Chapter XLVIII: Part 48

_Breaching._--Formerly stone projectiles were much used for breaching, but from the want of sufficient hardness in these projectiles, the besiegers were forced to commence battering at the top of the wall where the least resistance was offered, and gradually to lower the shot until the breach reached the wrecks already formed at the base of the wall. Iron projectiles superseded stone, and then more rapid modes of effecting a practicable breach were suggested. The easiest manner of making the cut is to direct the shots upon the same line, and form a series of holes a little greater than a diameter apart, and then to fire a second series of shots, directed at the intervals between the first, and so on, until an opening is made completely through the wall. If the portion of the wall between the vertical cuts should not be overthrown by the pressure of the earth behind, it must be detached by a few volleys of solid shot, fired at its centre.

_Breaching with Rifle-cannon._--The foregoing has reference particularly to breaching masonry with smooth-bored guns. The same principle is applicable to rifled guns, the only difference being that, from their superior penetration and accuracy, the latter are effective at much longer distances. The most destructive projectile against masonry is the elongated percussion shell.

_Effect of Bullets._--From experiments made in Denmark, the following relations were found between the penetration of a bullet in pine and its effects on the body of a living horse, viz.: 1st. When the force of the bullet is sufficient to penetrate 0.31 inch into pine, it is only sufficient to produce a slight contusion of the skin. 2d. When the force of penetration is equal to 0.63 inch, the wound begins to be dangerous, but does not disable. 3d. When the force of penetration is equal to 1.2 inch, the wound is very dangerous. A plate of wrought iron three-sixteenths of an inch thick, is sufficient to resist a rifle-musket bullet at distances varying from 20 to 200 yards. Iron of thickness, however, will not resist bullets of the present day. That a rope mantlet may give full protection against rifle-musket bullets, it should be composed of five layers (three vertical and two horizontal) of 4¹⁄₂-inch rope.

=Projection.= In mathematics, the action of giving a projectile its motion. It is also used to signify a scheme, plan, or delineation.

=Proking-spit.= A large Spanish rapier.

=Prolongation.= An extension of leave of absence, or a continuation of service.

=Prolongation of the Line.= Is effected by parallel movements at the right or left of any given number of men on a front division.

=Prolonge.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Prolonge-hooks.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Promotion.= This word signifies, in military matters, the elevation of an individual to some appointment of greater rank and trust to the one he holds.

=Promulgation.= The act of promulgating; publication; open declaration; as, the promulgation of the sentence of a court-martial.

=Proof.= A term applied to the testing of powder, and also of ordnance, which are always fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, to test their strength and soundness.

=Proof.= Conclusive evidence.

=Proof.= Capable of withstanding; as, bomb-proof, shot-proof.

=Propel.= To drive forward; to urge or press onward by force; to move or cause to move; balls are _propelled_ by the force of gunpowder.

=Proper.= A term which serves to mark out a thing more especially and formally. Thus, the _proper form of a battalion_ is the usual continuity of line given to the formation of a battalion, and which remains unaltered by the wheelings of its divisions; or if altered, is restored by the same operation. _Proper right_, is the right of a battalion, company, or subdivision, when it is drawn up according to its natural formation. _Proper pivot flank_, in column, is that which, when wheeled up to, preserves the division of the line in the natural order, and to their proper front. The other may be called the _reverse_ flank.

=Proper.= In heraldry, a charge borne of its natural color, is said to be _proper_. An object whose color varies at different times and in different examples, as a rose which may be white or red cannot be borne proper.

=Prosecute.= To carry on; to continue; as, to prosecute the war. Also, to accuse of some crime or breach of law, or to pursue for punishment before a legal tribunal; to proceed against judicially.

=Prosecutor.= In courts-martial the judge-advocate is usually the prosecutor; but if an officer prefers a charge, he sometimes appears to sustain the prosecution. No person can appear as prosecutor not subject to the articles of war, except the judge-advocate.--_Hough._

=Proveditor.= One employed to procure supplies for an army; a purveyor.

=Proving-ground.= Ground used for testing powder or ordnance.

=Provision.= Properly to victual; to furnish with provisions.

=Provost.= The temporary prison in which the military police confine prisoners till they are disposed of.

=Provost Cells.= Also called regimental or garrison cells, in the British service are those certified cells under a provost or acting provost-sergeant, in which court-martial prisoners may be imprisoned up to forty-two days.

=Provost-Marshal.= In the army, is an officer appointed to superintend the preservation of order, and to be, as it were, the head of the police of any particular camp, town, or district. He has cognizance of all camp-followers, as well as members of the army. His power is summary, and he can punish an offender, taken _flagrante delicto_, on the spot, according to the articles of war.

=Provost-Sergeant.= Is a sergeant who is charged with the military police of a corps. He is generally given one or two non-commissioned officers as assistants. In the British service he also is charged with the custody of all prisoners in the cells.

=Prowess.= Valor; bravery in the field; military gallantry.

=Prowlers.= Are persons who steal within the lines of a hostile army for the purpose of robbing, killing; or destroying bridges, roads, mails, or other means of communication. Such persons are not entitled to the privileges usually accorded to prisoners of war.

=Prussia.= A kingdom of the new German empire. The people of Prussia first appear in history in the 10th century, under the name of Borussi; from these the country derives its name. Some historians, however, derive the name from _Po_, signifying near, and _Russia_. The Prussians were subjected by Boleslaus of Poland in 1018; they made a successful stand against Boleslaus IV. of Poland in 1161, and for a time maintained a rude and savage kind of independence. The Teutonic Knights were engaged in war for half a century with the people,--winning lands and souls by hard fighting,--until at length, in 1283, they found themselves undisputed masters of the country, having almost exterminated the pagan population. During this period the knights founded many cities and repeopled the country with German colonists. In 1454 the municipal and noble classes, with the co-operation of Poland, rose in open rebellion against the knights, who were forced to cede West Prussia and Ermland to Poland. Albert (or Albrecht) of Brandenburg was acknowledged duke of East Prussia in 1525; his son-in-law, John Sigismund, created elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia in 1608. The reign of John Sigismund’s successor, Georg-Wilhelm (1619-1640), was distracted by the miseries of the Thirty Years’ War, and the country was alternately the prey of Swedish and imperial armies. The electorate was raised by the genius of Frederick William, the great elector, to the rank of a great European power. His successor, Frederick III. (1688-1713), was proclaimed king of Prussia by the title of Frederick I. in 1701. During the reign of Frederick William IV., Prussia co-operated powerfully in putting down the insurrections in Poland and Baden. In the war of the Schleswig-Holstein duchies, the Prussians acted in concert with the disaffected against their sovereign, the king of Denmark, occupying the ducal provinces in the name and on behalf of the diet. A treaty of peace was concluded between Prussia and Denmark, on July 2, 1850. In 1863 the allied Prussian and Austrian armies entered the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and defeated the Danes; the duchies were separated from Denmark. Warm disputes with Austria respecting Schleswig-Holstein arose in the beginning of 1866. The vote of the majority of the diet of the Germanic Confederation supported Austria; Prussia announced her withdrawal from the confederation, and its dissolution; the diet declared itself indissoluble, and continued its functions, June 14, 1866. War was declared by Prussia, June 18, 1866, which ended in the total defeat of Austria and her allies. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague on August 23, 1866. By its articles Austria consented to the breaking up of the Germanic Confederation, and to Prussia’s annexing Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort-on-the-Main, and gave up Holstein and her political influence in North Germany. For further history, see FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.

=Pruth.= A river of Europe, which rises in the Carpathian Mountains. It forms a portion of the boundary-line between Russia and Turkey, and by crossing it, in 1853, the Russians gave rise to the war with Turkey and the subsequent Crimean war.

=Psiloi.= Among the Greeks, were light-armed men who fought with arrows and darts, or stones and slings, but were unfit for close fight. They were in honor and dignity inferior to the heavy-armed soldiers.

=Publish.= To make known. In a garrison orders are published by being read at parade. Orders are also published by circulating written copies.

=Puebla=, or =La Puebla de los Angeles=. Capital of the department of Puebla, in Mexico, 80 miles southeast from the city of Mexico. It was taken by the French on May 17, 1863, after a siege of several weeks’ duration, the Mexican general Ortega, with 18,000 men, surrendering to Gen. Forey. This event threw open the road to Mexico, and was the immediate precursor of the overthrow of the government of Juarez.

=Pueblo Indians= (Sp. _pueblo_, “village”). An interesting class of semi-civilized Indians in New Mexico and Arizona, so called from their remarkable residences, a description of some of which may be found under MOQUIS INDIANS. They are divided into several tribes speaking different languages. Their internal administration is patriarchal, each pueblo or village being ruled by its governor and council of three elders.

=Pulk.= A tribe; a particular body of men. This word is chiefly used in Russia; as, a pulk of Cossacks.

=Pultowa.= See POLTAVA.

=Pultusk.= A town of Poland in the government of Plock, situated on the Narew, 35 miles north-northeast from Warsaw. Here on December 26, 1806, was fought one of the battles of the campaign of Eylau, between the Russians and the French. The field was most obstinately contested, but the victory, which, however, was claimed by both armies, inclined in favor of the French.

=Pummel.= The hilt of a sword, the end of a gun, etc.

=Puncto.= The point in fencing.

=Punic Wars.= The name of three celebrated contests, in which the Romans and Carthaginians were engaged from the year 264 to 146 B.C., and which finally terminated with the destruction of Carthage. It was in the second war, which began in 218, that the Carthaginian commander Hannibal rendered himself so distinguished by his victories over the Romans. The illustrious Scipio was eventually the conqueror of Hannibal and the victor of Carthage. _Punic faith_ is a reproachful term in frequent use, derived from _Punici_, or Carthaginians, because they were considered by the Romans a perfidious race.

=Punishment, Military.= In a military sense, is the execution of a sentence pronounced by a court-martial upon any delinquent. The Romans punished crimes committed by the soldiery with the utmost rigor. On the occurrence of a mutiny, every tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man was sometimes chosen by lot, but generally only the ringleaders were selected for punishment. Deserters and seditious persons were frequently, after being scourged, sold for slaves; and occasionally the offender was made to lose his right hand, or was bled nearly to death. Among the nations of Western Europe, the punishments for military offenses were, till lately, no less severe than they were among the Romans. Besides the infliction of a certain number of lashes with cords, soldiers convicted of theft, marauding, or any other breach of discipline which was not punishable with death, were sentenced to run the gantlope. (See GANTLOPE.) In Russia the knout was extensively used. (See KNOUT.) It is often necessary to punish to maintain discipline, and the rules and articles of war provide ample means of punishment, but not sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judgment. In the French army degrading punishments are illegal, but soldiers may be confined to quarters or deprived of the liberty of leaving the garrison; confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dungeon; required to walk or to perform hard labor; and officers may be subjected to simple or rigorous arrests. Every officer who inflicts a punishment, must account for it to his superior, who approves or disapproves, confirms, augments, or diminishes it. If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he cannot be liberated except upon application to a superior. Any officer who has been subjected to punishment, must, when relieved, make a visit to him who ordered it. The French code has, in a word, been careful to provide for both the security of its citizens and the strength of authority. The punishments established by law or custom for U. S. soldiers by sentence of court-martial, are embodied in the Articles of War. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.) It is regarded as inhuman to punish by solitary confinement, or confinement on bread and water exceeding fourteen days at a time, or for more than eighty-four days in a year, at intervals of fourteen days.

=Punitz.= A town of Prussia in the province of Posen. A battle was fought here in 1706, between the Saxons and the Swedes, in which the latter were victorious.

=Punjab=, or =Five Rivers=. An extensive river of Hindostan, situated chiefly in the province of Lahore, but including Moultan, and comprising the country traversed by the “five great waters,” or rivers, of which the Indus is the most westerly, and the Sutlej the most easterly. This region was traversed by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C.; and again by Tamerlane in 1398. The wars with the Sikhs began here on March 29, 1849, when the Punjab was annexed to the British possessions in India.

=Punkah.= A swinging fan used in the hot districts of India.

=Purchasing.= Any person purchasing from any soldier his arms, uniform, clothing, or any part thereof, may be punished by any civil court having cognizance of the same, by fine in any sum not exceeding $300, or by imprisonment not exceeding one year.--_Act of March 16, 1802._

=Purpure.= In heraldry, the color purple, expressed in engravings by lines in bend sinister. It is of unfrequent occurrence in British heraldry.

=Pursuit.= The act of following or going after; a following with haste, either for sport or hostility; as, the pursuit of an enemy.

=Pursuivant.= The third and lowest order of heraldic officers. The office was instituted as a novitiate, or state of probation, through which the offices of herald and king-at-arms were ordinarily to be attained, though it has been held that a herald or king-at-arms may be made _per saltum_. For the present titles of the several British pursuivants, see HERALD. In ancient times any great nobleman might institute his own pursuivant with his own hands and by his single authority. The dukes of Norfolk had a pursuivant called _Blanch-lyon_, from the white lion in their arms; the pursuivant of the dukes of Northumberland was styled _Espérance_ from the Percy motto, and Richard Nevil, earl of Salisbury, had a pursuivant called _Egle vert_.

=Purveyor.= A person employed to make purchases, or to provide food, medicines, and necessaries for the sick.

=Push.= To press against with force; to drive or impel by pressure; as, to push back an enemy.

=Push.= An assault or attack; a forcible onset; a vigorous effort.

=Put to the Sword, To.= To kill with the sword; to slay.

=Puteoli= (the modern _Puzzuoli_). A celebrated seaport town of Campania, was situated on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Baiæ. A colony from the neighboring Greek city of Cumæ founded it in 521 B.C., under the name of Dicæarchia. In the second Punic war the Romans fortified it, and changed its name into that of Puteoli. It was destroyed by Alaric in 410, by Genseric in 455, and also by Totila in 545, but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. In the 9th century the Lombard dukes of Benevento reduced it.

=Putteeala.= A town of British India, capital of a dependent native state of the same name, in Sirhind, on the Kosilla, 1023 miles northwest of Calcutta. It was taken possession of by the British in 1809, but the rajah retains the sovereignty, on condition of furnishing a certain number of troops in case of war to the British government.

=Puzzuoli=, or =Pozzuoli=. See PUTEOLI.

=Pydna= (now _Kitron_). A town of Macedonia, in the district Pieria, was situated at a small distance west of the Thermaic Gulf, on which it had a harbor. It was originally a Greek colony, but was subdued by the Macedonian kings, from whom, however, it frequently revolted. Toward the end of the Peloponnesian war it was taken after a long siege by Archelaus. It again revolted from the Macedonians, and was subdued by Philip, who enlarged and fortified the place. It was here that Olympias sustained a long siege against Cassander, 317-16 B.C. It is especially memorable on account of the victory gained under its walls by Æmilius Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 168 B.C.

=Pylos=, or =Pilus=. In the southwest of Messenia, was situated at the foot of Mount Ægaleos on a promontory at the northern entrance of the basin, now called the Bay of Navarino, the largest and safest harbor of Greece. In the second Messenian war the inhabitants of Pylos offered a long and brave resistance to the Spartans; but after the capture of Ira, they were obliged to quit their native country with the rest of the Messenians. It again became memorable in the Peloponnesian war, when the Athenians under Demosthenes built a fort on the promontory Coryphasium, a little south of the ancient city, and just within the northern entrance of the harbor (425 B.C.). The attempts of the Spartans to dislodge the Athenians proved unavailing; and the capture by Cleon of the Spartans, who had landed in the island of Sphacteria, was one of the most important events in the whole war.

=Pyramids, Battle of the.= So called from having taken place close to the large pyramids in the plain of Mummies, at Waardam, within a few miles of Grand Cairo. A previous engagement had been fought on July 15, 1799, between the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and the French army, commanded by Bonaparte in person. On July 21, 1799, the second battle, called the “battle of the Pyramids,” was fought, when Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and thus subdued Lower Egypt.

=Pyrenees, Battle of the.= The Pyrenees are a chain of mountains which separate Spain from France, and are nearly 75 miles broad. Towards the close of the Peninsular war, in 1813, these mountains were the scene of many severe conflicts between the British troops under the Duke of Wellington and the French forces under Marshal Soult. After the defeat of Joseph Bonaparte at Vittoria, Soult took the command of the French armies as _lieutenant de l’empereur_; and after addressing the beaten soldiery in language that proved fatally unprophetic, he hastened to relieve the beleaguered fortresses, and the result was “the battles of the Pyrenees.” Pampeluna, Roncesvalles, Maya, Orthez, etc., were the seats of the principal struggles. For nine days the armies had been in each other’s presence; and in severe operations and desperate fighting these days were unexampled. The allied casualties exceeded 7000 men,--and those of the French might be safely set down at 15,000.

=Pyrgi.= Movable towers, used by the Greeks in scaling the walls of besieged towns. They were driven forward upon wheels, and were divided into different stories, capable of carrying a great number of soldiers and military engines.

=Pyroboli.= Fireballs, used both by the Greeks and Romans. They seem to have been the very same as the malleoli.

=Pyrometer.= An instrument for determining the pressure of fired gunpowder by the registered compression of oil,--invented by Dr. W. E. Woodbridge, and used by him and Maj. Mordecai (U. S. Ordnance Department) in experiments at Washington Arsenal, 1854-55. It consists of a small hollow steel cylinder filled with oil and a piston which is pressed inwards upon the oil by the powder gases. The piston has a small stem projecting inwards, which is guided by a tube in the bottom of the cylinder. A steel point presses against the stem and scratches a line upon it, when the piston is moved. The pyrometer is received by a hollow screw-plug placed in the side of the gun at the point where the pressure is to be taken. This instrument is probably the most accurate and delicate one ever invented for the purpose. In the experiments it recorded certain vibrations in the column of gases, which have been generally neglected by theorists on the subject, but which are of great importance to the life of the gun. It seems unfortunate that an instrument which promised so much should have been allowed to fall into disuse, if not almost oblivion.

=Pyrotechny.= Is the art of preparing ammunition and fireworks for military and ornamental purposes. (See AMMUNITION.) Military fireworks comprise preparations for the service of _cannon ammunition_, and for _signal_, _light_, _incendiary_, and _defensive_ and _offensive_ purposes. The term composition is applied to all mechanical mixtures which, by combustion, produce the effects sought to be attained in pyrotechny. The preparations for the service of ammunition are _slow-match_, _quick-match_, _port-fires_, _friction-tubes_, and _fuzes_.

_Slow-match_ is used to preserve fire. It may be made of hemp or cotton rope; if made of hemp, the rope is saturated with acetate of lead, or the lye of wood-ashes; if made of cotton, it is only necessary that the strands be well twisted. Slow-match burns from 4 to 5 inches in an hour.

_Quick-match_ is made of cotton-yarn (candle-wick) saturated with a composition of mealed powder and gummed spirits; after saturation, the yarn is wound on a reel, sprinkled (dredged) with mealed powder and left to dry. It is used to communicate fire, and burns at the rate of one yard in thirteen seconds. The rate of burning may be much increased by inclosing it in a thin paper tube called a _leader_.

_Port-fire_ is a paper case containing a composition, the flame of which is capable of quickly igniting primers, quick-match, etc. A port-fire is about 22 inches long, and burns with an intense flame for ten minutes.

_Friction-tube_ is at present the principal preparation for firing cannon; it has the advantage of portability and certainty of fire. It is composed of two brass tubes soldered at right angles. The upper, or short tube contains a charge of friction-powder, and the _roughed_ extremity of a wire loop, the long tube is filled with rifle-powder, and is inserted in the vent of the piece. When the extremity of the loop is violently pulled by means of a lanyard, through its hole in the long tube, sufficient heat is generated to ignite the friction-powder which surrounds it, and this communicates with the grained powder in the long tube. The charge of grained powder has sufficient force to pass through the longest vent, and penetrate several thicknesses of cartridge-cloth.

_Fuzes._--See FUZE.

_Fireworks for Signals._--The preparations for signals are _rockets_ and _blue-lights_.

_Signal-Rockets._--The principal parts of a signal-rocket are the _case_, the _composition_, the _pot_, the _decorations_, and the _stick_. The _case_ is made by rolling stout paper around a former. The vent is formed by choking one end of the case.

_Composition._--A variety of compositions are employed for signal-rockets; a mixture of nitre 12 parts, sulphur 2 parts, charcoal 2 parts, is frequently used. The _pot_ is formed of a paper cylinder, slipped over and pasted to the top of the case; it is surmounted with a paper cone, filled with tow. The object of the pot is to contain the decorations which are scattered through the air by the explosion which takes place when the rocket reaches the summit of its trajectory; the explosion is produced by a small charge of mealed powder. The _decorations_ of rockets are _stars_, _serpents_, _marrons_, _gold rain_, _rain of fire_, etc.

_Stars._--The compositions for stars are, for _white_: nitre 7 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 2 parts; for _red_: chlorate of potassa 7 parts, sulphur 4 parts, lampblack 1 part, nitrate of strontia 12 parts; _blue_: chlorate of potassa 3 parts, sulphur 1 part, ammoniacal sulphate of copper 1 part; _yellow_: chlorate of potassa 4 parts, sulphur 2 parts, sulphate of strontia 1 part, bicarbonate of soda 1 part.

_Serpents._--The case of a serpent is similar to that of a rocket; the composition is driven in, and the top is closed with moist plaster of Paris. The composition is nitre 3 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 16 parts, charcoal ¹⁄₂ part.

_Marrons._--Marrons are small paper shells, or cubes, filled with grained powder, and primed with a short piece of quick-match.

_Stick._--The stick is a tapering piece of pine, about nine times the length of the case.

_Blue Light._--A very brilliant bluish light may be made of the following ingredients, viz.: nitre 14 parts, sulphur 3.7 parts, realgar 1 part, mealed powder 1 part; the brilliancy depends on the purity and thorough incorporation of the ingredients.

_Incendiary Fireworks._--Incendiary preparations are _fire-stone_, _carcasses_, _incendiary-match_, and _hot shot_.

_Fire-stone_ is a composition that burns slowly, but intensely; it is placed in a shell, along with the bursting charge, for the purpose of setting fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is composed of nitre 10 parts, sulphur 4 parts, antimony 1 part, rosin 3 parts.

_Carcass._--A common shell may be loaded as a carcass by placing the bursting charge at the bottom of the cavity, and covering it with carcass composition, driven in until the shell is nearly full, and then inserting four or five strands of quick-match. This projectile, after burning as a carcass, explodes as a shell. See CARCASS.

_Incendiary-match._--Is made by boiling slow-match in a saturated solution of nitre, drying it, cutting it into pieces, and plunging it into melted fire-stone. It is principally used in loaded shells.

_Hot Shot._--See HOT SHOT.

_Fireworks for Light._--The preparations for producing light are _fire-balls_, _light-balls_, _tarred-links_, _pitched-fascines_, and _torches_.

_Fire-ball._--A fire-ball is an oval-shaped canvas sack filled with combustible composition. It is intended to be thrown from a mortar to light up the works of an enemy, and is loaded with a shell to prevent it from being approached and extinguished. The composition for a fire-ball consists of nitre 8 parts, sulphur 2 parts, antimony 1 part. The bottom of the sack is protected from the force of the charge by an iron cup called a culob, and the whole is covered and strengthened with a net-work of spun-yarn or wire, and then overlaid with a composition of pitch, rosin, etc.

_Light-ball._--These are made in the same manner as fire-balls, the shell being omitted.

_Tarred-links._--Tarred links are used for lighting up a rampart, defile, etc., or for incendiary purposes. They consist of coils of soft rope placed on top of each other, and loosely tied together; they are immersed in a composition of 20 parts of pitch, and one of tallow; when dry, they are plunged into a composition of equal parts of pitch and rosin, and rolled in tow or sawdust.

_Pitched-fascines._--Fagots of vine twigs or other very combustible wood, about 20 inches long and 4 inches in diameter, tied in three places with iron wire. They may be treated in the same manner and used for the same purposes as tarred-links.

_Torches._--A torch is a ball of rope impregnated with an inflammable composition, and is fastened to the end of a stick, which is carried in the hand.

_Offensive and Defensive Fireworks._--The principal preparations of this class, employed in modern warfare, are _bags of powder_ and _light-barrels_.

_Bags of Powder._--Bags or cases of powder may be used to blow down gates, stockades, or form breaches in thin walls. The petard was formerly employed for these purposes, but it is now generally thrown aside. The effect of the explosion may be much increased by making three sides of the bag of leather, and the fourth of canvas, which should rest against the object.

_Light-barrel._--A light barrel is a common powder barrel pierced with numerous holes, and filled with shavings that have been soaked in a composition of pitch and rosin; it serves to light up a breach, or the bottom of a ditch.

_Fireworks._--Ornamental fireworks are divided into fixed pieces, movable pieces, decorative pieces, and preparations for communicating fire from one part of a piece to another. The different effects are produced by modifying the proportions of the ingredients of the burning composition, so as to quicken or retard combustion, or by introducing substances that give color and brilliancy to the flame. The fixed pieces are _lances_, _petards_, _gerbes_, _flames_, etc.

_Lances._--These are small paper tubes filled with a composition which emits a brilliant light in burning. See LANCE A FEU.

_Petard._--Petards are small paper cartridges filled with powder.

_Gerbe._--Gerbes are strong paper tubes or cases filled with a burning composition. The ends are tamped with moist plaster of Paris or clay. The movable pieces are _sky-rockets_, _tourbillions_, _Saxons_, _jets_, _Roman candles_, _paper shells_, etc.

_Sky-rocket._--Sky-rockets are the same as the signal-rockets before described, except that the composition is arranged to give out a more brilliant train of fire. Composition: 122 parts mealed powder, 80 parts nitre, 40 parts sulphur, and 40 parts cast-iron filings.

_Tourbillion._--The tourbillion is a case filled with sky-rocket composition, and which moves with an upward spiral motion.

_Saxon._--The Saxon is similar to the tourbillion; it has the appearance of a revolving sun.

_Jets._--Jets are rocket-cases filled with a burning composition; they are attached to the circumference of a wheel, or the end of a movable arm, to set it in motion.

_Roman candles._--A Roman candle is a strong paper tube containing stars, which are successively thrown out by a small charge of powder placed under each star. A slow-burning composition is placed over each star to prevent its taking fire at once.

_Paper Shell._--This piece is a paper shell filled with decorative pieces, and fired from a common mortar. It contains a small bursting charge of powder, and has a fuze regulated to ignite it when the shell reaches the summit of its trajectory.

_Decorative Pieces._--Decorative pieces are _stars_, _serpents_, _marrons_, etc., described under the head of ROCKETS.

_Preparations for communicating fire_ from one piece to another are _quick-match_, _leaders, ort-fires_, and _mortar-fuzes_. The leader is a thin paper tube containing a strand of quick-match. See QUICK-MATCH, etc.

=Pyroxyline=, or =Pyroxyle=. Gun-cotton (which see).

=Pyrrhic Dance.= The most famous of all the war-dances of antiquity; is said to have received its name from Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and was a Doric invention. According to Plato, it aimed to represent the nimble motions of a warrior either avoiding missiles and blows, or assaulting the enemy; and in the Doric states it was as much a piece of military training as an amusement. Elsewhere in Greece, it was purely a mimetic dance, in which the parts were sometimes represented by women. It formed part of the public entertainments at the Panathenaic festivals. Julius Cæsar introduced it at Rome, where it became a great favorite.

Q.

=Quadi.= A powerful and warlike German tribe, belonging to the Suevic race, whose territories were situated between the Danube, the Bohemian mountains, and the river Marus. They make their first appearance in history in the 1st century as formidable foes of the Romans. Their bodies were covered with mail, consisting of plates of horn; their weapons were long spears; and each man had three swift horses for his use in battle. Thus equipped, they commenced the practice of making rapid and sweeping raids into Pannonia, Mœsia, and other neighboring provinces. Sometimes they routed the imperial forces which tried to check their inroads. At all times they returned home with their predatory spirit unbroken. No reverses in fact, however frequent, could daunt those wild border troopers of the Danube. The emperors Marcus Aurelius, Probus, Carus, and Valentinian I., defeated them without subduing or crushing them. The last glimpse that we get of them in history shows them in company with other barbaric hordes, in 407, overrunning Gaul, and reveling in boundless havoc and slaughter.

=Quadrant.= An instrument for measuring altitudes, variously constructed and mounted for different specific uses in astronomy, surveying, gunnery, etc., consisting commonly of a graduated arc of 90°, with an index or vernier, and either plain or telescopic sights, together with a plumb-line or spirit-level for fixing the vertical or horizontal direction.

=Quadrant, Gunner’s.= See GUNNER’S QUADRANT.

=Quadrat.= Or to quadrat a gun, is to see it duly placed on its carriage, and that the wheels be of an equal height.

=Quadriga.= In antiquity, a car or chariot, drawn by four horses harnessed abreast. This chariot was used in battle and in triumphal processions.

=Quadrilateral.= In military language, an expression designating a combination of four fortresses, not necessarily connected together, but mutually supporting each other; and from the fact that if one be attacked, the garrisons of the others, unless carefully observed, will harass the besiegers, rendering it necessary that a very large army should be employed to turn the combined position. As a remarkable instance, and a very powerful one, may be cited the celebrated quadrilateral in Venetia, comprising the four strong posts of Mantua, Verona, Peschiera, and Legnago. These form a sort of outwork to the bastion which the southern mountains of the Tyrol constitute, and divide the north plain of the Po into two sections by a most powerful barrier. Napoleon III., in 1859, even after the victories of Magenta and Solferino, hesitated to attack this quadrilateral.

=Quadrille= (_Fr._). Small parties of horse richly caparisoned, etc., in tournaments and at public festivals. The quadrilles were distinguished from one another by the shape or color of the coats which the riders wore.

=Quadruple Alliance.= Between Great Britain, France, and the emperor of Germany (signed at London, July 22, 1718); it obtained its name on the accession of the states of Holland, February 8, 1719. It guaranteed the succession of the reigning families of Great Britain and France, settled the partition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to war.

=Quadruple Treaty.= Concluded in London, April 22, 1834, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, which guaranteed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., the young queen of Spain.

=Quaker-guns= (Fr. _passe-volans_). Were wooden pieces of ordnance which were made to resemble real artillery. They subsequently were used in other countries, and placed in the embrasures of forts, in order to deceive an enemy.

=Quarrel=, or =Quarry=. An arrow with a square head, for a cross-bow, was so called.

=Quarrels.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 24.

=Quarte.= In tactics, a word of command given in the bayonet exercise; as, quarte parry, to thrust in quarte.

=Quarter.= A fourth part of anything.

=Quarter.= To furnish with shelter or entertainment; to supply with the means of living for a time; especially to furnish shelter to; as, to quarter soldiers.

=Quarter.= In heraldry, one of the divisions of a shield, when it is divided into four portions by horizontal and perpendicular lines meeting in the fesse point; especially either of the two divisions thus made. Also, to bear as an appendage to the hereditary arms. “The coat of Beauchamp ... quartered by the Earl of Hertford.”

=Quarter.= In war, signifies the sparing of the life of a vanquished enemy, which by the laws of war is forfeit to the victor. The expression seems to be derived from the use of the word “quarter” to designate the lodging of the particular warrior; to _give quarter_ to a prisoner being to send him to his captor’s quarter for liberation, ransom, or slavery. The refusal of quarter is a terrible aggravation of the horrors of war, and is only at all justifiable towards an enemy who has been guilty of atrocious cruelty himself, or of some flagrant breach of faith.

=Quarter Arms, To.= In heraldry, to place the arms of other families in the compartments of a shield, which is divided into four quarters, the family arms being placed in the first quarter. When more than three other arms are to be quartered with the family arms, it is usual to divide the shield into a suitable number of compartments; and still the arms are said to be _quartered_.

=Quarter Guard.= The guard which is stationed in front of the centre of the camp of each corps, at about 80 paces from it.

=Quarter of Assembly.= The place where the troops meet to march from in a body, and is the same as the place of rendezvous.

=Quarter Upon, To.= Is to oblige persons to receive soldiers, etc., into their dwelling-houses, and to provide for them. In the United States no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

=Quarter-block.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Quartering.= In heraldry, the division of a shield containing many coats. See QUARTER.

=Quarterly.= In heraldry, in quarters or quarterings; as, to bear arms quarterly.

=Quartermaster.= A regimental staff-officer, of the relative rank of lieutenant, whose duty is to look after the assignment of quarters, the provision of clothing, forage, fuel, and all other quartermaster’s supplies; and when on the march he sees to the marking out of the camp. He is appointed by the colonel of the regiment, subject to the approval of the Secretary of War. He vacates his staff position when promoted to the rank of captain, or at the discretion of the colonel. In the British service the regimental quartermaster rises, with scarcely any exception, from the ranks. He has no further promotion to look forward to; but after thirty years’ service in all--including ten as an officer--he may retire with the honorary rank of captain.

=Quartermaster-General.= A staff-officer in the U. S. army, who has the rank of brigadier-general, and is at the head of the quartermaster’s department.

=Quartermaster’s Department.= This department provides the quarters and transportation of the army, except that, when practicable, wagons and their equipment are provided by the ordnance department; storage and transportation for all army supplies; army clothing; camp and garrison equipage; cavalry and artillery horses; fuel, forage, straw, and stationery. The incidental expenses of the army (also paid through the quartermaster’s department) include per diem to extra-duty men; of the pursuit and apprehension of deserters; of the burials of officers and soldiers; of hired escorts; of expresses, interpreters, spies, and guides; medicines for horses; and of supplying posts with water; and, generally, the proper and authorized expenses for the movements and operations of an army not expressly assigned to any other department. The present organization of the quartermaster’s department consists of 1 quartermaster-general, with the rank of brigadier-general; 3 assistant quartermaster-generals, with the rank of colonels; 8 deputy quartermaster-generals, with the rank of lieutenant-colonels; 14 quartermasters, with the rank of majors; and 30 assistant quartermasters, with the rank of captains.

=Quartermaster-Sergeant.= A non-commissioned officer who assists the quartermaster. He ranks among the regimental non-commissioned staff, and is appointed by the colonel of a regiment upon the recommendation of the quartermaster.

=Quarters.= In military affairs, are, generally, the positions assigned to persons or bodies of men. In a more special sense, the quarters in the army are the places of lodging assigned to officers or men when not actually on duty.

=Quarters.= The encampment on one of the principal passages round a place besieged, to prevent relief and intercept convoys.

=Quarters, Choice of.= In the U. S. service, when officers arrive in a garrison they shall have choice of quarters according to rank; but the commanding officer may direct the officers to be stationed near their troops. The commanding officer of a post cannot be displaced by his senior who does not command, though assigned to the same post. An officer who has made his choice of quarters cannot again displace a junior, unless himself displaced by a senior.

=Quarters, Intrenched.= A place fortified with a ditch and parapet to secure a body of troops.

=Quarters of Refreshment.= The place where the troops that have been much harassed are put to recover themselves, during some part of the campaign.

=Quarters, Out of.= Beyond the prescribed limits. For punishment of soldiers sleeping out of quarters, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 31.

=Quarter-sights.= In gunnery, are divisions marked on the upper quarters of the base-ring, commencing where it would be intersected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent to the upper surface of the trunnions. These sights are used for giving elevations up to three degrees; but especially for pointing a piece at a less elevation than the natural angle of sight. Quarter-sights are not used in the U. S. service.

=Quarter-staff.= Formerly a favorite weapon with the English for hand-to-hand encounters; was a stout pole of heavy wood, about 6¹⁄₂ feet long, shod with iron on both ends. It was grasped in the middle by one hand, and the attack was made by giving it a rapid circular motion, which brought the loaded ends on the adversary at unexpected points.

=Quasi Officers.= See SURGEONS, ACTING-ASSISTANT.

=Quatre Bras.= See WATERLOO.

=Quatrefoil.= A heraldic bearing meant to represent a flower with four leaves. It is not represented with a stalk unless blazoned as _slipped_, in which case the stalk joins the lower leaf.

=Quebec.= The capital of the province of Quebec, formerly Canada East, is situated on a steep promontory at the junction of the rivers St. Lawrence and St. Charles, and its citadel is the most impregnable fortress on the continent of America. The site of Quebec, originally occupied by an Indian village named Stadacona, was discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1535; but the city was founded by Champlain in 1608. It was taken from the French by the English in 1626, restored in 1632, and fortified in 1690. It remained in the possession of the French till 1759, when in consequence of the victory of Wolfe, it was surrendered to the British, and finally confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1763. Quebec was attacked by the American republicans in 1775, but the siege was raised in the following year. Since then its capture has not been attempted.

=Queen Anne’s Pocket-piece.= An ancient 18-pounder cannon at Dover, England. See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

=Queen’s Color.= In the British service, the one which is carried on the right of the two colors of a battalion of infantry. It is, in the line, the great union or union-jack, with the imperial crown in the centre and the number of the regiment in gold Roman characters below the crown. In the Guards the queen’s color is crimson, with various devices on it.

=Queen’s County.= An inland county of the province of Leinster, Ireland. Queen’s County anciently formed part of the districts of Leix and Ossory; and after the English invasion, on the submission of the chief O’More, the territory retained a qualified independence. Under Edward II., the O’Mores became so powerful, that for a long series of years an unceasing contest was maintained by them with the English, with various alternations of success. In the reign of Edward VI., Bellingham, the lord-deputy, succeeded in re-annexing the territory of the O’Mores to the Pale; and in Mary’s reign it was reduced to a shire.

=Queenstown.= A town of Upper Canada. It was taken by the U. S. troops October 13, 1812; but was retaken by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, on the same day. Queenstown suffered severely in this war.

=Quell.= To crush; to subdue; to put down; to reduce; as, the military were called out to quell the riot.

=Quentin, Saint-.= See SAINT-QUENTIN.

=Queretaro.= An important town of Mexico, capital of a state of the same name, situated on a hilly plateau, 110 miles northwest of the city of Mexico. The peace between Mexico and the United States was ratified here by the Mexican congress in 1848. The town was besieged and taken (through the treachery of Lopez) by the Liberal general Escobedo, May 15, 1867. The emperor Maximilian, and his generals Miramon and Mejia, were taken prisoners, and after trial, were shot on June 19 following.

=Quesnoy.= A fortified town of France, in the department of Nord. It was taken by the Austrians, September 11, 1793, but was recovered by the French, August 16, 1794. It surrendered to Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, June 29, 1815, after the battle of Waterloo.

=Queue.= A tail-like twist of hair formerly worn at the back of the head by soldiers.

=Queues d’Hironde= (_Fr._). In fortification, lines composed of projecting tenailles, or works, which, from the facility with which an enemy can enfilade their long branches, are considered extremely defective, and consequently are seldom employed.

=Quiberon.= A town of France, in the department of Morbihan, situated on a long and narrow peninsula of the same name, which, with some islands, forms one of the largest bays in Europe, 20 miles southwest from Vannes. A body of French emigrant royalists, under D’Hervilly and Puisaye, landed here from an English fleet, on June 27, 1795, and endeavored to rouse the people of Brittany and La Vendée against the Convention, but were defeated, in July, and driven into the sea by Gen. Hoche. A large number of prisoners taken were shot, by order of the Convention. During the war of the Austrian Succession, an English force attempted a landing here (1746), but was repulsed.

=Qui Vive? Qui va La? Qui est La?= (_Fr._) Literally means, Who is alive? Who goes there? and Who is there? These terms are used by the French sentinels when they challenge, and are equivalent to the English challenge, Who comes there?

=Quick Time.= In tactics, the length of the direct step in quick time is 28 inches, measured from heel to heel; the cadence is at the rate of 110 steps per minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour.

=Quick-match.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Quickstep.= A lively, spirited march generally played by military bands.

=Quiloa=, or =Keelwa=. A seaport town of Zanguebar, on the east coast of Africa, 225 miles north of Mozambique. It was taken and burned by the Portuguese, in 1505, but abandoned by them soon after.

=Quincunx.= Forming a body of men checkerwise.

=Quintain=, or =Quintin=. An instrument used in the ancient practice of tilting. It consisted of an upright post, on the top of which a cross post turned upon a pivot; at one end of the cross post was a broad board, and at the other a bag of sand. The practice was to ride against the board with a lance, at such speed as to pass by before the sand-bag could strike the tilter on the back.

=Quinte.= The fifth guard in fencing.

=Quirites.= In ancient Rome the citizens were so called as distinguished from the soldiery.

=Quischens.= The old term for _cuisses_, the pieces of armor which protected the thighs.

=Quit.= To leave; to abandon. _To quit your post or ranks_, is to retire, without having received any previous order for that purpose, from a station intrusted to your care, or a position in which you may be. For punishment inflicted upon persons quitting their posts, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 40.

=Quiver.= A case or sheath for arrows.

=Quoin.= In gunnery, is a wedge used to lay under the breech of a gun to elevate or depress it.

=Quota.= A proportional part or share; or the share, part, or proportion assigned to each. “Quota of troops and money.”

R.

=Raab=, or =Nagy-Gyor=. A town of Hungary, 67 miles west-northwest of Buda. A battle was fought under its walls in June, 1809, in which Napoleon totally defeated the disorderly force of the Hungarian nobles.

=Rabinet.= A small piece of ordnance formerly in use. It weighed but 300 pounds, and fired a small ball of 1³⁄₈ inch diameter; with a very limited range.

=Rachat des Cloches= (_Fr._). Redemption of bells. Formerly in France when a fortified place was taken, the bells became the property of the master-general of artillery, which were usually redeemed by the inhabitants at a certain price; it was necessary that the place should be attacked by artillery in order to secure this right over the bells.

=Rack, Forage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, BATTERY-WAGON.

=Rack-stick and Lashing.= Consist of a piece of two-inch rope, about 6 feet long, fastened to a picket about 15 inches long, having a hole in its head to receive the rope. Rack lashings are used for securing the planks of a gun or mortar platform, between the ribbons and the sleepers.

=Radius.= In fortification, a term applied to a line drawn from the centre of the polygon to the extremity of the exterior side. There are the _exterior_, the _interior_, and the _right radii_.

=Radstadt.= See RASTADT.

=Raft.= A species of floating bridge for the passage of rivers, on which the soldiers and light artillery may be safely conveyed.

=Raft of Casks.= This raft may be constructed by forming a frame of timber to contain the casks.

The frame consists of four longitudinal pieces halved into four transoms. The long pieces must be at least 20 feet long, and their distance apart be a little less than the head diameter of the casks. The under edges are beveled so as to give them a good bearing on the casks.

In default of square timber, poles may be used in the construction of the frame. The string-pieces and transoms may be spiked or lashed at their points of junction.

The four exterior casks in the raft should be lashed to the frame, otherwise they may be carried off by the current when the raft lurches. For other kinds of rafts, see PONTONS.

=Raft, Prairie.= See PONTONS.

=Rafts, Timber.= Employ the largest and longest timber, giving at least 35 feet length to the raft. Shorter than this it will not have sufficient stability, but will be subject to dangerous oscillations, especially in a rapid stream. Squaring the timber will be worse than useless. Any irregularities, such as branches and knots, should be trimmed off. The raft must be built in the water. Select a place where there is little current, and where the bank slopes gently to the water.

The timber is then arranged in the position it is to have in the raft,--the butts alternately up and down the stream,--the upstream ends forming a right angle, salient up-stream.

Suppose the case of a raft to be composed of 20 logs, 47 feet long, and averaging 12 inches in diameter.

The first log is brought alongside the shore, and the end of a plank or small trunk of a tree is spiked to it, about 3 feet from each end; it is pushed off a little, and a second log is brought up, under the transoms and in close contact with the first.

The second log is spiked like the first, and so on for each of the remaining logs; care being taken to alternate the butts, placing the whistle ends up-stream with the bevel underneath, and to spike the transoms perpendicular to the logs. When the current of the river in which the raft is to be used is very gentle, the up-stream ends may be on a line parallel to the transom; but if rapid, they should form a right-angle salient upstream, the vertex being in the middle log.

When the bank is too steep to admit of this construction, the trees may be floated into their proper positions, lashed together, and the transoms spiked on; if the logs are nearly of the same size, the centre of gravity will be near the centre of the raft.

Two additional transoms are spiked at equal distances from the centre of gravity of the raft, and at a distance apart equal to the width of the roadway or platform.

The transoms should be about 8 inches wide by 6 inches thick, and should have a bearing on all the logs forming the raft. When a platform is to be constructed on the raft, intermediate transoms are laid, and at a distance apart depending on the strength of the planking. The size of the platform must be regulated by the buoyant power of the raft. A single course of logs will not have sufficient power to sustain troops enough to cover its whole surface. When the raft is to be used in a bridge the two intermediate transoms are separated by a distance a little less than the length of the chess, and placed at equal distances from a point somewhat astern of the centre of gravity of the raft, in order to correct the downward action of the cable on the bow.

For use in a bridge, a raft should be able to sustain at least 15,000 pounds. The same expedients are employed for the anchorage of rafts as boats.