Chapter XI: Part 11

=Clontarf.= A place near Dublin, Ireland, the site of a battle fought on Good Friday, April 23, 1014, between the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Brian Boroihme, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the invaders, after a long and bloody engagement. Brian was wounded, and soon afterwards died. His son Murchard also fell, with many of the nobility; 11,000 Danes are said to have perished in the battle.

=Close Column.= A column of troops in which the subdivisions are at less than full distance,--that is, less than the length of one of the subdivisions.

=Clostercamp.= A village of Rhenish Prussia. Here the French gained a victory on October 15-16, 1760.

=Closterseven= (Hanover), =Convention of=. Was entered into September 8, 1757, between the Duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., and the Duke of Richelieu, commander of the French armies. By its humiliating stipulations, 38,000 Hanoverians laid down their arms, and were dispersed. The duke immediately afterwards resigned all his military commands, and the convention was soon broken by both parties.

=Clothing.= The President of the United States is authorized to prescribe the kind and quality of clothing to be issued annually to the troops of the United States. The manner of issuing and accounting for clothing shall be established by general regulations of the War Department. The clothing of the British army is determined by a permanent board, composed of the commander-in-chief and a certain number of general officers, who act under the authority of the sovereign.

=Club, To.= To throw into confusion, to deform through ignorance or inadvertence. To _club a battalion_, to throw it into confusion. This happens through a temporary inability in the commanding officer to restore any given body of men to their natural front in line or column, after some manœuvre has been performed.

=Coa.= A river in Portugal, province of Beira. The spur which separates the Coa from the Agueda incloses the plateau of Fuentes d’Onore, famous for the battle of 1811, which was fought by Masséna with the English. See FUENTES D’ONORE.

=Coat-armor.= Coats of arms; armorial ensigns.

=Coat of Arms.= A habit formerly worn by knights over their armor. It was a short-sleeved coat or tunic reaching to the waist, and embroidered with their armorial ensigns and various devices. Any representation of the armorial devices upon such a habit; an armorial device.

=Coat of Mail.= A piece of armor covering the upper portion of the body, consisting of a net-work of iron rings.

=Coblentz.= A fortified town of Rhenish Prussia, situated at the conflux of the Rhine and Moselle, opposite the great Prussian fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. In 1794 this place was taken by Napoleon I., and made the capital of the department of the Rhine and Moselle.

=Cocherel.= Near Evreux, Northwest France. Here Bertrand and Du Guesclin defeated the king of Navarre, and took prisoner the Captal de Buch, May 16, 1364.

=Cochin.= A city of Hindostan, presidency of Madras. It was held by the Portuguese in 1503; by the Dutch in 1663; was taken by the British in 1796, and ceded to them in 1814.

=Cockade= (Fr. _cocarde_). The word signified originally a cocked-hat, or a hat with the broad flap looped up on one side, and then applied to the knot of ribbon with which the loop is ornamented. The word is now, however, restricted to signify an appendage worn on the hat of military and naval officers.

=Cock-feather.= In archery, the feather which stood up on the arrow, when it was rightly placed upon the string, perpendicularly upon the cock or notch.

=Code.= A compilation or collection of laws made by public authority, as the _Code Napoléon_.

=Code.= A list of signal symbols. See SIGNALING.

=Codogno.= A town of Italy, in the province of Milan, between the Adda and the Po. Here the Austrians were defeated by the Spaniards in 1746, and by the French in 1796.

=Coehorn.= So named from the military engineer, Baron Van Coehorn, who invented it. It is a small howitzer, or mortar, generally 4³⁄₅ inches caliber. These implements of war, being easily moved and adjusted, and taking little powder, are found very useful in sieges, if grouped in great numbers.

=Coehorn Beds.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, MORTAR BEDS.

=Coeverden=, =Coevorden=, or =Koevorde=. A fortified town of Holland; it was captured by the French in 1795.

=Coffer.= In fortification, a hollow lodgment, sunk in the bottom of a dry ditch, from 6 to 7 feet deep, and from 16 to 18 feet broad. Its length corresponds with the whole breadth of the said ditch, from side to side. The besieged generally make use of these coffers to repulse the besiegers when they attempt to pass the ditch; they are distinguished only by their length from _caponnières_. They are covered with joists, hurdles, and earth, raised 2 feet above the bottom of the ditch, so as to serve the purposes of a loop-holed parapet.

=Cohort.= A division of the ancient Roman armies, consisting of about 600 men, divided into centuries. It was the tenth part of a legion, and its number, consequently, was under the same fluctuation as that of the legions. In the time of the empire the cohort often amounted to 1000 men.

=Coif.= Was originally an iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their helmets; it was introduced before 1259. It is now especially applied in Great Britain to a cap worn by sergeants-at-law.

=Coimbra.= An ancient city of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira. It appears to have been originally built by the Goths; from them it passed to the Moors, from whom it was finally conquered in 1064 by Fernando the Great, aided by the gallant Cid. It was taken by the troops under the British colonel Kent, October 7, 1810.

=Coin= (Fr. _coin d’artilleur_). In gunnery, a kind of wedge to lay under the breech of a gun, in order to raise or depress the metal. Written also _quoin_.

=Colberg=, or =Kolberg=. A strongly fortified seaport of Prussian Pomerania. It stands on a hill, surrounded with swamps which can be laid under water, and is chiefly remarkable for the protracted sieges it has undergone. In 1102, Duke Boleslaus, of Poland, besieged it in vain. It endured long sieges in the Thirty Years’ War and in the Seven Years’ War, and again in 1807, when it was most gallantly defended against the French.

=Colchester.= The chief town in the county of Essex, England. It was taken from the Danes in 921 by Edward the Elder, who founded the castle. It was ravaged by the plague in 1348, in 1360, and again in 1665. In 1648 it was taken by Lord Goring for Charles I., but was retaken by Fairfax after a siege of 11 weeks, when the castle was dismantled.

=Cold Harbor.= A village of Hanover Co., Va., about 10 miles northeast of Richmond. During the civil war a series of desperate struggles took place in and around this place (May 28-June 3, 1864) between the forces of Gens. Grant and Lee, resulting in a loss of probably 13,000 men on the Federal side.

=Coldstream.= A border-town of Scotland, in Berwickshire, on the left bank of the Tweed. Near this place is the famous ford where the English and Scottish armies formerly crossed the Tweed. Here Gen. Monk raised the regiment still known as the Coldstream Guards.

=Coldstream Guards.= A regiment in the Foot Guards, or Household Brigade, is the oldest corps in the British army except the First Foot. It was raised at Coldstream in 1660, by Gen. Monk, and was first called Monk’s regiment, but when Parliament consented to give a brigade of guards to Charles II., this corps, under its present name, was included in it.

=College of Arms.= See HERALD’S COLLEGE.

=Collet= (_Fr._). In gunnery, that part of a cannon which is between the astragal and the muzzle.

=Colmar.= A city of France, capital of the department of Haut-Rhin. This city had an active share in the civil wars under Rodolph of Hapsburg and Adolphe of Nassau; it was captured by the Swedes in 1632; by the French in 1635 and 1673. It was ceded to France by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Occupied by the Bavarians on January 3, 1814.

=Colocotroni.= See KOLOCOTRONI.

=Cologne.= A fortified city of Prussia, the capital of the province of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine. It is a fortress of the first rank. It was taken by the French in 1795, and assigned to Prussia in 1814.

=Colombia, United States of.= A republic of South America, known by this name since 1861, but formerly called New Granada. It united with Venezuela in 1819, and established one central government for the purpose of resisting Spain, but in 1829 was separated from it, and soon after another republic--that of Ecuador--was formed from it, three republics being thus formed out of what was formerly but one.

=Colombo.= A fortified seaport town and capital of Ceylon; it was fortified in 1638 by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, February 15, 1796. The British troops were murdered here in cold blood by the Adigar of Candy, June 6, 1803.

=Colonel.= The title of the highest officer of a regiment, ranking next below a brigadier-general, and above a lieutenant-colonel. The rank of captain in the navy corresponds with this title.

=Colonel, Lieutenant-.= The rank next below that of colonel.

=Colonia do Santissimo Sacramento= (_i.e._, Colony of the Most Holy Sacrament). A fortified maritime town of South America, in Uruguay, opposite Buenos Ayres. On August 31, 1845, it was taken by the English and French fleets.

=Colonial Corps.= Are certain regiments forming part of the regular army of the British empire, and paid for out of the imperial revenues. The native troops of India are paid from the Indian revenues.

=Colorado.= One of the United States, bounded on the north by Dakota and Nebraska, on the east by Nebraska and Kansas, on the south by New Mexico, and on the west by Utah. In 1857 an exploring party started through its territory, but were driven back by hostile Indians. The country is now, however, being rapidly settled, owing to its great fertility and the presence of auriferous deposits.

=Color-bearer.= The bearer of the colors.

=Color-Guard, The.= In the U. S. infantry, consists of the color-bearer and a guard of 7 corporals in each regiment. They must all be good soldiers. The color-guard is attached to the right centre company in the line, and its post on the field is one of honor as well as danger.

=Colorno.= A fortified castle in Italy, on the banks of the Po; it was captured by the Marquis de Maillebois, from the Austrians under the Prince of Würtemberg, in 1734.

=Colors.= A military term applied to banners or flags carried by each regiment of infantry. The banners of the cavalry are called standards. Each U. S. regiment has two colors, one national and one regimental.

=Colors.= In heraldry, the colors generally used are red, blue, black, green, and purple, which are called gules, azure, sable, vert or sinople, and purpure. Colors and metals, when engraved, are generally indicated by dots and lines: _or_, gold, by dots; _argent_, silver, is left plain; _gules_, red, is indicated by perpendicular lines from top to bottom; _azure_, blue, by horizontal lines from side to side; _sable_, black, by horizontal and perpendicular lines crossing each other; _vert_, green, by diagonal lines from right to left; and _purpure_, purple, by diagonal lines from left to right.

=Color-Sergeant.= Is the sergeant detailed to carry the regimental colors. He is usually selected for military deportment and soldierly bearing, and when carrying the colors is escorted by a guard of 7 corporals. In the British service he has a distinct rank, but in the U. S. service he ranks no higher than other sergeants.

=Colt’s Pistol.= The most celebrated of modern revolvers. Invented by an American, Col. Samuel Colt; first patented in 1835, and perfected about 1845. It has kept pace with the times, and is still one of the first of its kind.

=Columbia.= The capital of South Carolina, situated on the left bank of the Congaree River. It was taken by Gen. Sherman’s army, February 17, 1865, and was then much injured by fire.

=Columbiad Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Column.= Signifies, in military evolutions, a mass of soldiers several ranks in depth as opposed to _line_. There may be columns of brigades, of regiments, of divisions, or of companies, presenting a front of limited width, but a depth depending on the number of elements in the column. In a battalion the formation is called _open column_ when the distance between the elements of the column is such as to admit of their wheeling into line; when the distance is only a few yards it is termed _close column_; when intermediate between these two, it is “column at half distance.” Battalions are drawn up in column with either the right or left in front, or the battalions may be doubled upon their centres. To pass from column into line is to “deploy”; to pass from line to column is to “ploy.” Sometimes the name column is given to a small army, especially when engaged in active operations. In drawing up troops for action, as a general rule, the French prefer the column, the Americans and English the formation in line.

=Column, Military.= Among the Romans, a column on which was engraven a list of the forces in the Roman army, ranged by legions in their proper order. They had another kind of _military column_ called _columna bellica_, standing before the temple of Janus, at the foot of which the consul declared war by throwing a javelin towards the enemy’s country.

=Column, Triumphal.= A column erected among the ancients in honor of a hero, and decorated with various kinds of crowns, corresponding to the number of his achievements in battle. Each crown had its particular name, as _vallaris_, which was filled with spikes, in memory of his having faced a palisade; _muralis_, adorned with little turrets or battlements, for having mounted an assault; _navalis_, of prows and beaks of vessels, for having vanquished at sea; _obsidionalis_, or _graminalis_, of grass, for having raised a siege; _ovans_, of myrtle, which expressed an ovation, or minor triumph; and _triumphalis_, of laurel, for a grand triumph.

=Comanche Indians=, or =Comanches=. An extremely warlike and predatory tribe of Mexico and Texas. They have a reservation in Indian Territory with some Kiowas and Apaches. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Combat.= An engagement of no great magnitude, or one in which the parties engaged are not armies.

=Combustion.= The phenomena attending intense chemical actions which are accompanied by heat and light. Usually restricted to the burning of bodies by their union with oxygen. It is difficult to draw the line where combustion ends and _explosion_ begins.

=Combustion, Velocity of.= Is the space passed over by the surface of combustion in a second of time, measured in a direction perpendicular to its surface. It has been determined that the velocity of combustion of dry French war-powder is 0.48 inch, and of English powder, which American powder closely resembles, is 0.4 inch.

=Comes.= Was with the Romans an officer with territorial jurisdiction in the provinces, and especially on the frontiers.

=Comigne= (_Fr._). A shell of extreme magnitude, which takes its name from the person who originally invented it.

=Comines=, or =Commines=. A town of France, situated on the Lys, opposite the Belgian town of the same name. Near here Oliver de Clisson defeated the Flemings in 1382.

=Command.= In fortification, the height of the top of a parapet above the ground or another work.

=Command.= A body of troops, or any naval or military force or post, under the command of a particular officer. The word command, when applied to ground is synonymous with overlook; and any place thus commanded by heights within range of cannon is difficult to defend, if the enemy have been able to seize the heights.

=Command.= The 62d Article of War (new, 122) states who shall command when different corps of the army happen to join or do duty together, but as the wording of this article has been interpreted differently by different officers, it is thought best to give a decision rendered by President Fillmore on October 25, 1851, in General Orders from the War Department. The 62d Article of War provides that “If upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall happen to join, or to do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the _line_ of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or in quarters, shall command the whole and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case.” The interpretation of this act has long been a subject of controversy. The difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of the words “line of the army,” which neither in the English service nor in our own have a well-defined and invariable meaning. By some they are understood to designate the regular army as distinguished from the militia; by others as meant to discriminate between officers by ordinary commissions and those by brevet; and finally, by others, to designate an officer not belonging to the staff.

The President states that “He has maturely considered the question, and finds himself compelled to differ from some for whose opinions he entertains a very high respect. His opinion is, that although these words may sometimes be used in a different sense (to be determined by the context and subject-matter), in the 62d Article of War they are used to designate those officers of the army who do not belong to the staff, in contradistinction to those who do, and that the article intended, in the case contemplated by it, to confer the command exclusively on the former.” In the discussion which took place in 1828 relating to ordinary rank and rank by brevet, the then Secretary of War (Gen. Porter) says, “Rank in the line of the army or lineal rank, as understood by the President, is applicable to the existing organization of that portion only of the army which is intended for field operations or the exertion of physical force against an enemy. It is commonly used in contradistinction to the staff,” etc. He then goes on to show that in the 62d Article it has another meaning,--House Document 58, 20th Congress, 2d session, page 13. In the same discussion, Mr. Drayton, as chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs of the House of Representatives, expresses the same opinion. He says, “Rank in the _line_ of the army is conceived to be rank in a military body specially organized for the exertion of physical force, or in other words, for combating an enemy; and an officer in such a body has a direct and paramount command over the troops which compose it. The expressions ‘rank in the line of the army,’ ‘rank in the line,’ ‘lineal rank,’ _are generally used in contradistinction to staff appointments_.” He adds, “and to rank which confers upon officers only an occasional right to command, including brevet officers,” etc. Thus we see that these gentlemen admit that these words, in their proper and usual signification, are employed to distinguish the combatant from the staff or non-combatant portions of the army.

If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no reasons of expediency which compel us to depart from the plain and ordinary import of the terms; on the contrary, we may suppose strong reasons why it may have been deemed proper, in the case referred to by the article, to exclude officers of the staff from command. In the first place, the command of troops might frequently interfere with their appropriate duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the service. In the next place, the officers of some of the staff corps are not qualified by their habits of education for the command of troops, and although others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that (by laws passed long subsequently to the article in question) the officers of the corps to which they belong are required to be appointed from the “line of the army.” Lastly, officers of the staff corps seldom have troops of their own corps serving under their command, and if the words “officers of the line” are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be to give them command over the officers and men of all the other corps when not a man of their own was present, an anomaly always to be avoided, where it is possible to do so. Whatever doubts may be entertained on this subject in regard to the officers of other staff corps, none can exist in regard to those of the Medical Department and the Pay Department. The law of 1847 expressly excludes them from command. Now the officers of these corps are not a distinct and independent body, but are a part of the army, and as they cannot command, it follows that when on duty they must be commanded.

=Commandant.= An officer who has the command of a garrison, fort, castle, regiment, company, etc.; called also commander.

=Commander-in-Chief.= The title given to the officer who has supreme command of the land or naval forces of a nation. The President is _ex officio_ commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.

=Commands.= In the military service there are two kinds, the _preparatory command_, such as _forward_, which indicates the movement that is to be executed, and the _command of execution_, such as MARCH, or HALT, or in the manual of arms, the part of the command which causes the execution. The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loudness proportioned to the number of men under instruction.

Each _preparatory command_ is pronounced in an ascending tone of voice, but always in such a manner that the _command of execution_ may be more energetic and elevated.

The _command of execution_ is pronounced in a tone firm and brief. The trumpet ought to be used for giving commands whenever it can be done to advantage.

=Commilitones.= This word had with the Romans the same significance as the English words _comrade soldiers_.

=Commissariat.= A name given to the organized system whereby armies are provided with food and daily necessaries. In the old Roman armies the duty of supplying troops was performed by the _quæstors_, who filled the place of the commissary officers of our own times. In the U. S. service this department is under charge of an officer of the rank of brigadier-general, called the commissary-general of subsistence.

=Commissary.= In general means any one to whom the power or authority of another is committed; used in military affairs in relation to officers who have charge of the subsistence of troops, musters, etc.

=Commissary of Muster.= See MUSTER.

=Commissary Sergeants.= In the U. S. service, are sergeants who are selected from the line of the army, by the Secretary of War; they must be steady and reliable men, and their duties are to assist the commissary officer in receiving, storing, preserving, issuing, selling, and accounting for the subsistence supplies at their posts, according to the regulations for the subsistence departments.

=Commission.= A writing, generally in the form of a warrant or letters-patent, authorizing the performance of duties, or exercise of powers belonging to another. Instruments bearing this title are issued by the Executive to officers in the army or navy, who, on confirmation of their appointment, are known as _commissioned_ officers. The practice of buying and selling all commissions under the rank of colonel, which formerly prevailed in the British army, was abolished in 1871.

=Commissioned.= One having a commission; furnished with a commission; empowered or authorized to act; as, a commissioned officer.

=Common Time.= In marching, the length of the direct step in common time is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute.

=Communication, Line of.= A fantastical name applied by Belidor to mines with immense charges, which he proposed to use for the destruction of countermines, and which were used successfully in the attack of Schweidnitz, under Frederick II.

=Commutation.= Is the conversion of allowances, such as fuel, forage, and quarters, into their money value.

=Comorn.= A royal free town of Hungary, 48 miles from Buda. Its citadel is considered one of the strongest in Europe. Its works and intrenchments extend about 7 miles along the banks of the rivers (Waag and Danube), and it requires for its defense at least 15,000 men and 400 pieces of artillery. It has the reputation of being impregnable, and justified it in the Hungarian war, for the Austrians besieged it from October, 1848, to September, 1849, and only became masters of it at last in virtue of a capitulation.

=Compagnies de Discipline= (_Fr._). “Companies of discipline.” These companies were created by Napoleon I. in 1802; the basis of their actual organization was laid by a royal order, dated April 1, 1818. This order fixes the number of companies at 10, 6 of fusileers and 4 of pioneers, the former to be composed of soldiers of the army who were guilty of indiscipline, and the latter to be formed of men of the former who were deemed incorrigible. The number of companies is now reduced to 7, who are stationed in Algeria. There are also 4 companies similarly organized which are stationed in the French colonies.

=Compagnies d’Ordonnance= (_Fr._). The name of a corps of cavalry, which was organized in France by Charles VII. in 1439; it numbered 16 companies, and the entire strength was 9600 men. This was the first regular cavalry organized in France.

=Company= (Fr. _compagnie_). In military organization, is a body of men commanded by a captain, and forming an aliquot part of a regiment or battalion. In the British service a full company consists of about 100 men, and a regiment of infantry generally comprises 10 or 12 companies, or if there is more than 1 battalion, each has this number of companies. The captain of each company is assisted by 2 subalterns. In the U. S. army each regiment of infantry is divided into 10 companies, and each company has a captain and 2 lieutenants. The artillery and cavalry regiments are divided into 12 companies each, and the former has a captain and 4 lieutenants to each company. See ORGANIZATION.

=Company Column.= The successive improvements that have been made in fire-arms during the last hundred years have been followed by a gradual diminution of the depth of tactical formations, until to-day the “open order,” or the formation as skirmishers, is the only one adopted under the fire of the enemy. In the most recent development of the “open order” the company, composed of 250 men, is recognized as the “fighting unit,” while the battalion, composed of 4 companies, is regarded as the “tactical unit,”--that is, the smallest body of men that can be safely employed independently.

The adoption of breech-loaders has not changed the principles of strategy and grand tactics, nor has it diminished the number of lines in which armies are drawn up to give and receive battle. It has simply demonstrated the impossibility of attacking positions in battalion columns, and, as a consequence, has necessitated a division of the troops into smaller fractions, which, under fire, can be moved with the greatest rapidity and least exposure, thereby insuring the least loss of life. Hence the formation of troops in “company column” in the German and other European armies.

In the German army, the company is formed in three ranks; the tallest men are in the front rank; the most adroit and best shots are selected for the third rank, because the special duties of this rank require these qualities; the distance between ranks is 2 feet. The company is divided into divisions (or platoons). If the divisions consist of 20 or more files, they are divided into subdivisions (or half platoons); the subdivisions are again divided into sections of not less than 4, nor more than 6 files. If the company be of full strength, it will have a front of 72 files; each division will contain 36 files; each subdivision 18 files; and each section 6 files. The battalion consists of 4 companies.

The “company column” is formed in the following manner: The battalion being in line, at the command to “form company column,” the third rank of each even division of the right wing faces about, marches 12 paces to the rear, halts, and faces to the front; the first and second ranks of the uneven divisions face to the left, and place themselves 6 paces in rear of the first and second ranks of the even divisions; the third rank of the uneven subdivisions faces to the left, and, filing in front of the third rank of the even division, forms with it a third division in double rank. The movement is executed in the uncadenced step. The column when formed consists practically of 3 platoons in double rank. In the left wing the movement is similarly executed; the even subdivisions ploying in rear of the uneven subdivisions. The third division of each column is called the “shooting division.”

In the French army the company is formed in 2 ranks, and is normally divided into 4 sections, the first two of which constitute the first platoon, the last two the second platoon. The “company column” is always formed on the second section from the right, which stands fast; the distance between sections is 6 paces.

The “company column” in Italy, Austria, and Russia, as in France, varies very slightly from the German.

With a battalion of 8 or 10 companies, subdivisions may be dispensed with, and, so long as this organization is retained in England and America, the “company column” will not therefore become a necessity. Should the regimental system of 3 battalions, of 4 companies each, be adopted, all of the advantages claimed for the “company column” can be secured by adopting the double column of fours for each company.--_Armies of Asia and Europe_, UPTON.

=Compass, Prismatic.= A pocket instrument for measuring horizontal angles by means of the magnetic meridian. It is much employed in the military service for sketching the general features of a country, and in reconnoissances. It consists of a small glass-covered box containing a magnetized needle attached to a graduated card. A sight-vane with a fine wire stretched longitudinally in the slot is hinged to one side of the box. On the opposite side is a prism. To use it the sight-vane is turned up to the perpendicular. The eye is applied to the prism, and the wire directed on the object. The division in the card coinciding with the reflection of the wire gives the angle with the meridian.

=Compassionate Allowances.= In the British service, are grants of allowances which are made to the legitimate children of deceased officers of the land forces in all cases in which the widow of the officer would be entitled to be placed on the pension-list, provided it be shown that they are deserving objects of the sovereign’s bounty, and are in distressed circumstances.

=Compiègne.= A town of France, department of Oise. It was besieged by the English in 1430, who failed to capture it owing to the brave defense made by its governor, Flavia. Joan of Arc, who came to the assistance of this town, was taken prisoner by the English besiegers. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on October 6, 1861.

=Complement of the Curtain.= That part in the interior side of a fortification which makes the demi-gorge.

=Complement of the Line of Defense.= The remainder of the line of defense after the angle of the flank is taken away.

=Compliment.= The military mark of respect shown by a body of troops to official personages, to an officer, or to another body of troops.

=Compositions, Pyrotechnic.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Compound Armor.= See ARMOR PLATES.

=Compression Strain.= See ORDNANCE, STRAINS UPON.

=Compulsion=, or =Inevitable Necessity=. Is a constraint upon the will whereby an officer is urged to that which his judgment disapproves, and which, it is to be presumed, his will (if left to itself) would reject. As punishments are, therefore, only inflicted for the abuse of that free will which God has given to man, it is highly just and equitable that an officer should be excused for those acts which are done through unavoidable force and compulsion.

=Comrade.= A soldier who acts as the friend of another soldier, rendering him friendly services, etc. Each soldier generally has one special friend who is recognized as his comrade. The term comrade is also extended so as to include all the members of a particular corps, branch of the service, or the army generally.

=Concarneau.= A maritime town of France, department of Finistère; it was taken by Du Guesclin in 1373, and by the Leaguers in 1576. The town is defended by a fort and surrounded by ancient walls.

=Concave Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, CONCAVE.

=Concepcion.= A port of Chili, capital of a province of the same name. In 1554, 1555, and 1603, it was taken and burnt by the Araucanians. A portion of it was again devastated by the Araucanians in 1823.

=Concord.= A town of Middlesex Co., Mass., 11 miles from Boston. Here, on April 19, 1775, one of the first conflicts took place between the Americans and the British troops. A monument is erected at this place to commemorate the event.

=Concrete.= A coarse building mortar, containing broken stone, gravel, etc., used much in fortifications.

=Condé.= A town of France, in the department of the North. It is strongly fortified and has a military arsenal. In 1793 this town was taken by the Austrians.

=Condemned Property.= In the military service, property must be condemned by an inspector before it can rightfully be destroyed.

=Condottieri.= A name given in the 14th century to the leaders of certain bands of military adventurers in Italy, who, for booty, offered their services to any party in any contest, and often practiced warfare on their own account purely for the sake of plunder. The _Compagnies Grandes_ in France at about the same period were somewhat similar to the condottieri, and were so powerful at one time that in 1361 they routed the king’s forces at Brignais, and slew Jacques de Bourbon, constable of France.

=Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman.= See UNGENTLEMANLIKE OR UNOFFICERLIKE, and APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60 and 61.

=Confederate Projectiles.= See PROJECTILE.

=Confederate States of America=, or =Southern Confederacy=. The efforts of the Southern States for the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-61. On November 4, 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, was elected President of the United States. Hitherto, a President in the interest of the South had been elected. On December 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern Confederacy at Montgomery, Ala., February 18, 1861. For important events of the civil war which ensued, see the different States of America throughout this work, and the names of battles, etc., which were fought during this war. On the 20th day of August, 1866, the President (Andrew Johnson) proclaimed the insurrection at an end, and that peace, order, tranquillity, and civil authority existed throughout the whole of the United States.

=Confederation of the Rhine.= The league of the German states, formed by Napoleon Bonaparte, July 12, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and the emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. In December it consisted of France, Bavaria, Würtemberg, Saxony, and Westphalia; 7 grand duchies, 6 duchies, and 20 principalities. The princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This league terminated with the career of Bonaparte in 1814. It was replaced by the _Germanic Confederation_, and it, in its turn, was replaced by the _North German Confederation_.

=Confiscation.= The appropriation to the public use of private property. A right which is conferred under certain circumstances by the laws of war. See CONTRABAND OF WAR.

=Conflans= (near Paris), =Treaty of=. Between Louis XI. of France and the Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, October 5, 1465. By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the Duke of Berry, and an end was put to the “War of the Public Good.” It was confirmed by the treaty of Peronne, 1468.

=Congreve Rocket.= See ROCKET.

=Coni=, or =Cuneo=. The capital of a province of the same name in Piedmont. It was once a fortified place, and had to undergo several sieges. After being taken and retaken, the victory of Marengo gave it into the hands of the French, who demolished the fortifications and turned them into promenades.

=Connecticut.= One of the original States of the American Confederation, and the most southwestern of the New England States. The country was early explored by the Dutch, but the first permanent settlements were made by English emigrants in 1634. In 1637 the settlers were much annoyed by Indians, who were shortly afterwards subdued, however, in engagements at Mystic and Fairfield, and never after gave any serious trouble. The State took an active part in the cause of American independence, and also in the late war for the Union, and throughout both these eventful contests she sustained eminent distinction as well for the wisdom of her statesmen as for the bravery and patriotism of her soldiers.

=Conquer.= To gain or acquire by force; to take possession of by violent means; to gain dominion over; to subdue; to reduce, etc. To gain the victory; to overcome.

=Conqueror.= One who conquers; one who subdues and brings into subjection or possession by force or by influence.

=Conquest.= The act of conquering or acquiring by force; the act of overcoming or subduing opposition by force; subjugation; victory.

=Conquisitores.= So were called the recruiting officers of the Romans.

=Consarbruck.= A village of Rhenish Prussia where the French were defeated by the Duc de Lorraine, August 11, 1675.

=Conscription.= A system of enrolling men for military service, which is in vogue in France and some other foreign countries. Voluntary enlistments being so very few, the compulsory system of keeping up the armies is deemed indispensable. An account is kept of all the youths who reach the age of 20 in one year, and out of these the number required for the army is drawn by lot.

=Consigne= (_Fr._). Parole or countersign.

=Constable.= The title in the Middle Ages of the highest military officer in France under the king. The term comes from the low Latin phrase _comes stabuli_, count of the stables.

=Constable of the Tower.= In England, is a general officer who has the chief superintendence of the Tower, and is lord-lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets. He holds his appointment by letters-patent from the sovereign, and is not removable at pleasure.

=Constantine=, or =Constantina=. A fortified city of Algeria, capital of a province of its own name. It stands on the site of the ancient Cirta, celebrated as the bulwark of Numidia. It is built upon a high rock, formed into a species of peninsula by the Rummel. It was besieged by the French in 1836, but held out till October, 1837, when it was taken by assault.

=Constantinople.= A celebrated city of Turkey in Europe, the capital of the Ottoman empire. It was formerly called _Byzantium_, but having been rebuilt by the emperor Constantine in 328, it received his name. No city in the world has been subjected to as many numerous and celebrated sieges, yet it was only taken twice,--by the Crusaders in 1204 (held by them till 1261), and by the Turks under Mohammed II., May 29, 1453,--an event which completed the extinction of the Roman empire in the East.

=Contest.= In a military sense, to struggle to defend; as, the troops contested every inch of ground. Earnest struggle for superiority, defense, or the like; strife in arms.

=Continental.= A term adopted by the Americans in the Revolutionary war in contradistinction to British.

=Contingent.= This term is applied to the quota of troops furnished to the common army by each member of a confederation of states; the proportion of troops or money furnished by each party to an alliance.

=Contingent.= In the British service, the sum paid monthly to each captain of a troop, company, or battery, to defray the expense of stationery, the care of arms, and other minor demands. A contingent account is also the account, sent in by a staff-officer, of money expended for miscellaneous purposes.

=Contours.= Are the lines in which a site or ground surface is cut by horizontal planes, usually taken at equidistances.

=Contraband of War.= Are such articles as a belligerent has by the law of nations the right of preventing a neutral from furnishing to his enemy. Articles contraband of war are, in general, arms and munitions of war and those out of which munitions of war are made. Contraband articles are subject to confiscation; but very arbitrary interpretations have been affixed to the term by powerful states, when able to enforce them by arms. Thus, provisions are held contraband of war when it is the object to reduce the enemy by famine. But with respect to these and other articles not in their nature contraband, it seems to be the practice that the belligerent should purchase them from the neutral for a reasonable equivalent, instead of confiscating.

=Contramure.= In fortification, is a wall built before another partition-wall to strengthen it, so that it may receive no damage from the adjacent buildings.

=Contravallation.= In fortification, is an intrenchment formed in the same manner as the line of circumvallation, to defend the besiegers against the enterprises of the garrison. An army forming a siege lies between the line of circumvallation and contravallation. The trench of this line is towards the town, at the foot of the parapet, and is never made but when the garrison is numerous enough to harass and interrupt the besiegers by sallies. This line is constructed in the rear of the camp, and by the same rule as the line of circumvallation, with this difference, that, as it is only intended to resist a body of troops much inferior to a force which might attack the circumvallation, its parapet is not made so thick, nor the ditch so wide and deep.

=Contre-forts= (_Fr._). Brick-work which is added to the revetment of a rampart on the side of the terre-plein, and which is equal to its height. Contre forts are used to support the body of earth with which the rampart is formed. They are likewise used in the revetments of counterscarps, in gorges and demi-gorges, etc. Contre-forts likewise form a part of the construction of powder-magazines, which are bomb-proof.

=Contreras.= A celebrated battle-field of Mexico, about 14 miles south of the capital. Here, on August 19 and 20, 1847, the American forces under Gen. Scott defeated and totally routed, with loss of all his artillery, the Mexican general Valencia.

=Contribution.= In a military sense, is an imposition or tax levied on the people of a conquered town or country.

=Control Department.= In the British service, is the department which performs all the administrative duties of the army, in fact, all duties neither combatant, educational, nor scientific. It has a sub-department which performs all work connected with supply and transport, and to which is attached the “Army Service Corps,” a body of men officered by the control department, and employed as butchers, bakers, military train, dispensers, hospital attendants, and those engaged in non-combatant duties generally.

=Controller.= In the British service, the highest grade in the control department. The officers holding it--three in number--rank with major-generals. A _deputy controller_ belongs to the second grade in the control department. Officers holding it rank with lieutenant-colonels.

=Convalescent.= A soldier who though discharged from hospital is not sufficiently recovered to do duty.

=Convention.= In a military sense, is an agreement made between hostile armies for some well-defined purpose, such as the evacuation of a fort, territory, etc. One of the most celebrated conventions of modern times was that of Cintra (1808), between the French and the English generals.

=Conversion.= A change of front, as of a body of troops attacked in the flank.

=Conversion, Bridge by.= See PONTONS.

=Converted Guns.= A term applied to cast-iron guns lined with wrought iron or steel tube. See ORDNANCE, PALLISER and PARSONS GUNS.

=Convex Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, CONVEX.

=Convoy.= In the military service, is a train of wagons laden with provisions or warlike stores, or a detachment of troops appointed to guard such a train.

=Cooling of Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Coptic Legion.= In 1799 the French army in Egypt not receiving any reinforcements, grew weaker every day through loss in combat and disease, when Gen. Kleber, who commanded after the departure of Napoleon, formed a corps of Copts, or native Christians, about 600 strong, which was known by this name. They were armed the same as the French troops.

=Cordon.= In military operations, is a line of sentries inclosing or guarding any particular space of ground, to prevent the passage of persons other than those belonging to the army. The word also applies in fortifications to a row of stones made round on the outside, and placed between the termination of the slope of the wall, so as not to be offensive to the eye.

=Córdova.= A city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, founded about 152 B.C.; taken by the Goths in 572, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom in 756. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1236; was taken by the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged, June 8, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte, January, 1810, and abandoned by the French in 1813.

=Corduroy Road.= A roadway formed of logs laid side by side across it, as in marshy places; so called from its rough or ribbed surface, resembling corduroy. See CORDWAY.

=Cordway.= This way or road is made over extensive marsh tracks, and is constructed as follows, from the description of material usually abounding in such places: Trees and poles of almost any description will be found to answer. Cut as many as is thought requisite. Divide them into three classes,--_ground-poles_, _cross-poles_, and _stringers_. The ground-poles should be the largest and heaviest. The cross-poles are comparatively short lengths, and lie across the ground-poles with their ends projecting some distance beyond. They are laid closely together, and then secured and bound down by the stringers which lie on them. A tree-nail driven in here and there serves to keep all in place by nipping the cross-poles tightly. The ends of the ground-poles and stringers may be either scarfed and tree-nailed, or laid side by side and tied with withers or strips of suitable bark. This road is quickly made and found very useful in transporting the supplies of an army over a wet, marshy country.

=Core.= When cannon are cast hollow, after the plan of Rodman, a core is used to make the bore. It consists of a hollow cast-iron pipe, fluted on the outside, called the _core-barrel_. This is wrapped with rope and the molding sand is plastered over the rope. A water-pipe entering the core-barrel and reaching nearly to the bottom, and another leaving it near the top, are used to maintain a circulation of water through it, thus cooling the casting from the interior.

=Corea=, or =Korea=. Is an extensive peninsular country in Northeastern Asia, whose limits are not accurately known. It is bounded east by the Sea of Japan, south by the Strait of Corea, and west by the Whang-hai, or Yellow Sea. Corea was first subjected by the Tartars, but in about 1120 B.C. the Chinese appear to have gained possession of the country The Japanese conquered and held it between the years 1692 and 1698, when it again fell under the sway of China, and still pays a small annual tribute to the emperor.

=Corfu.= The capital and principal town of the Ionian Islands. It was first occupied by the Phæcians, and then by the Liburnians; but the accounts of it are somewhat mythical until its settlement by the Corinthians about 734 B.C., and through its commerce it soon after acquired a considerable importance. It soon quarreled with the mother-country, and after many vicissitudes of fortune passed under the dominion of the Romans about 229 B.C. The town is defended by two fortresses, and garrisoned by British troops since 1864, though belonging to the kingdom of Greece.

=Corinth.= An ancient and celebrated city of Greece, the capital of a department of the same name, situated on the Isthmus of Corinth. It was totally destroyed by L. Mummius, the Roman consul, and burnt to the ground, 146 B.C. It remained in ruins for a century, and was rebuilt in the year 46 by Julius Cæsar, after which it again arose to be a populous and prosperous city. After the taking of Constantinople it fell into the hands of the Turks, from whom it was retaken in 1687 by its former possessors, the Venetians. In 1715 it was again possessed by the Turks, who held it till 1823, when it was taken by the Greeks.

=Corinth.= A village in the northeast of Mississippi, about 90 miles east of Memphis. It was evacuated by the Confederates under Beauregard, May 29, 1862, and next day occupied by the Federal forces under Gen. Halleck. The Confederates, under Gens. Van Dorn, Price, and others, attempted to take this place, but they were thoroughly defeated after several desperate struggles by Gen. Rosecrans, October 3-5, 1862. The Confederate loss in prisoners alone was nearly 3000.

=Corinthian War.= Began 395 B.C.; received this name because it was carried on mostly in the neighborhood of Corinth; waged by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives against the Lacedæmonians. It was closed by the peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C.

=Corium.= Leather body-armor, formed of overlapping leaves or scales, worn by Roman soldiers, and those of other nations. Its use was continued in England till the reign of Edward I.

=Cork.= A city of Ireland, capital of the county of the same name; built in the 6th century, it was garrisoned by Henry II., 1172; taken by Cromwell in 1649. The Earl of Marlborough besieged and took this city from King James’s army, 1690.

=Cornet= (Ital. _cornetta_, a “small flag”). Is the lowest grade of commissioned officers in the cavalry, equivalent to ensign in the infantry, his duty being to bear the standard. In the U. S. army there are no cornets.

=Cornet.= In the military history of the ancients, an instrument much in the nature of a trumpet: when the cornet only sounded, the ensigns were to march alone without the soldiers; whereas, when the trumpet only sounded, the soldiers were to move forward without the ensigns. A troop of horse was so called.

=Cornette-blanche= (_Fr._). An ornament which in ancient times served to distinguish French officers who were high in command. It was worn by them on the top of their helmets. It likewise meant a royal standard, and was substituted in the room of the royal pennon. The cornette-blanche was only unfurled when the king joined the army; and the persons who served under it were princes, noblemen, marshals of France, and old captains, whose orders came direct from the king.

=Coroneia.= An ancient town of Bœotia. The Athenians were here defeated by the Bœotians, and their leader, Tolmides, slain, 447 B.C. The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, offensive and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his arms from his many victories, even into Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coroneia and achieved a great victory over them, 394 B.C.

=Corporal.= In the military service, is a non-commissioned officer next in rank below a sergeant. He is distinguished by two chevrons worn on the arm.

=Corporal, Lance.= A private soldier who acts as corporal. He wears one chevron, but has no increase of pay.

=Corporal-Major.= In the British service, a troop corporal-major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in a troop of the Household Cavalry; his position and authority are the same as those of a color-sergeant of infantry. A regimental corporal-major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in each of the three regiments of Household Cavalry, and corresponds to a sergeant-major of infantry.

=Corporal’s Guard.= Used to indicate a detachment of several men under arms. May be applied to a squad equal to that usually placed under the charge of a corporal for drill, police, guard duty, etc. Generally made use of in a derisive manner.

=Corps.= A body of men; especially a body of troops; an organized part or division of an army.