.

If the banks are not high enough, the sheer-line should be elevated at each shore by passing it over a frame formed by three poles, arranged like an artillery gin. Upon this line a pulley is fixed, so that it can run freely from shore to shore; through the eye of the pulley-block a line is passed, one end of which is attached to the bow of the first, and the other to the bow of the second, boat forming the raft. The raft is manœuvred in the same manner as the flying bridge; or one end of a line may be made fast to the running-block on the sheer-line, while the other passes through a snatch-block near the stern of the raft on the up-stream side; by hauling in or letting out this line the proper direction is given to the raft.

_Rope-ferries._--The rope-ferry is used when the velocity of the current is not sufficient to propel the raft. It consists of a raft or flat, provided with a standard near each end on the up-stream side. These standards are forked on top to receive the sheer-line, which is stretched across the stream in the same manner as for the trail bridge. The raft is propelled across the stream by men on its deck hauling on the sheer-line.

_Prairie Raft._--It frequently occurs in the Western country that expeditions, unaccompanied by regular ponton-trains, are compelled to cross streams so situated that it is impossible to obtain timber or other material suitable for the construction of rafts or bridges. Under these circumstances, a raft may be constructed of two canvas pontons, by means of which loaded wagons may readily be ferried over the stream. All the material required for such a raft is easily carried in one ponton-wagon. The construction is as follows: The wagon to be floated is backed into the stream until the rear wheels stand in about one foot of water. A canvas ponton is placed on each side of the wagon, parallel to and one foot from it. A balk is placed against the tail-board of the wagon, and resting upon the gunwales of the pontons. A second balk is similarly placed against the front-board of the wagon. On each side of the wagon a strong rope is made fast to the front balk, passed under the axle-trees round the rear balk, and thence back to the starting-point, where it is made fast. The raft and wagon are pushed into the stream, and, as soon as the latter is clear of the bottom, the balks are lashed to the gunwales of the pontons. A line is attached to the wagon-pole, and coiled in the bow of one of the pontons. This raft may be conveyed across the stream either by rowing, or in the manner of a trail bridge. On approaching the opposite shore, it should be turned with the wagon-pole toward the bank. As soon as the wagon grounds, the balks are removed and the wagon is drawn on shore by means of the rope attached to its pole. A single hinged canvas ponton, which is readily packed in an ordinary quartermaster wagon, will suffice for the crossing, if the wagons are unloaded and taken apart.

_Box Pontons._--In localities where plank and boards can be conveniently procured, pontons may be constructed very expeditiously, by placing ten partitions of 2-inch plank, each 5 feet long, and 2¹⁄₂ inches high, in parallel positions, on the top and sides of which boards are nailed: the box thus formed to be covered with pitched canvas, as described in the mode of constructing crib pontons.

_Wagon-body Pontons._--Ordinary wagon-bodies, covered with pitched canvas or india-rubber blankets, may be used either as boats or pontons. The small capacity of the wagon-body requires such pontons to be placed more closely to compensate for it.

=Ponton-train.= See PONTONS, BRIDGE EQUIPAGE.

=Pontus.= An ancient kingdom in the northeast of Asia Minor, which derived its name from its being on the _Pontus Euxinus_ (Black Sea), extending from the river Colchis in the east to the river Halys in the west. In early times, its various parts were designated after the tribes which inhabited them. The most important of those tribes are,--the Leucosyri, Tibareni, Chalybes, Mosynœci, Heptacometæ, Drilæ, Bechires, Byzeres, Colchi, Macrones, Mares, Taochi, and Phasiani. From the middle of the 7th century B.C., many of those tribes inhabiting the coast rose to great power and opulence, spreading Greek culture and civilization around them; while many of those of the interior were extremely savage and wild. According to tradition, it was conquered by Ninus, founder of the Assyrian empire; and it was certainly under the Persian dominion after the time of Cyrus the Great. In the reign of Artaxerxes II., Ariobarzanes conquered several of the Pontian tribes, and laid the foundation of an independent kingdom. Mithridates II. succeeded him 337 B.C., who by availing himself of the disputes of the successors of Alexander, considerably enlarged his dominions. Under Mithridates VI., from 120 to 63 B.C., the kingdom of Pontus rose to its highest dignity. In his war with the Romans his kingdom was dismembered by Pompey in 65 B.C., who annexed the western part of the nation, and gave the remainder to the native chiefs. In 63 A.D. Pontus was made a Roman province, and in the changes which transpired under Constantine the province was divided into two parts.

=Pontvalent.= A kind of light bridge, used in sieges, for surprising a post or outwork which has but a narrow moat; a flying bridge.

=Poor Knights of Windsor.= See KNIGHTS, MILITARY.

=Port Royal.= In Beaufort Co., S. C., noted as one of the earliest settlements made by the Spaniards within the present limits of the United States, and for important events during the war of the Rebellion.

=Portable Forge.= A light and compact blacksmith’s forge, with bellows, etc., that may be moved from place to place; used frequently in the quartermaster’s department.

=Portate.= In heraldry, borne not erect, but athwart an escutcheon; as, a portate cross.

=Portcullis.= Is an assemblage of several large pieces of wood, joined across one another like a harrow, and each pointed with iron at the bottom. They are sometimes suspended over the gateway of old fortified towns and castles, ready to be let down in the case of surprise, when the gates cannot be shut.

=Portcullis.= In heraldry, the portcullis is represented with rings at its uppermost angles, from which chains depend on either side. It was a badge of the Beaufort family, and borne in virtue of their Beaufort descent by their Tudor sovereigns. Portcullis is the title of one of the pursuviants belonging to the English College of Arms, whose office was instituted by Henry VII.

=Port-fire.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Portfolio.= A portable case for keeping loose papers in. Hence, also, the office and functions of a minister of state or member of the cabinet; as, to receive the portfolio of war.

=Portglave.= An ancient name for a sword-bearer.

=Portland Isle.= An island off the coast of Dorset, England, which was fortified before 1142.

=Porto= (or =Puerto=) =Bello=. A seaport town of South America, on the north coast of the Isthmus of Darien.

=Porto Novo.= A seaport of British India, in the Presidency of Madras, at the mouth of the Vellaur. It suffered severely in the wars of the British government against Mysore, and fell into a state of decay. At Porto Novo, Hyder Ali, with an immensely superior army, was totally defeated by the British under Sir Eyre Coote in 1791.

=Porto Rico.= A Spanish possession, one of the group of West India Islands called the Great Antilles. Porto Rico was invaded in 1509 by Spaniards from Hayti, and the natives were soon exterminated by them. Towards the end of the 17th century the island was captured by the British, but was abandoned by them soon afterwards. In 1820 a revolution took place in Porto Rico, which was finally put down in 1823.

=Portugal= (anc. _Lusitania_). A kingdom in the southwest of Europe, forming the western part of the Spanish peninsula. After nine years’ struggle, under Viriathes, a brave and able leader, the Lusitanians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. In the 5th century the Suevi, Vandals, and Visigoths became possessors of the country. In the beginning of the 8th century Portugal shared the fate of Spain, and was overrun by the Moors. After a long struggle, during which many battles were fought, and many illustrious deeds achieved, the Portuguese monarchy was formally established by the Cortes at Lamego in 1143, with Alfonso I. (of the Burgundian house) as king. The immediate successors of Alfonso I. were engaged in many severe struggles with the clergy, who were always ready to combine against the sovereign; but on the whole, the dignity of the kingdom was well maintained by the representatives of this family, who are, moreover, distinguished as the promoters and upholders of the maritime glory of Portugal. Alfonso, surnamed “the Brave,” ascended the throne in 1325, and his reign was almost wholly occupied in wars with the Castilians and the Moslems. With his grandson, Ferdinand I., the legitimate branch of the Burgundian house became extinct in 1383. During the reign of John II., the Azores, Madeira, Cape de Verde, and other islands were seized. The discovery of Brazil and the settlements made there and on the western coast of India increased the maritime power and fame of Portugal, which were further extended under John III., who ascended the throne in 1521, and during whose reign the Inquisition was introduced. At this period Portugal ranked as one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe. Sebastian (grandson of John III.), urged by the Jesuits, entered upon a fatal expedition to Africa against the infidels. The defeat of the Portuguese, and the capture and death of their young king at the battle of Alcazar in 1578, and the extinction of the old Burgundian line in 1580, plunged the country into difficulties and misfortunes of every kind. Philip II. of Spain succeeded in securing to himself the crown of Portugal, and annexing the Portuguese kingdom to the Spanish monarchy. This event proved disastrous in the extreme to Portugal, involving it in all the ruinous wars of Spain in the Low Countries and in Germany, the greater part of the expenses of which it bore; while the Dutch, in retaliation for Spanish aggression at home, attacked the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, and almost completely deprived them of their possessions in the Indian Archipelago. In 1640, after a forced union of 160 years, Portugal was freed, by a bold and successful conspiracy of the nobles, from all connection with Spain, and the Duke de Braganza placed on the throne, under the title of John IV. The war with Spain, which was the natural result of this act, terminated in 1668, when by the treaty of Lisbon, the independence of Portugal was formally recognized by the Spanish government. For the next hundred years, Portugal vegetated in a state of inglorious apathy. It was invaded by the French in 1807,--a measure which gave rise to the Peninsular war. The victory of Vimeira, gained by the combined English and Portuguese army in 1808, freed the land from its French assailants. A revolution broke out in Lisbon in 1820. In 1832, Dom Pedro raised a fleet and made a landing at Oporto. Admiral Napier in the mean while operated on the coast of Algarve successfully in favor of the young queen Doña Maria de Gloria, whose cause, by these victories and the support of an alliance with the great powers, finally proved victorious. Doña Maria made her entry into Lisbon in 1833; and in the following year Dom Miguel (who had disputed the throne) signed the convention of Evora, by which he renounced all pretensions to the throne. During the reign of Doña Maria insurrections and counter-insurrections were of frequent occurrence, the troops were not to be depended on in moments of emergency; guerrilla bands scoured the country at will, and openly defied the queen’s authority. An armed intervention of the great powers in 1847 produced a partial abatement of the national disorders; but the queen’s partiality for her unpopular ministers, Count Thomar and his brother Cabral, led to the insurrection which, without bloodshed, made the national idol, the Marquis de Saldanha, _de facto_ military dictator of Portugal. The eldest son of the queen ascended the throne in 1853, as Pedro V., under the regency of the king-consort his father. The latter used his power discreetly, and the financial disorders were partially adjusted, and since that period the general condition of the nation is more promising.

=Positions, Military.= The sites occupied by armies, either for the purpose of covering and defending certain tracts of country, or preparatory to the commencement of offensive operations against an enemy. A position is considered as advantageously chosen when it is on elevated ground; when it is not commanded by eminences within the range of artillery; and when, from the existence of natural obstacles, as rivers or marshes, on the wings, it is incapable of being turned,--that is, the enemy cannot, without making an extensive movement, get to the rear of the army by which the position is occupied. In the event of such points of support being wanting, the position, whether it be a plain or an eminence, should have its flanks protected by villages, or by redoubts raised for the purpose. A village, or even a single building, on the ground occupied by the army, may become the key of the position; and as, not unfrequently, on the preservation of this point depends the field of battle, such point should be well supported by troops and artillery. The highest point of ground, particularly if near the lines of operation, may also constitute the key, and is usually strengthened by one or more redoubts. Artillery should always be placed where it can act with the most effect; and when the ground occupied by an army presents alternately salient and retired points along the front of the line, the batteries should be placed at such points. Infantry may occupy any kind of ground, but should, if possible, always form a close line. It is usually placed between the batteries; and if exposed to a distant cannonade, the troops may be drawn up in a trench, the earth from which will serve to cover them without preventing them from marching out in line to meet the enemy. Cavalry must be posted on a level plain, over which it may advance with regularity when a charge is to be made; if compelled to act on broken ground, it is formed in small detachments behind the infantry, through whose intervals it may pass at proper opportunities. The power of readily appreciating the character of ground for military purposes is what is called by foreign writers the military _coup d’œil_; and this can only be acquired by a profound knowledge of military tactics of war, joined to much experience in the practice of executing military surveys, and of contemplating the appearance of ground from all possible points of view.

=Posse Comitatus.= A sheriff or marshal, for the purpose of keeping the peace and pursuing felons, may command all the people of his county above fifteen years old to attend him, which is called the _posse comitatus_, or “power of the county.”--_Blackstone._

=Possession.= To take possession, is the act of occupying any post, camp, fortress, etc., which might facilitate the operations of an army, or which previously belonged to the enemy.

=Post.= Any sort of ground, fortified or not, where a body of men can be in a condition of resisting the enemy.

_Advance post_, a spot of ground seized by a party to secure their front, and the post behind them.

_Post_ is also the walk or position of a sentinel.

=Post.= In the British service, a bugle-sound. The first post is the bugling which precedes the tattoo; the last post that which follows it. Also, the piece of ground to which a sentinel’s walk is limited; any place or office assigned to a soldier or body of soldiers on duty.

=Post, Abandoning a.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 42.

=Post, Advantageous.= Every situation is so called which an enemy occupies in such a manner that not only mere force of arms, but great military skill, and many stratagems, are required to dislodge him.

=Post of Honor.= The advanced guard is a post of honor; the right of the two lines is the post of honor, and is generally given to the eldest corps; the left is the next post, and given to the next eldest, and so on. But the laws of military discipline forbid an inconvenient accordance with this practice, as the circumstances of the case may require a very different arrangement, which it would be wanton to oppose.

=Post, Sleeping Upon.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 39.

=Post, To.= In a military sense, means to station; as, to post a sentinel. _To be posted_, in military tactics signifies to be formed ready for action. Thus, when troops are brought up in column, and ordered to deploy, it frequently happens that some part of the line is refused, in order to flank an enemy, or to cover a weak position; the part that is aligned is said to be posted. To be posted also means, in a familiar sense, to be publicly announced as an infamous or degraded character. Hence, to post a man as a coward is to stick his name up in a conspicuous place, and to accuse him of want of spirit, etc.

=Postern=, or =Sally-port=. Is a passage usually vaulted, and constructed under the rampart, to afford a communication from the interior into the ditch. The passages from the covered way into the country are likewise called sally-ports, as they afford free egress and ingress to troops engaged in making a sally or sortie.

=Post-traders.= Traders are allowed in the American army at the rate of one to each military camp or post, who have the exclusive privilege to trade upon the military reserve to which they are appointed, and no other person will be allowed to trade or sell goods by sample or otherwise, within the limits of the reserve, except producers of fresh fruit and vegetables, by permission of the post commander. Post-traders are selected for the appointment by a council of administration, consisting of the three senior officers, next to the commanding officer, on duty at the post, and upon the recommendation of these officers, approved by the post commander, are appointed by the Secretary of War. The trader is authorized to keep on hand for sales to the troops, articles of wholesome food, such clothing as soldiers may be permitted to purchase, tobacco, blacking, etc., the prices to be regulated by the council of administration. At remote military posts in the United States, traders are authorized to keep on hand the necessary supplies for sales to miners, settlers, and emigrants. See CANTEEN, and SUTLER.

=Pot.= The paper cylinder forming the head of a signal-rocket and containing the decorations. To diminish the resistance of the air the pot is surmounted by a paper cone.

=Pot, Stink-.= See STINK-POT.

=Potence= (_Fr._). Troops are ranged _en potence_ by breaking a straight line, and throwing a certain proportion of it, either forward or backward, from the right or left, according to circumstances, for the purpose of securing that line. An army may be posted _en potence_ by means of a village, a river, or a wood.

=Potent Counter-potent.= In heraldry, one of the heraldic furs, in which the field is filled with crutch-shaped figures alternately of metal and color, those of opposite tinctures being placed base against base, and point against point. The metal and colors are understood to be argent and azure, unless they be specifically blazoned otherwise. Potent counter-potent is sometimes blazoned Vairycuppy.

=Potent, Cross.= In heraldry, a cross crutch-shaped at each extremity. It is also called a Jerusalem cross, from its occurrence in the insignia of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, which are, argent a cross potent between four crosslets or. This coat is remarkable as being a departure from the usual heraldic rule which prohibits the placing of metal upon metal.

=Potentee.= A heraldic line of division which takes the form of the outline of a succession of crutch-shaped figures.

=Potgun.= Formerly a short, wide cannon, formed like a pot.

=Potidæa.= A town in Macedonia, on the narrow isthmus of the peninsula Pallene, was a strongly fortified place, and one of considerable importance. It was a colony of the Corinthians, and was founded before the Persian wars. It afterwards became tributary to Athens, and its revolt from the latter city in 432 B.C. was one of the immediate causes of the Peloponnesian war. It was taken by the Athenians in 429, after a siege of more than two years, its inhabitants expelled, and their place supplied by Athenian colonists. In 356 it was taken by Philip of Macedon, who destroyed the city, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. Cassander, however, built a new city on the same site, to which he gave the name of _Cassandria_, and which he peopled with the remains of the old population, and the inhabitants of the surrounding towns. It was taken and plundered by the Huns, but was restored by Justinian.

=Potomac.= A river of the United States, formed by two branches, which rise in the Alleghany Mountains, and unite 20 miles southeast of Cumberland, Md., from which point the river flows in a generally southeasterly course, 400 miles, and falls into Chesapeake Bay, where it is 6 to 8 miles broad, 75 miles from the ocean. Line-of-battle ships ascend to Washington, 120 miles from its mouth. The Potomac forms the greater part of the boundary between Virginia and Maryland. During the civil war, both Federal and Confederate armies crossed several times the fords of the Upper Potomac, and severe actions were fought upon its banks. The largest army of the Union was named after it.

=Pottawatomies.= A tribe of Indians of Algonkin stock, who formerly occupied a great part of Michigan, where a few still remain. They fought against the settlers in the Pontiac war, and against the Americans in the war of the Revolution; and were allies of the British in the war of 1812, soon after which they removed to Kansas, where they now reside in a partial state of civilization, only about 500 of what is known as the Prairie band being located on a reservation.

=Pouch.= A case of strong leather, lined with tin divisions, for the purpose of carrying a soldier’s ammunition. It is covered by a flap to preserve the cartridges from wet. The leather cases containing primers, lanyard, etc., in field and heavy artillery, and those containing a gunner’s level, vent-punch, gimlet, etc., in heavy artillery, are also called pouches.

=Pounder.= The term used in describing the force of a cannon employed in firing solid shot; as, a 9-pounder field-gun, a 300-pounder Armstrong, etc.

=Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Powder-cart.= A two-wheeled carriage covered with an angular roof of boards. To prevent the powder from getting damp, a tarred canvas is put over the roof; and on each side are lockers to hold shot, in proportion to the quantity of powder.

=Powdered=, or =Semée=. In heraldry, strewn with an indefinite number of small charges.

=Powder-magazine.= See MAGAZINE.

=Powder-measure.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Powder-mill.= See MILL, GUNPOWDER-.

=Power.= In military affairs as well as in all others, is knowledge--of human passions--of arms--of distance--of the skill and numbers of an enemy. To be in the _power_ of an enemy, is to have taken up, injudiciously, such a position as to expose you to a defeat whenever the enemy may think proper to attack you.

=Powerful.= Full of power; capable of producing great effects of any kind; as, a powerful army or navy.

=Powldron.= In heraldry, that part of armor which covers the shoulders.

=Powwow.= A priest or conjurer among the North American Indians. Also conjurations performed for the cure of diseases and other purposes, attended with great noise and confusion, and often with dancing.

=Poynado.= A poniard was formerly so called.

=Pozzuoli.= A city of Southern Italy, at the east of the Bay of Naples. It is first mentioned in history during the second Punic war, when it was surrounded by strong walls. In 214 B.C. it repulsed Hannibal, and subsequently became a place of importance. It was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and Totila. It was afterwards rebuilt by the Byzantine Greeks, but being exposed to new devastations, to earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, it sank into decay.

=Practicable.= A word frequently used in military matters to express the possible accomplishment of any object. Hence, a practicable breach.

=Practice, To.= In a military sense, to go through the manual and platoon exercises, or through the various manœuvres, etc., for the purpose of becoming thoroughly master of military movements. Practice is likewise used to signify the act of effecting or executing any military operation.

=Præliares.= Among the Romans, fighting days, on which they thought it lawful to engage in acts of hostility; for during the time of some particular feasts, they reckoned it a piece of impiety to raise, march, or exercise men for war, or to encounter the enemy, unless first attacked.

=Prætorians.= Was, during the Roman republic, a select cohort that attended the prætor or commander of an army. They frequently decided the fate of battles. After the overthrow of the republic, Augustus formed them into nine cohorts, and fixed their station in the capital as body-guards. They became, in short, under the emperors, what “the guards” are to the monarchies of Europe. They, in addition to their military duties, frequently had the charge of state prisoners, and often acted the part of executioners. They were all picked men, chosen for the most part from Italy. Their power increased greatly under the empire until they frequently determined the fate of an emperor. Diocletian reduced their number, and Constantine disbanded them.

=Prætorium.= See PRETORIUM.

=Praga.= A town of Poland, on the Vistula, opposite to Warsaw, with which it communicates by a bridge of boats. In 1794 the Polish insurgents took refuge here, and it was stormed by Suwarrow, and given up to pillage and massacre, when about 20,000 were slain. In 1830 the Grand Duke Constantine of Russia was forced to retreat from this town with his troops, at the beginning of the Polish revolution in that year, which unfortunately proved unsuccessful.

=Prague.= A city of Austria, the capital of Bohemia, situated on the Moldau. Prague was conquered and almost destroyed by the Hussites in 1424; but after the subsequent defeat and submission of the Hussites, the city was rebuilt. In the Thirty Years’ War it suffered severely, and in 1620 the battle was fought at the White Mountain, near the city, in which Frederick V. (the “Winter King”), son-in-law of James I. of England, was completely defeated, and compelled to renounce his assumed crown, and to give up the town into the power of the emperor of Austria. Swedes and Imperialists successively gained possession of it during the war; and a century later, during the Seven Years’ War, it again fell into the hands of different victors, being compelled, in 1744, to capitulate to Frederick the Great of Prussia; but he was obliged to abandon it the same year. In 1757 the king of Prussia again besieged it, but his efforts to reduce it proved ineffectual. In 1848 it was bombarded, the inhabitants having risen against the Austrian government, when great cruelties were perpetrated by the Austrian troops. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague, August 23, 1866.

=Praguerie, War of= (so named from Prague, then celebrated for its civil disorders). Was the name given to the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI., against his father, Charles VII., aided by Alexander, the bastard, of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was soon quelled; Louis was exiled, and Alexander put to death by drowning, July, 1440.

=Prairie Raft.= See PONTONS.

=Prairie-carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Prance.= To spring or bound, as a horse in high mettle. To walk or strut about in a showy manner, or with warlike parade.

=Precedence.= Priority in rank or precedence in military life, is regulated by the date of an officer’s commission, or the standing in the corps to which he may belong.

=Precedent.= Any act which can be interpreted into an example for future times, is called a precedent. Persons in high office are extremely scrupulous with respect to precedents, especially in military matters.

=Precision.= Exact limitation, scrupulous observance of certain given rules.

=Predal=, or =Predatory War=. A war carried on by plunder and rapine.

=Prefect= (Lat. _præfectus_). A Roman officer who was over, or who superintended, a particular command, charge, department, and the like. Of this class there were several, as the prefect of a camp, of a fleet, of the city guards, etc.

=Prefect Pretorian.= In Roman antiquity, was the commander of the pretorian guards.

=Preferment.= The state of being advanced to a higher post.

=Prejudice.= An opinion or decision of mind formed without due examination; prejudgment; a bias or leaning toward one side or the other of a question from other considerations than those belonging to it; an unreasonable predilection or prepossession for or against anything; especially, an opinion or leaning adverse to anything formed without proper grounds, or before suitable knowledge.

=Prejudicial to Military Discipline, Conduct.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 62.

=Prenzlow.= A town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, 71 miles north-northeast from Berlin. Here, in October, 1806, a body of Prussians, 10,000 strong, under the Prince of Hohenlohe, surrendered, after the defeat of Jena, to the French under Murat.

=Prepare for Action.= A word of command used in the artillery.

=Preponderance.= In gunnery, is the excess of weight of the part in rear of the trunnions over that in front; it is measured by the lifting force in pounds, which must be applied at the rear of the base-ring, at the base-line, or at the bottom of the ratchet, to balance the piece when suspended freely on the axis of the trunnions. Preponderance was given to prevent the sudden dipping of the muzzle, in firing, and violent concussion on the carriage at the breech. Most of the heavy pieces of the late models have no preponderance, the axis of the trunnions intersecting the axis of the piece, at the centre of gravity.

=Presburg.= A town of Hungary, situated on the Danube, 36 miles east from Vienna. This town was once the capital of Hungary, and the emperors of Austria are still crowned here as kings of Hungary. It is noted for the treaty concluded there between France and Austria in 1805, when the Tyrol was given to Bavaria, and Venice to the French.

=Prescott= (Upper Canada). On November 17, 1838, the Canadian rebels were attacked by the British under Maj. Young, and (on the 18th) by Lieut.-Col. Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, several of whom were killed, and many taken prisoners, the remainder surrendering. The troops also suffered considerably.

=Presence of Mind.= Ready conceptions of expedient, producing promptitude of action under difficult and alarming circumstances. A quality indispensable in a general.

=Present.= In the British service, means to level; to aim; to bring the musket to a horizontal position, the butt resting against the right shoulder for the purpose of discharging its contents at a given object.

=Present.= To offer openly; to exhibit; to give in ceremony; as, to present the colors.

=Present Arms, To.= In tactics is to bring the musket to a certain prescribed position, for the purpose of paying a military compliment.

=Preservation of Cannon and Ammunition.= See LACKER.

=President.= The President of the United States is commander-in-chief of the army, navy, and militia, called into service. His functions as such are assigned by Congress, but embrace of course whatever authority may be assigned to any military commander, on the principle that the authority of the greater includes that of the less. For the command, government, and regulation of the army, however, Congress has created a military hierarchy or range of subordination in the army with rights and duties regulated by Congress, and the commander-in-chief cannot make use of any other agents in exercising his command; and all orders issued by him must be according to the rules and articles made by Congress for the government of the army. In his capacity of chief magistrate of the Union, Congress has also invested the President with many administrative functions relating to military affairs; and for the performance of the latter duties the secretary of the department of war has been made his minister, upon matters connected with _matériel_, accounts, returns, the support of troops, and the raising of troops.

=President.= The president of a court-martial is the senior member. He preserves order in court; administers the oath taken by the judge-advocate, and the proceedings of the court are authenticated by his signature and that of the judge-advocate.

=Presidio= (_Sp._). A place of defense; a garrison or guard-house.

=Pressure-gauge.= Called also _pressure-plug_. An apparatus invented by Gen. Rodman for measuring the pressure exerted by the gases of exploded powder. It consists essentially of a steel plunger, on the head of which the pressure is exerted. The other end of the plunger is widened out into two cutting edges which meet at an obtuse angle. This point rests on a disk of copper, into which the cutter is driven by the pressure. The pressure is deduced from the length of the cut. Two forms of the instrument are used,--one is placed in a hole bored through the side of the gun. The other is complete in itself and is placed at the bottom of the cartridge-bag. Lieut. Metcalfe’s (U. S. Ordnance Corps) modification of the pressure-gauge has a cutter with a helicoidal edge. To measure the cut he uses a circular scale with a hole in the centre (in which the inducted copper is placed), and a radial arm to show the extent of the spiral cut. The English modification of Rodman’s instrument is called the _crusher-gauge_,--a short cylinder of copper is substituted for the disk,--the reduction in its length gives a measure of the pressure. The crusher-gauge is frequently attached to the base of the shot. A similar modification is used to test the power of the high explosives, such as dynamite, dualin, etc. A lead cylinder is crushed in this case. A very small charge is used. The reaction is obtained by placing a heavy cylindrical shot over the charge, which rests directly in a cavity on the top of the plunger.

=Preston.= A town of England, in Lancashire, on the north bank of the Ribble. This town was partially destroyed by Bruce in 1322; and after declaring for the king, it was taken by the forces of the Parliament under Gen. Fairfax. Here also ended the ill-fated Jacobite rising of 1715, when, after a brave resistance, the insurgents were compelled to surrender.

=Prestonpans.= A village of Haddingtonshire, 8 miles east of Edinburgh. In the vicinity, on September 21, 1745, was fought the famous battle of Prestonpans, between the royal troops under Sir John Cope and the Jacobites under Prince Charles, in which the latter, with a loss of only about 10 officers and 120 men in killed and wounded, routed the royal forces with great slaughter, and captured their cannon, baggage, and military chest.

=Pretence, Escutcheon of=, or =Escutcheon Surtout=. In heraldry, a small shield placed in the centre of the field of another shield. The husband of an heiress may bear the arms of his wife in an escutcheon of pretence, instead of impaling them. Feudal arms are also sometimes placed on an escutcheon of pretence, particularly in the insignia of elective sovereigns, who have been in use of bearing their own proper arms in surtout over those of the dominions to which they are entitled.

=Pretorian.= Appertaining to pretor; also the general’s guard among the ancient Romans.

=Pretorium.= The hall or court where the pretor lived and administered justice. It also denoted the tent of the Roman general, in which councils of war were held. The place where the pretorian guards were quartered or lodged, was likewise called pretorium.

=Prevesa.= A fortified town of European Turkey, in Albania, on the north shore of the Gulf of Arta, 58 miles south-southwest of Yanina. Prevesa belonged to the Venetians from 1684 until the fall of that republic in 1797. It was then held by the French for a time, but was afterwards taken by the Turks.

=Prey.= Anything, as goods, etc., taken by force from an enemy in war; spoil; booty; plunder.

=Pricker.= A light horseman was formerly so called.

=Pricker.= A priming-wire (which see).

=Pride.= In heraldry, a peacock or other bird, when the tail is spread out in a circular form, and the wings drooped, is said to be “in his pride.”

=Priest-cap.= In fortification, a work so named from its shape; called also _swallow-tail_. See REDAN.

=Prime.= To charge with the powder, percussion-cap, or other device for communicating fire to the charge, as a fire-arm.