Chapter XXXII: Part 32

=Master-General, Barrack-.= Formerly an officer with the rank of major-general, in the British service, who was vested with considerable powers. His duties consisted in keeping all barracks in repair, and all supplies of barrack furniture, utensils, and other stores for the troops, were furnished by him, as also a proper quantity of good and sufficient firing, candles, and other stores. He also supplied forage to the cavalry.

=Master-General, Scout-.= See SCOUT-MASTER-GENERAL.

=Master-Gunners.= In the British service are pensioned sergeants of artillery, who are placed in charge of the stores in small towers or forts; they are divided into three classes, of which those in the first class receive 5 shillings, in the second, 3 shillings and 6 pence, and in the third, 3 shillings per day. They are now borne in the Coast Brigade of Royal Artillery, but the office has much degenerated in importance since it was first created, at least as early as the time of Henry VIII.

=Mastery.= Victory in war.

=Matafunda.= An ancient machine of war, which was used for throwing stones, probably by means of a sling.

=Matagorda.= A small fort and military post in the south of Spain, contiguous to Cadiz. On February 22, 1810, Capt. (afterwards Lieut.-Gen. Sir Archibald) Maclaine was posted here with a force of about 140 men. The French cannonaded the work with field artillery all the next day; but the garrison were immovable. On March 21, the fire of 48 guns and mortars was directed on the little fort for thirty hours; when 64 men out of the 140 having fallen, Gen. Graham sent boats to carry off the survivors, and the fort was surrendered.

=Matan.= One of the Philippine Islands, lying to the east of Zebu, where Magellan was killed in a skirmish with the natives in 1520.

=Matarieh.= A village of Lower Egypt, in the province of Ghizeh, which stands on the site of the ancient Heliopolis, 5 miles northeast from Cairo. The Turks were defeated here by the French in 1800.

=Match.= A preparation invented to retain fire for the service of artillery, mines, fireworks, etc. For different kinds in use and their composition, see LABORATORY STORES.

=Match.= A bringing together of two parties suited to one another, as for a trial of skill or force, a contest, or the like; as, specifically, a contest to try strength or skill; an emulous struggle.

=Matchlock.= The lock of a musket containing a match for firing it; hence, a musket fired by means of a match.

=Mate-griffon.= An ancient machine, the destroyer and terror of the Greeks, which projected both stones and darts.

=Matériel.= All cannon, small-arms, carriages, implements, ammunition, etc., necessary for war purposes, used in contradistinction to _personnel_. See PERSONNEL.

=Mathematics.= That science, or class of sciences, which treats of the exact relations existing between the quantities or magnitudes, and of the methods by which, in accordance with these relations, quantities sought are deducible from other quantities known or supposed. It is usually divided into _pure_, which considers magnitude or quantity abstractly, without relation to matter; and _mixed_, which treats of magnitude as subsisting in material bodies, and is consequently interwoven with physical considerations; and to this branch may be referred astronomy, geography, hydrography, hydrostatics, mechanics, fortification, gunnery, mining, and engineering. The knowledge of military mathematics is applicable to all the operations of war, where everything consists in proportion, measure, and motion, bringing into play the several important sciences already enumerated, a certain proficiency in most of which is absolutely requisite to the formation of a good and skillful officer.

=Matras= (_Fr._). A sort of dart which was anciently used, and which was not sufficiently pointed to occasion anything more than a bruise.

=Matron.= A woman, generally the wife of some well-behaved and good soldier, who is employed to assist in the hospital, do the washing, etc., and is under the direction of the surgeon, by whom she is originally appointed to the situation.

=Matrosses.= Were soldiers in the royal regiment of artillery in the British service, who assisted the gunners in loading, firing, and sponging the great guns. The term is now obsolete in the service, and the duty is done by the gunners.

=Matter.= That with regard to which anything takes place,--the subject of action, complaint, discussion, legal action, or the like. A word used in reference to courts-martial. The specific charges which are brought against a prisoner, and to which the court must strictly confine itself. Also applied to the evidence before a legal tribunal. _New matter_ is new evidence not before considered.

=Mattiaci.= A people in Germany, who dwelt on the eastern bank of the Rhine, between the Main and the Lahn, and were a branch of the Chatti. They were subdued by the Romans, who, in the reign of Claudius, had fortresses and silver mines in their country. After the death of Nero they revolted against the Romans, and took part with the Chatti and other German tribes in the siege of Moguntiacum. From this time they disappear from history; and their country was subsequently inhabited by the Alemanni.

=Mattock.= A pioneer tool, resembling a pickaxe, but having two broad sharp edges instead of points.

=Mattress.= A quilted bed; a bed stuffed with hair, moss, or other soft material, and quilted. Mattresses are much used by officers on campaigns.

=Mattucashlash.= An ancient Scotch weapon sometimes called armpit dagger, which was worn under the armpit, ready to be used on coming to close quarters. This, with a broad sword and shield, completely armed the Highlanders.

=Maubenge.= A town of France, in the department of Nord, situated on the Sambre, not far from the frontiers of Belgium. The town is well fortified, the defenses being by the famous Vauban. The town traces its origin back to the 7th century, and being situated near the frontier, has been an object of great contention. It has been taken no less than ten times since the 15th century, and finally by the allies in 1815.

=Maul.= A heavy beater, or hammer, usually shod with iron, used in driving piles, etc.

=Mauritania=, or =Mauretania=. The ancient name of the northwestern part of Africa, corresponding in its limits to the present sultanate of Morocco and the western portion of Algeria. It derived its name from its inhabitants, the Mauri (Moors). The country was conquered by the Romans, who founded many colonies in it, and in 49 B.C. Julius Cæsar appointed Bogudes and Bocchoris joint kings of Mauritania. In 429 the Vandal king Genseric, at the invitation of Count Boniface, crossed the Straits of Gades, and Mauritania, with other African provinces, fell into the hands of the barbarian conquerors. Belisarius destroyed the kingdom of the Vandals, and Mauritania again became a Roman province under an Eastern exarch. In 698, when the Arabs made the final conquest of Africa, the Moors adopted the religion, name, and origin of their conquerors, and sunk back into their more congenial state of Mohammedan savages.

=Mauritius=, or =The Isle of France=. An island in the Indian Ocean, lying about 500 miles east from Madagascar, and forming a colony of Great Britain. This island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1505, and in 1598 it was taken by the Dutch. In 1810 it came into the possession of the English.

=Mauser Gun.= Is the army service breech-loading rifle used since 1874 by the German infantry. It was invented in 1871, and derives its name from Mauser, a gunsmith of Würtemberg, who modified and greatly improved it. Its advantages over the needle-gun, the weapon used in the Franco-German war, are numerous. It is lighter, weighing about two pounds less, and carrying a heavier charge of powder and a lighter ball, is of longer range, being effective at 1300 yards; the manner of loading it is simpler, and it can be fired with greater rapidity.

=Maximum Charge.= See CHARGE.

=Maya.= A gorge in the Pyrenees, between Bidassoa and Nivelle, the scene of an action in July, 1813, in which the French were worsted by the English, under Gen. Stewart.

=Mayaguez.= A town and port of the island of Porto Rico. An adventurer named Ducondray took this town in 1822, and made an attempt to establish an independent republic.

=Maynard’s Primer.= Consisted of a coil of paper tape containing small charges of percussion-powder placed at certain intervals. The coil was placed in a circular cavity on the outside of the lock-plate. The cocking of the piece, by unwinding the coil, brought successive charges over the nipple, when they were exploded by the fall of the hammer.

=Maynard’s Rifle.= One of the first, if not the first rifle in which a metallic cartridge was used. It was described in an official report to the U. S. Chief of Ordnance in 1856. This, as well as the _primer_ mentioned above, was the invention of Dr. E. Maynard. This rifle in improved form is still in the market.

=Meal Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Measure.= To compute or ascertain the extent, quantity, dimensions, or capacity of, by a certain rule or standard.

=Measure of Velocity.= In projectiles and mechanics, is the space passed over by a moving body in any given time. The space therefore must be divided into as many equal parts as the time is conceived to be divided into: the quantity of space answering to such portion of time is the measure of the velocity.

=Measures.= For powder are cylindrical copper vessels of various sizes for determining the charges of shells, cannon, etc.

=Meaux.= A town of France, in the department of the Seine-et-Marne, 23 miles northeast from Paris. After a siege of several months, this place was taken by the English in 1520.

=Mecca.= A city of Arabia, capital of the province of Hejaz, and of the district Belud-el-Haram. This was the birthplace of Mohammed, and the cradle of the Mussulman creed. In 1804 and 1807, it was taken by the Wahabees, and in 1818, by Ibrahim Pasha.

=Mechanical Manœuvres.= The application of the mechanical powers in mounting, dismounting, shifting, and transporting artillery.

=Mechanical Powers.= Certain simple machines, such us the lever and its modifications, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane with its modifications, the screw, and the wedge, which convert a small force acting through a great space into a great force acting through a small space, or _vice versa_, and are used separately or in combination.

=Mechanics.= That science, or branch of applied mathematics, which treats of motion, and develops the effects of powers or moving forces, so far as they are applied to machines.

=Mechanicsville.= In Henrico Co., Va. Near here, on the left bank of the Chickahominy, on the east side of Beaver Dam Creek, a battle was fought on June 26, 1862, between the Confederate forces, under Gen. Lee, and the Federal troops, under Gen. McClellan, in which the former were compelled to retreat with great loss. The fight was mainly sustained on the Federal side by the brigades of Gens. Reynolds and Seymour, and lasted about seven hours, during the greater part of which time the Federal artillery kept up a destructive fire on the enemy as they essayed to charge the lines, each successive attempt only ending in renewed disaster. Their loss was said to be about 3000, while that of the Federals did not exceed 300.

=Mechlin=, or =Malines=. A town of Belgium, in the province of Antwerp, situated on the Dyle. It was founded in the 6th century; destroyed by the Normans in 884; sacked by the Spaniards, 1572; taken by the Prince of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580; frequently captured in the 17th and 18th centuries, partaking in the evil fortunes of the country.

=Mecklenburg.= Formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now independent as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The house of Mecklenburg claims to be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the Western empire in the 5th century, and died, 477. During the Thirty Years’ War, Mecklenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628; it was restored to its own duke, 1630. After several changes, the government was settled in 1701 as it now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were made grand dukes, and they joined the new North German Confederation by treaty, August 21, 1866.

=Medal.= Is a piece of metal in the form of a coin, struck to commemorate some remarkable event, or in honor of some distinguished person, but having no place in the currency. Medals belong to two periods, ancient and modern, separated by a wide interval. To the former belong those pieces issued in ancient Rome, known as _medallions_, and made of gold, silver, or copper. They are generally supposed to have been struck on occasions similar to those on which medals are coined in modern times, on the accession of an emperor, on the achievement of an important victory, or as specimens of workmanship. Modern medals date from the 14th century, but few were struck prior to the 15th. In more recent times, it has become customary to confer medals as marks of distinction for eminent worth or noble conduct, but more particularly for naval or military services. Such medals of honor are seldom of great intrinsic value, their worth depending on the associations connected with them. During the Revolutionary war Congress conferred these marks of honor on several military and naval heroes, who distinguished themselves by their valor or achievements during that eventful period. In the U. S. service, at present, bronze medals of honor are conferred on enlisted men in the army, navy, and marine corps for gallantry in action, or extraordinary heroism in the line of their duties. In the English military service, similar medals are granted. They are generally of silver, and have ribbons attached, with clasps or small bars, each of which bears the name of a particular engagement. Good-service medals of silver are also distributed among meritorious soldiers, sailors, and marines.

=Medals of Honor.= See MEDALS.

=Medeah=, or =Medeyah=. A fortified town of Algeria, 40 miles southwest from Algiers. This town was taken by the French in 1820.

=Media.= In ancient times, the name of the northwestern part of Iran, which was bounded by the Caspian Sea on the north, Persia on the south, Parthia on the east, and Assyria on the west. The Medians were in language, religion, and manners very nearly allied to the Persians. After they had shaken off the yoke of the Assyrians, their tribes united about 708 B.C., chose Dejoces for their chief, and made Ecbatana their capital. His son Phraortes, or Arphaxad, subdued the Persians. Cyaxares, the son of Phraortes, in alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, overthrew the Assyrian empire about 604 B.C., spread the terror of his arms as far as Egypt and the farthest bounds of Asia Minor, and vanquished the brigand hordes of Scythia, who had carried their ravages as far as Syria. He was succeeded by his son Astyage, who was deposed (560 B.C.) by his own grandson Cyrus, king of Persia; and from this time the two nations are spoken of as one people. After the death of Alexander the Great (324 B.C.), the northwest portion of Media became a separate kingdom, and existed till the time of Augustus; the other portion, under the name of _Great Media_, forming a part of the Syrian monarchy. Media was on several occasions separated from Persia. In 152 B.C., Mithridates I. took Great Media from the Syrians, and annexed it to the Parthian empire, and about 36 B.C., it had a king of its own, named Artavasdes, against whom Mark Antony made war. Under the Sassanian dynasty, the whole of Media was united to Persia. It became, during the 14th and 15th centuries, the stronghold of the Turkoman tribes. In early times the Medes were a warlike race, and were distinguished for their skill with the bow. They were also celebrated for their horsemanship, and it was from them that the Persians adopted this and other favorite exercises and acquirements. In subsequent times, they appear to have become effeminated by luxury.

=Mediator.= Any state or power which interferes to adjust a quarrel between any two or more powers, is called a mediator.

=Medical Department.= This department of an army, next to the commissariat, is the most important of all the non-combatant sections. The surgical treatment of the wounded in actual fighting, and still more the combat with disease engendered by crowding, unhealthy stations, and the reckless habits of the soldiery, necessitate a large medical staff; for, on an average of the whole army, it is found that the rate of sickness is at least quadruple that for the civil population. In the British army every battalion, when at home or in the temperate zone, has a surgeon and an assistant-surgeon; when in India or the tropics, another assistant-surgeon is added. The medical department is governed by a director-general, who is a member of the War Office, and has charge of the surgical, medical, and sanitary arrangements of the army. In the United States every military post has at least one medical officer and sometimes two, as the nature of the climate or the strength of the command demands, all of whom are under the command of a surgeon-general, who ranks as brigadier-general, and is permanently established at Washington, D. C. He has full control over everything that pertains to the medical department of the army. Officers of the medical department are assistant-surgeons, with the rank of first lieutenants of cavalry the first five years of their service thereafter, till promoted to the grade of surgeon, when they receive the rank, pay, and emoluments of captain.

=Medical Director.= In the U. S. service, an officer who is placed on duty at the headquarters of a military geographical division or department, and who, under the supervision of the surgeon-general, has control of the medical department within the limits of the command in which he is serving.

=Medical School.= At Netley, England, an institution is established for the technical education of medical officers for the British and Indian military service. Candidates are examined competitively in the ordinary subjects of professional knowledge; and, passing satisfactorily through that ordeal, are then required to attend for six months at the Military Medical School. As the school is attached to the Royal Victoria Hospital, which is the great invalid depot for the whole army, the students have ample opportunity of seeing theory exemplified in practice.

=Medical Staff.= This branch of the British army is under the control of an experienced officer, stationed at headquarters, under the denomination of “director-general.” Immediately under his command are a number of inspectors-general, deputy inspectors-general, and a corps of staff-surgeons. The locality of all the officers subordinate to the director-general is determined by the force to which they may be attached. All the regimental surgeons and assistant-surgeons make their reports to and consult the staff-officer who is placed in their district. The director-general is paid from the civil department of the government. A deputy inspector-general of hospitals must have served five years at home, or three years abroad in this rank, before he shall be eligible to the highest rank of inspector-general.

The _medical board_ consists of three or four medical officers, who may be convened by an order through the Secretary of War, for the inspection of wounded officers, in order to secure them a provision for life, according to the regulations regarding pensions, etc.

=Medicine-chest.= Is composed of all sorts of medicines necessary for a campaign, together with such chirurgical instruments as are useful, fitted up in chests and portable. The army is supplied with these at the expense of the government.

=Medina.= Or more fully, Medinat Al Nabi (City of the Prophet), the holiest city throughout Mohammedanism next to Mecca, and second capital and stronghold of Hedjaz in Western Arabia. In this city Mohammed was protected when he fled from Mecca, September 13, 622, others say July 15, 622. (See HEGIRA.) Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1804; retaken by the pasha of Egypt in 1818.

=Medina de Rio Seco.= A town of Spain, 25 miles northwest of Valladolid, on the Seguillo, an affluent of the Douro. Here Bessières defeated the Spaniards, July 15, 1808.

=Medjidie.= A Turkish order, instituted in 1852, and conferred after the Crimean campaign, to a considerable extent, on British officers. It has five classes; and the decoration, which differs in size for the different classes, is a silver sun of seven triple rays, with the device of the crescent and star alternating with the rays. On a circle of red enamel, in the centre of the decoration, is the legend in Turkish, whose signification is “zeal, honor, and loyalty,” and the date 1268, the Mohammedan year corresponding to 1852; the sultan’s name is inscribed on a gold field within this circle. The first three classes suspend the badge round the neck from a red ribbon having green borders, and the fourth and fifth classes wear it attached to a similar ribbon on the left breast. A star, in design closely resembling the badge, is worn on the left breast by the first class, and on the right breast by the second class.

=Meeanee=, or =Miyani=. A village in Sinde, Hindostan, on the Indus, 6 miles north of Hyderabad, is celebrated as the scene of a great battle between Sir Charles Napier and the ameers of Sinde, February 17, 1843. Sir Charles’s force, composed partly of Europeans, and partly of natives, amounted to only 2800 men; that of his foes to 22,000, yet the latter were totally routed, losing in killed and wounded 5000, while Sir Charles’s loss was only 256. The result of this victory was the conquest and annexation of Sinde.

=Meer Bukshy.= In the East Indies, a chief paymaster.

=Meer Tozuk.= In the East Indies, a marshal whose business is to preserve order in a procession or line of march, and to report absentees.

=Meerut=, =Merut=, or =Mirut=. The chief town of a district of the same name in British India, on the Kali Nuddi, about 42 miles northeast from Delhi. Here on May 10, 1857, the native troops revolted, shooting their own European officers, and massacring the European inmates without respect to age or sex.

=Megalopolis= (now _Sinano_, or _Sinanu_). The most recent, but the most important of the cities of Arcadia, was founded on the advice of Epaminondas, after the battle of Leuctra, 371 B.C., and was formed out of the inhabitants of 38 villages. It was situated near the frontiers of Messenia, on the river Helisson. It was for a time subject to the Macedonians, but soon after the death of Alexander the Great, it was governed by a series of native tyrants, the last of whom united the city to the Achæan League, 234 B.C. It became, in consequence, opposed to Sparta, and was taken by Cleomenes, who destroyed a great part of the city, 222. After the battle of Sellasia in the following year it was restored by Philopœmen.

=Megara.= An ancient city of Greece, capital of the territory Megaris, was situated 8 stadia (1 mile) from the sea, opposite the island of Salamis, about 26 miles from Athens and 31 miles from Corinth. In 461-445 B.C. the Athenians had possession of the country, but it subsequently became annexed to Attica, and Megaris formed one of the four ancient divisions of Attica. It was next conquered by the Dorians, and was for a time subject to Corinth; but it finally asserted its independence, and rapidly became a wealthy and powerful city. The government was originally an aristocracy, as in most of the Doric cities; but Theagenes, one of the common people, put himself at the head of the popular party, and obtained the supreme power about 620 B.C. Theagenes was afterward expelled, and a democratical form of government established. After the Persian wars, Megara was for some time at war with Corinth, and was thus led to form an alliance with Athens, and to receive an Athenian garrison in the city, 461; but they were expelled in 441. The city was taken and its walls destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes; it was again taken by the Romans under Q. Metellus; and in the time of Augustus it had ceased to be a place of importance.

=Meggheteriarque= (_Fr._). The commanding officer of a body of men; who formerly did duty at Constantinople, and were called _Heteriennes_, being composed of soldiers who were enlisted in the allied nations.

=Mehadpore=, =Mehidpoor=, =Mahedpore=, or =Maheidpoor=. A town of Hindostan, Gwalior dominions, 22 miles north of Odjein. Here Sir Thomas Hislop and Sir John Malcolm defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar, December 21, 1817.

=Meigs Gun.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Melanippus.= The name of four Trojan warriors, who fought valiantly in the wars of their native country.

=Melazzo= (West Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on July 20-21, 1860, defeated the Neapolitans under Gen. Bosco, who lost about 600 men; Garibaldi’s loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and on July 30 a convention was signed by which it was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till March 13, 1861.

=Mêlée= (_Fr._). A military term, which is used among the French to express the hurry and confusion of a battle. Mêlée corresponds with the English expression “thick of the fight.”

=Melegnano.= See MARIGNANO.

=Melfi.= A town of Naples, province of Basilicata (Potenza), 75 miles east-northeast of Naples, and 34 south of Foggia. It was formerly the capital of the Norman possessions in Southern Italy, and was defended by walls, now in a ruinous condition, and by an ancient Norman castle. The town was taken, and 18,000 of its inhabitants massacred by the French, under Lautrec de Foix, in 1528.

=Meloria=, or =Melora=. A small island in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Tuscany, 4 miles west of Leghorn. Near Meloria the Pisan fleet defeated the Genoese in 1241, capturing many bishops going with much treasure to a council. The total destruction of the Pisan fleet on August 6, 1284, by the Genoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary conflict, was considered to be the just punishment of impiety.

=Melos= (now _Milo_). One of the Cyclades in the Ægean Sea, colonized by the Spartans about 1116 B.C.; it was captured during the Peloponnesian war, after a seven months’ siege, by the Athenians, who massacred all the men and sold the women and children as slaves, 416 B.C.

=Melrose.= A village at the foot of the Eildon Hills, on the south bank of the Tweed. It is famous for the ruins of its noble abbey founded by King David I. in 1136, its original pile having been destroyed during the Wars of the Succession. Melrose was burned by Kenneth, king of Scots, in 839.

=Melton-Mowbray.= A town of England, in Leicestershire, situated at the confluence of the Wreak and Eye. It is remarkable as the scene of a defeat of the Parliamentary troops by the royalists in 1644.

=Melun.= An ancient town of France, capital of the department of Seine-et-Marne, 28 miles southeast from Paris. It was the _Melodunum_ of the Romans; was taken by Clovis in 494; was stormed five times during the 9th century by the Northmen, and fell into the hands of the English after a siege of six months in 1419, and was held by them for ten years.

=Members.= Officers are so called who are detailed by orders to sit on general or garrison courts-martial.

=Members, Supernumerary.= In case supernumerary members are detailed for a court-martial, they are sworn, and it is right that they should sit and be present at all deliberations even when the court is cleared, in order to be prepared to take the place of any absent member. Until then they have no voice.

=Memel.= A town and seaport of East Prussia, on the small river Dange, adjacent to the Cürische Haff, 74 miles northeast from Königsberg. It is strongly fortified. It was taken by Teutonic knights about 1328.

=Memmingen.= A town of Bavaria, circle of Swabia, situated on a tributary of the Iller. It is noted as the scene of a victory gained by the French under Moreau over the Austrians, May 10, 1800.

=Memoir.= Is the title given by military officers to those plans which they offer to their government or commanders on subjects relating to war or military economy.

=Memoirs.= In military literature, a species of history, written by persons who had some share in the transactions they relate, answering in some measure to what the Romans call _commentarii_, “commentaries.” Hence Cæsar’s Commentaries, or the memoirs of his campaigns.

=Memorial.= An address to the government on any matter of public service.

=Memphis.= A celebrated Egyptian city, situated in the Delta, or Lower Egypt. During the attempts of the native rulers to throw off the Persian rule, Memphis was an important strategic point. Ochus inflicted severe injury on this town, having plundered the temples and thrown down the walls after he had driven out Nectanebus. Ptolemy VIII. destroyed the city. It fell with the rest of Egypt under the Roman rule, and afterwards was conquered by Amru Ben Abas (639-40).

=Memphis.= A flourishing city and port of entry of Shelby Co., Tenn. During the civil war, it fell into the hands of the Union forces, after a short naval fight, June 6, 1862, and in 1864, Gen. Forrest made a raid upon it, capturing a great number of prisoners.

=Men, Battalion.= All the soldiers belonging to the different companies of an infantry regiment were so called, except those of the two flank companies.

=Men, Camp-color.= Soldiers under the immediate command and direction of the quartermaster of a regiment. Their business is to assist in marking out the lines of an encampment, etc.; to carry the camp colors to the field on days of exercise, and fix them occasionally for the purpose of enabling the troops to take up correct points in marching, etc. So that in this respect they frequently, indeed almost always, act as guides, or what the French call _jalonneurs_. They are likewise employed in the trenches, and in all fatigue duties.

=Menace.= A hostile threat. Menacing words used in the presence of a court-martial are punishable in accordance with Article of War 86. See APPENDIX.

=Menai Strait= (between the Welsh coast and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Paulinus, when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops across this strait in flat-bottomed boats, while the cavalry swam over on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last retreat. Their horrid practice of sacrificing their captives, and the opposition he met with so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no quarter, throwing all that escaped from that battle into fires which they had prepared for the destruction of himself and his army in 61.

=Menapii.= A powerful people in the north of Gallia Belgica, who originally dwelt on both banks of the Rhine, but were afterwards driven out of their possessions on the right bank by the Usipetes and Tenchteri, and inhabited only the left bank near its mouth, and west of the Mosa.

=Mendavia.= A town of Spain, province of Navarre, 37 miles southwest from Pamplona. Cæsar Borgia, the infamous son of Pope Alexander VI., was killed here in a skirmish in 1507.

=Mende.= A town of France, capital of an arrondissement of the same name, on the left bank of the Lot. This town was fortified in 1151; it suffered much in the civil wars of the Reformation, and was taken no less than seven times.

=Menehould, St.= A town of France, in the department of the Marne, situated on the Aisne, 26 miles northeast of Chalons; it was taken by Louis XIV. in 1653.

=Menin.= A fortified town of Belgium, province of West Flanders, on the Lys, 31 miles southwest of Ghent. It has undergone a great number of sieges, and in the 17th and 18th centuries was frequently taken by the French.

=Menomonees.= A tribe of Indians, of Algonkin stock. They number about 1500, are partially civilized, and reside on a reservation near Green Bay, Wis.

=Men’s-harness.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Mensuration.= That branch of applied geometry which gives rules for finding the length of lines, the areas of surfaces, or the volumes of solids, from certain simple data of lines and angles. Every military officer should be acquainted with mensuration.

=Mentana.= A small village, 13 miles from Rome. Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, numbering between 3000 and 4000, after having intrenched his positions at Monterotondo and Mentana on their march towards Tivoli, on November 3, 1867, were totally defeated by the papal and French troops, under Gens. Kanzler and Polhès, after a severe conflict, in which Gen. Failly said “the Chassepot rifles did wonders.” There were about 5000 men on each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly armed. The loss of the papal and French troops was about 200 killed and wounded; that of Garibaldi about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, and was arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to Caprera.

=Mentonniere= (_Fr._). Chin-piece; chin-strap; chin-piece of a helmet is so called.

=Mentz= (Ger. _Mainz_, Fr. _Mayence_, anc. _Moguntiacum_). A city of Germany, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine. Mentz was founded by the Romans in the 2d century, and in 406 was destroyed by the Vandals; but after lying in ruins for some centuries it was restored by Charlemagne, and attained great prosperity after the time of Bonifacius. In the Thirty Years’ War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1688 by the French, but was restored at the subsequent peace. At the end of 1792, it surrendered to the French. Next year it was taken by the Austrians. By the peace of Lunéville, concluded in 1801, it was formally ceded to France, and in 1815 it was assigned to Hesse-Darmstadt. The town is strongly fortified, and is one of the strongest places in Europe, serving as a defense for Germany on the side of France. On the other side of the Rhine stands the suburb of Castel, which is also fortified.

=Mequinenza.= A town and port of Spain, on the Ebro, in the province of Huesca, Aragon, 64 miles southeast from Huesca. It is defended by a fortress, which was taken by the French in 1810.

=Mercara.= A town and fortress in the south of India. It was built by Hyder Ali in 1773, after he had conquered the country. Tippoo Sahib gave it up to the rajah of Coorg in 1792. It was taken possession of by the British in 1834.

=Mercenaries.= Soldiers serving for pay in a foreign service.

=Mercia.= One of the largest of the seven kingdoms of the Heptarchy (which see). It comprised the counties from the Thames to Yorkshire, and is said to have been founded by Crida in 585. Three-quarters of a century later, Mercia was conquered for a time by Northumbria; but it recovered its independence, which it retained until Egbert subdued it, when it was included in the kingdom of Wessex.

=Merida.= A town of Spain, province of Estremadura, on the Guadiana, 35 miles east from Badajos. It was built by the Romans; taken by the Moors in 713; taken from them in 1229; taken by the French, January, 1811. Near this town, at Arroyas Molinos, the British army under Gen. (afterwards Lord) Hill defeated the French under Gen. Girard, after a severe engagement, October 28, 1811. The British took Merida from the French in 1812, Gen. Hill leading the combined forces of English and Spanish troops.

=Merionethshire.= The most southern county of North Wales, situated at the middle of the Welsh coast. Here Owen Gwynedd defeated Henry II., and brave Glyndwr rose in arms at the call of friendship and patriotism to resist the usurper of the throne of gentle Henry, and the enslaver of his loved Wales. Tradition and records tell of bloody deeds done here in those and later days by freebooters, daring and cruel.

=Merit.= To earn by active service, or by any valuable performance; to have a right to claim as reward; to deserve. Also, the quality or relation of deserving well or ill.

=Merit, Certificate of.= In the U. S. army a certificate which is given by the President, upon the recommendation of commanding officers, to enlisted men who have distinguished themselves in the service. The holder of each certificate is entitled to $2 per month.

=Merit, Order of.= A military distinction given to officers or soldiers for some signal service, the badge of which is generally expressive of the service. Such was the medal, or order of merit, presented by the Austrian emperor to the officers of the 15th British Light Dragoons for their bravery in the affair of Villers en Couché in 1794.

=Meritorious.= Possessing merit or desert; deserving of reward or honor.

=Merkin.= A mop to clean a cannon. See MALKIN.

=Merlin.= A handspike.

=Merlon.= The mass of earth of the parapet between two embrasures, generally from 15 to 18 feet in length. Also, the projection on the top of a crenellated wall.

=Merovingians.= The first Frankish dynasty in Gaul. The name is derived from Merwig, or Merovæus, who ruled about the middle of the 5th century, having united a few tribes under his sway. His grandson, Clovis, or Clodwig, greatly extended his dominions, and on his death divided his kingdom among his four sons, one of whom, Chlotar, or Chlotaire I., reunited them under his own sway in 558. On his death, in 561, the kingdom was again divided into four parts,--Aquitaine, Burgundy, Neustria, and Austrasia. His grandson, Clotaire II., again united them in 613; but after his death, in 628, two kingdoms, Neustria and Austrasia, were formed, in both of which the Merovingian kings retained a merely nominal power, the real power having passed into the hands of the mayors of the palace. The dynasty of the Merovingians terminated with the deposition of Childeric IV., in 752, and gave place to that of the Carlovingians.

=Merseburg.= A town of Prussian Saxony, capital of a circle of the same name, on the Saale. It was near this town that the emperor Henry the Fowler gained his famous victory over the Hungarians in 934. Rudolf of Swabia was here defeated and slain by Henry IV. in 1080.

=Mesolonghi.= See MISSOLONGHI.

=Mess.= The law is silent with regard to messes in the army. Executive regulations have been made on the subject, but without law it is impossible to put messes on a proper footing. In England, an allowance is granted by the sovereign in aid of the expense of officers’ messes; and every officer on appointment to a corps subscribes one month’s pay to the mess-fund. All the officers of the corps mess together. (See GUARD MESS.) In France, the several grades mess separately; lieutenants and sub-lieutenants forming two tables, captains another, and field-officers of different grades generally eating separately also. Generals and colonels of the French service receive an allowance for table expenses, not sufficient to keep open house, but enough to enable them to entertain guests. In the British navy there are generally three messes, namely, the ward-room mess, the gun-room mess, and the engineers’ mess; in the U. S. navy there are two: the ward-room and steerage messes. Enlisted soldiers and seamen, in the army and navy respectively, mess together in tables comprising a certain number, according to squads or rating; but this has no reference to the technical meaning of messing as applied to officers, and is merely for the purpose of economy of fuel and labor in the cooking of their rations.

=Message.= Word sent; more especially a dispatch signaled or telegraphed.

=Messenia.= A district in the southwest of the Peloponnesus. At an early period after the Doric conquest, it rose to power and opulence. It is chiefly noted for its two wars with Sparta, known as the Messenian Wars, the first of which lasted from 743 to 724 B.C., and the second from 685 to 668 B.C. In both instances the Athenians were defeated, and in consequence, a great part of them emigrated to Sicily, where they took possession of Zancle, which then received the name of Messana, the present Messina (which see).

=Messina.= A city in the northeast of the island of Sicily, situated on a strait called the Faro di Messina, which separates Italy from Calabria. It is 9 miles northwest from Reggio, in Calabria. The town is entirely surrounded with walls and protected by detached forts and a citadel, which stands on the neck of the curved promontory that forms the harbor. It was seized by the Mamertini about 281 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire; was taken by the Saracens about 829. Roger the Norman took it from them by surprise about 1072. It revolted against Charles of Anjou, and was succored by Peter of Aragon, 1282; revolted in favor of Louis XIV of France, 1676; the Spaniards punished it severely, 1678; headquarters of British forces in Sicily prior to 1814; an insurrection took place here which was subdued September 7, 1848. Garibaldi entered Messina after his victory at Malazzo, July 20-21, 1860; the citadel surrendered to Cialdini, March 13, 1861.

=Mestre de Camp Général= (_Fr._). The next officer in rank, in the old French cavalry service, to the colonel-general. This appointment was created under Henry II. in 1552. _Mestre de camp général des dragoons_, an appointment which first took place under Louis XIV. in 1684.

=Metal.= Broken stone, etc., used as a road cover.

=Metal.= In heraldry, the metals in use are gold and silver, known as _or_ and _argent_. The field of the escutcheon and the charges which it bears may be of metal as well as of color. It is a rule of blazon that metal should not be placed on metal, or color on color.

=Metals for Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Metapontum=, or =Metapontium=. A city of Magna Græcia; was situated on the Tarentine Gulf, 14 miles from Heraclea, and 24 from Tarentum. The Metapontines assisted the Athenians in their Sicilian expedition (415 B.C.); they embraced the side of Pyrrhus in his war with the Romans, and after its conclusion fell under the Roman yoke. When Hannibal invaded Italy, the Metapontines after the battle of Cannæ were well disposed to him; but, on account of a garrison of Romans, were unable openly to desert to him till 212 B.C., when the city was occupied by a Carthaginian garrison. When Hannibal was compelled to leave Italy he removed, along with his own troops, the inhabitants of Metapontum; and from that time the city disappears from history.

=Metaurus= (now _Metauro_). A river in Central Italy, where Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, was defeated and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant reinforcements for the latter. The Romans were led by Livius and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother’s camp. This victory saved Rome.

=Meter=, or =Metre=. The French standard of linear measure, intended to be the ten-millionth part of the earth’s quadrant, from the equator to the pole. It is equal to 39.370 British, or 39.369 American inches.

=Methone= (_Modon_). An ancient city of Messenia; was situated on the southwest coast. At the close of the second Messenian war it was given by the victorious Lacedæmonians to the exiled Nauplians, but was restored to its rightful owners by Epaminondas. An unsuccessful attack was made upon Methone by the Athenians in 413 B.C. It was made a free city by the emperor Trajan.

=Métier= (_Fr._). Literally means any calling or business. In a military sense, it is peculiarly applicable to those nations which keep up large standing armies, and make war their principal object and pursuit. Chevalier Folard gives the following definition relative to the question which is often discussed on the subject of war, namely, whether war be a trade or a science. The English call it a profession. Folard, however, distinguishes it in this manner: _La guerre est une métier pour les ignorons, et une science pour les habiles gens_, “war in the apprehension, and under the management of ignorant persons is certainly a mere trade or business, but among able men it becomes an important branch of science.”

=Metric System.= The French system of measures, founded upon the metre. The system is decimal, and includes measures of length, area, volume, and weight.

=Metulum.= The chief town of the Iapydes in Illyricum; was near the frontier of Liburnia, and was situated on two peaks of a steep mountain. Augustus nearly lost his life in reducing this place, the inhabitants of which fought against him with desperate courage.

=Metz= (anc. _Divodurum_). A city and fortress of Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the Moselle. It was the Roman _Divodurum_, or _Meti_, capital of the Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe (whose name it took at a later date), and of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 6th century; but in 985, Otho II. made it a free imperial city, and thereafter it was used by the German emperors as a barrier against France. It was besieged by Charles VII. in 1444, and could only preserve its freedom by the payment of 100,000 crowns. At length Henry II. obtained possession of it in 1552; and although it was besieged by Charles V. with an army of 100,000 men, his efforts were completely baffled by the skill and energy of the Duke of Guise, and by the courage and constancy of the townsmen; so that the French continued in possession of the town till it, along with Toul and Verdun, was formally secured to them by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Franco-German war (1870-71) the emperor Napoleon III. arrived at Metz, and assumed the chief command, July 28, 1870. After the disastrous defeats at Wörth and Forbach, August 6, the whole French army, except the corps of MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay, was concentrated here, August 10, 11, and by delay was hemmed in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the chief command on August 8, and on August 14 he was attacked at Courcelles, a little east of Metz. On August 16, Bazaine advanced from the fortress, but was attacked by the second army, under command of Prince Frederick Charles, at Vionville, and was compelled to retreat to Metz. But on August 17, Bazaine massed his troops for a decisive conflict, and on August 18 he gave battle at Gravelotte (which see), but was compelled to retreat again, and was shut up in the city. Prince Frederick Charles now surrounded the city, and then began one of the greatest sieges of history. After many brilliant sallies Bazaine was compelled to surrender, October 27, on account of starvation and sickness, with an army including 3 marshals, 66 generals, 173,000 men, including the imperial guard, 400 pieces of artillery, 100 mitrailleuses, and 53 eagles and standards; and on October 29 the Germans entered Metz. All the army that surrendered was compelled to go to Germany as prisoners of war. In May, 1871, Metz was ceded to the German empire by the peace of Frankfort, and its fortifications greatly strengthened.

=Meurtrières= (_Fr._), Small loop-holes, sufficiently large to admit the barrel of a rifle or musket, through which soldiers may fire, under cover, against an enemy. They likewise mean the cavities that are made in the walls of a fortified town or place.

=Mexico.= A federal republic of North America, next to the United States. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez in 1521, and remained as a Spanish dependency for 300 years; and after a long struggle with the mother-country, which commenced in 1810, it shook off the Spanish yoke in 1821, and declared its independence. In 1824 the country was declared a federal republic, with a constitution similar to that of the United States, and its independence was acknowledged by Spain in 1836. About this time Texas, which was then the most northeastern of the Mexican states, withdrew from the federal league and became an independent republic. The Mexican general, Santa Anna, was sent to reduce them to subjection, but he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Texans. In 1845, Texas was annexed to the United States and admitted into the Union as a State. This led to a war between Mexico and the United States, by which the former lost all her northern provinces, consisting of Utah, California, and New Mexico, which were ceded to the United States in 1848. From this time the history of Mexico consists, for the most part, of a long series of insurrections, revolutions, and political changes, which followed each other in rapid succession. Santa Anna, who had been driven into exile shortly after his disgrace in Texas, was recalled and made dictator in 1853. He was succeeded in power by Gens. Carera, Alveraz, Comonfort, and Zulagoa. When the last named was made dictator in 1858, Benito Juarez, the Indian statesman, was declared constitutional president by the liberal party; a civil war ensued, anarchy and confusion reigned supreme in the country; but Juarez, taking advantage of the dissensions between Zulagoa and Miramon, the leaders of two opposite sections of the party that was hostile to his government, at last gained the ascendency, and entered the capital as president of the Mexican republic in January, 1861. In the same year, in consequence of the enormities practiced by Juarez and his partisans, and the outrages committed on European merchants resident in the country, the governments of England, France, and Spain formed a triple alliance, and sent an expedition to Mexico to demand satisfaction for the injuries inflicted on the subjects of their respective countries, and to endeavor to bring about a more settled state of affairs. Vera Cruz was occupied by the allied forces, and this event was followed soon after by the convention of Soledad, signed in February, 1862, in which the government of Juarez engaged to comply with the requisitions of the allies. But the French government disapproved of the convention, and although the forces of England and Spain were withdrawn in compliance with its terms, Napoleon III. determined to advance on the capital, with the view of effecting the overthrow of Juarez and placing the government of the country on a settled basis. The French troops were, however, delayed for some months before Puebla, which capitulated on May 18, 1863, and entered Mexico on the 8th of the following month, amid the acclamations of the people, who had become weary of the intestine strife that had so long convulsed the land, and which had been produced by the jealousy and rivalry of the party leaders who had aspired to the direction of the government. This event was followed by the proclamation of the empire and the nomination of Maximilian, the brother of the present emperor of Austria, as the first emperor of Mexico under the new régime. The republican leaders were violently opposed to this measure, and Maximilian by his severity towards them alienated the affections of many of his original supporters. At length, on the withdrawal of the French troops at the demand of the United States, the republicans advanced into Central Mexico. Maximilian with a Mexican force vainly attempted to oppose them, and was captured and shot at Queretaro, June 19, 1867.

=Mézières.= An ancient and well-built town of France, the capital of the department of Ardennes, situated on a peninsula formed by the Meuse. In 1520, the Chevalier Bayard successfully defended this place against 40,000 Spaniards under the Count of Nassau, and in 1815 it held out for two months against the Prussians, but was at length obliged to capitulate.

=Miami Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, of Algonkin stock, who formerly resided in Ohio and Indiana. In the war of 1812, they fought against the United States as allies of the British. In 1846 the majority of the tribe removed to Kansas, on a reservation in which State a remnant still resides.