Chapter XXXVII: Part 37

=Normans= (the Northmen). Toward the end of the 8th century Western Europe began to be scourged by the inroads of Scandinavian pirates, known to the inhabitants of the British Isles as “East-men” and “Danes,”--to those of the continent as “North-men.” These Northmen were of Germanic stock, a vigorous, seafaring race, not yet Christianized, peopling the coasts of the Baltic and of the two peninsulas which form the Norway and Sweden and the Denmark of to-day. Need and the national thirst for adventure and for strife drove forth from the thickening population, down upon the sunnier, richer, weaker South, swarms of vikings,--_i.e._ warriors,--who scourged the coasts of England, Germany, and France, pressed with their small, sharp, open vessels up the narrowest streams, burned, slew, and plundered, and sailed away laden with booty and with slaves. About the middle of the 9th century these raids began to assume an altogether new character and importance. The consolidation of the three great Scandinavian kingdoms broke the power of the petty kinglets and independent nobles, and drove many a jarl forth with his followers to seek a freer life in some new home. Northmen threw themselves in larger bands upon England, which the Wessex kings had not yet fairly centralized; upon the Frankish kingdoms, fast falling asunder under the later Karlings; harried the country, besieged and sacked the cities, wintered at the mouths of the rivers, and by the end of the century had wrested from Alfred half his kingdom, and begun to plant colonies on the coasts of France. Northmen ravaged Spain and the shores of the Mediterranean, fell upon Western Italy, penetrated Greece and Asia Minor, and there met others of their countrymen, who had pressed down through Russia. For in the Russia of that day, under the name of Verangians, Northmen had become the ruling class, a military aristocracy; while those who made their way still farther south had formed the famous Verangian body-guard of the Byzantine emperors, which maintained its existence and its distinctive character for five centuries. During the latter half of the 9th century, also, Scandinavians, sailing westward, found and settled Iceland. With the establishment, early in the 10th century, of settlements upon the continent, with the occupation Scandinavian energy now found at home in wars between the three new kingdoms, and with the gradual triumph of Christianity in the North, Europe gained, at last, comparative rest. England’s period of misery and humiliation under Ethelred the Unready (979-1016), ended by the establishment of a Danish dynasty (1017-42), marks the last great outburst of the pent-up heathenism.

=Northallerton.= A town of Yorkshire, England, 31 miles northwest from York. Near here was fought the “battle of the Standard,” where the English under the Earls of Albemarle and Ferrers totally defeated the Scotch armies, August 22, 1138. The archbishop of York brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage at the moment when they were hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by King David.

=Northampton.= The chief town of Northamptonshire, situated on the Nen, or Nene, 60 miles northwest from London. It was held by the Danes at the beginning of the 10th century, and was burnt by them in 1010. Its castle was besieged by the barons in 1215, during the civil wars of King John. On July 10, 1460, a conflict took place between the Duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in which the king was defeated, and made prisoner (the second time) after a sanguinary fight which took place in the meadows below the town. It was seized and fortified by the Parliamentary forces in 1642. On March 30, 1645, Cromwell marched from it with 1500 horse and two regiments of foot to Rugby. After the restoration, October 17, 1661, the walls of Northampton were demolished, it having taken the side of the Parliament.

=North Carolina.= One of the Southern Atlantic States, and one of the original thirteen of the American Confederacy. Attempts were made under the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh to settle North Carolina as early as between 1585 and 1589, but in one year after no trace of the colony could be found. The first permanent settlement was made on the banks of the Roanoke and Chowan, by some emigrants from Virginia, in 1653. John Culpepper rebelled against the arbitrary government of Miller in 1678, and held the government for two years. In 1693, North and South Carolina were separated. In 1711 the Tuscaroras, Corees, and other savages attacked and massacred 112 settlers, principally of the Roanoke and Chowan settlements; but the following year the united forces of the two Carolinas completely routed them, killing 300 savages. In 1729 the proprietors sold their rights to the crown. A party of malcontents, in 1771, rose against the royal governor, but after two hours’ contest, fled with considerable loss. A severe conflict with the Northwest Indians occurred in 1774, on the Kanawha River, which resulted in the abandonment of the ground by the savages. North Carolina took an early and active part in the events of the Revolution, and within her borders took place sanguinary conflicts at Guilford Court-house, Brier Creek Springs, Fishing Creek, and other places. The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence was made May 20, 1775: so North Carolina has the honor to have first proposed a separation from Great Britain. In the second war with Great Britain she also played a prominent part, although she had no serious losses on her territory. During the late civil war North Carolina suffered greatly, and was the scene of many important engagements, among which were the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark in 1861, Roanoke Island and Newbern in February, 1862, and Fort Fisher in January, 1865. In March, 1865, the battles of Averysboro’ and Bentonville were fought by the armies of Gen. Sherman and J. E. Johnston, which ended in the final surrender of the latter, at Durham Station, April 26, 1865.

=Norwich.= A city of England, and the capital of the county of Norfolk, on the river Wensum, 108 miles from London. In 1549 the city was the scene of an insurrection resembling that of the Jacquerie in France and the Peasant’s war in Germany. The poor objected to the inclosure of certain commons and waste lands in the neighborhood of Attleborough and Wymondham; fences were thrown down; Robert, _alias_ Knight, a tanner, a bold and resolute man, headed the rebels, aided by his brother William, a butcher. Their numbers increased, and, marching towards Norwich, they encamped on Mousehold Heath, took possession of the mansion of the Earl of Surrey, and thence proceeded to lay siege to the city. Having augmented their number to 16,000, and strongly fortified their camp, they summoned the city to surrender. For months they maintained hostilities, and the country round was pillaged and laid waste, until at length they gained an entrance to the city. A strong force was sent down for the defense of the city, under the Marquis of Northampton, who was defeated on St. Martin’s Palace plain; the rebels plundered and set fire to the city in many parts. The Earl of Warwick, assisted by his son Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, was then sent to the relief of the citizens. The city was stormed by the king’s troops, and the rebels forced to retreat after a two days’ sharp conflict, during which upwards of 3000 were killed, and the insurgents subdued. About 300 of the ringleaders, including the two Ketts, were executed.

=Nose-bag.= A bag of stout canvas with a leather bottom, and straps by which it can be hung over a horse’s head. It is used for feeding grain to horses out of stables.

=Note.= A brief writing intended to assist the memory. Members of courts-martial sometimes take notes. They are frequently necessary to enable a member to bring the whole body of evidence into a connected view, where the case is complex.

=Noted.= Well known by reputation or report; celebrated; as, a noted commander.

=Nottingham.= A large town of England, the capital of the county of the same name, 13 miles northeast from Derby. The castle here was defended by the Danes against King Alfred, and his brother Ethelred, who retook it, 868. William the Conqueror erected a castle, and constructed fortifications so strong as to render the place impregnable against any of the methods of attack which were then known. The castle of Nottingham, defended by the royalists, was besieged by the Parliamentary forces under the command of Col. Hutchinson, to whom, after a brave defense, it at length surrendered.

=Nottoways.= A tribe of Indians who formerly resided in Virginia on the river of the same name. As a distinct race they have ceased to exist.

=Novara.= A city of Northern Italy, defended by a castle, 53 miles west from Turin. In 1849 the Sardinians were disastrously defeated here by the Austrians; and in 1859 a French corps occupied the town.

=Nova Scotia.= A province of British North America, connected with New Brunswick by a narrow isthmus lying between Chignecto and Varte Bays. This country was discovered by Cabot in 1497; it was subsequently settled by the French; and came into the possession of the English in 1758.

=Novi.= A town of Northern Italy, situated at the foot of the Apennines, 13 miles southeast from Alessandria. It is noted for a sanguinary battle fought here in August, 1799, between the French under Joubert and the allied Austro-Russian forces under Suwarrow. The former were defeated, and among 10,000 of the French slain were Joubert and several other distinguished officers.

=Noyan= (_Fr._). In English _mandril_; it also means the whole of the vacant space or bore of a cannon, under which are comprehended the diameter of the mouth, the vacant cylinder, the breech, and the vent. With respect to bombs, grenades, and hollow balls, that which is called _noyan_ consists of a globular piece of earth, upon which the cover of bombs, grenades, and hollow balls is cast. The metal is poured in between this cover and the noyan, after which the noyan, or core, is broken, and the earth taken out.

=Nubia.= A large country of Africa, the ancient _Æthiopia supra Ægyptum_, said to have been the site of the kingdom of Meroë, received its name from a tribe named Nubes or Nubates. It is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been conquered by Ibrahim Pasha in 1822.

=Nuddea.= A town of British India, in the district of Burdwan, 80 miles north of Calcutta. It was taken and entirely destroyed in 1204.

=Nuggar.= A term in the East Indies for a fort.

=Nuits.= A small fortified town near Dijon, in Burgundy, Northeast France. It was frequently captured and ravaged, especially in 1569, 1576, and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese under Von Werder, December 18, 1870, after five hours’ conflict, in which above 1000 French are said to have been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners taken. The German loss was also heavy. A depot of arms and ammunition was gained by the victors.

=Numantia.= The chief town of the Celtiberian people, called Arevaci, in ancient Spain, was situated on the Douro, in Old Castile, and is celebrated for the long war of twenty years which it maintained against the Romans. See NUMANTINE WAR.

=Numantine War.= The war between the Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed the country near the Iber, now _Ebro_) began 143 B.C., on account of the latter having given refuge to their allies, the Sigidians, who had been defeated by the Romans. Numantia, an unprotected city, withstood a long siege, in which the army of Scipio Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, and on their own dead, and at last drew lots to kill one another. At length, those whom plague and famine had spared destroyed themselves, so that no one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C.

=Numéros= (_Fr._). Round pieces of brass or other metal, which were numbered and used in the old French service in the detail of guards.

=Numidia.= An ancient country of North Africa, the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 111 B.C., and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined Cato, and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia became a Roman province.

=Nuncio.= An ambassador from the pope.

=Nuremberg= (Ger. _Nürnberg_). A town of Bavaria, in the circle of Middle Franconia, stands on the Pegnitz, an affluent of the Regnitz. In 1219 it became a free city, independent of any European power, and as such it continued till it was given over by Napoleon in 1806 to the king of Bavaria. At the Reformation the inhabitants embraced the Protestant cause; and in the Thirty Years’ War they were on the side of the Swedes, and suffered much in 1632, during the blockade which Gustavus Adolphus endured from the imperial forces under Wallenstein. The city was occupied by the Prussians in 1866, and its fortifications demolished.

=Nurse.= A person whose whole business is to attend the sick in hospital. In the U. S. service, nurses are detailed in post hospitals from the companies who are serving at the post, and are exempt from other duty, but have to attend the parades for weekly inspections and the musters of their companies, unless especially excused by the commanding officer. Ordinarily one nurse is allowed to every ten persons sick in hospital. In the British service there are sergeants, orderly men, and nurses (generally women) in hospitals of regiments of the line.

=Nuthall’s Rifle.= See SMALL-ARMS.

=Nyköping.= A seaport of Sweden, pleasantly situated on the Baltic, about 60 miles southwest of Stockholm. In 1317 the castle of Nyköping was seized and sacked by the people, who demolished its keep and donjons. In 1719 the town was taken and dismantled by the Russians.

=Nystadt.= A town of Finland, on the eastern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, 50 miles south of Biorneborg. Here, in 1721, a treaty was agreed to between Russia and Sweden, by virtue of which all the conquests of Peter the Great along the coasts of the Gulf of Finland were annexed to Russia.

O.

=Oakum.= A tangled mass of tarred hempen fibres, is made from old rope by untwisting the strands and rubbing the fibres free from each other. Its principal use is in calking the seams between planks, the space round rivets, bolts, etc., for the purpose of preventing water from penetrating.

=Oaths, Military.= The taking of the oath of fidelity to government and obedience to superior officers, was, among ancient armies, a very solemn affair. A whole corps took the oath together, and sometimes an entire army. The tribunes of every legion chose out one whom they thought the fittest person, and gave him a solemn oath at large, the substance of which was, that he should oblige himself to obey the commanders in all things to the utmost of his power, be ready to attend whenever they ordered his appearance, and never to leave the army but by their consent. After he had ended, the whole legion, passing one by one, every man, in short, swore to the same effect, crying, as he went by, _Idem in me_, “the same by me.” In modern times when so many other checks are used in maintaining discipline, the oath has become little more than a form. A recruit enlisting in the army or navy, or a volunteer enrolling himself, swears to be faithful to the government, and obedient to all or any of his superior officers. The members of a court-martial take an oath to try the cases brought before them justly, according to the evidence, to keep secret the finding and sentence of the court, until they shall be published by the proper authority, and to keep secret the votes or opinions given by the members individually. The judge-advocate swears that he will not reveal the individual opinions or votes of the members nor the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority. There is also an oath for the members and an oath for the recorder of a court of inquiry. The only other military oath is the common oath of a witness before a court-martial, to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.

=Obedience= (Fr. _obéissance_). Submission to the orders of a superior. The first principle which ought to be inculcated and impressed upon the mind of every officer and soldier is obedience to all lawful commands. It is the mainspring, the soul and essence of military duty. It is evident that if all officers and soldiers are to judge when an order is lawful and when not, the captious and mutinous would never be at loss for a plea to justify their insubordination. It is, therefore, an established principle, that unless an order is so manifestly against law that the question does not admit of dispute, the order must first be obeyed by the inferior, and he must subsequently seek such redress against his superior as the laws allow. If the inferior disputes the legality before obedience, error of judgment is never admitted in mitigation of the offense. The redress now afforded by the laws to inferiors is not, however, sufficient; for doubtful questions of the construction of statutes, instead of being referred to the Federal courts of law for their true exposition, have received variable expositions from the executive, and left the army in an unfortunate state of uncertainty as to the true meaning of certain laws; and this uncertainty has been most unfavorable to discipline. Again, while the punishment of death is meted to officers and soldiers for disobedience of _lawful_ commands, the law does not _protect_ officers and soldiers for obeying _unlawful_ commands. Instances have occurred in the United States, where officers and soldiers have been subjected to vexatious prosecutions, simply for obeying orders according to their oath of office. Would it not be just if the law, instead of requiring officers and soldiers thus nicely to steer between Scylla and Charybdis, should hold the superior who gives an illegal order alone responsible for its execution?

=Obedience to Orders.= An unequivocal performance of the several duties which are directed to be discharged by military men. All officers and soldiers are to pay obedience to the lawful orders of their superior officers.

=Obey, To.= In a military sense, is without question or hesitation to conform zealously to all orders and instructions which are legally issued. It sometimes happens that individuals are called upon (by mistake, or from the exigency of the service) out of what is called the regular roster. In either case they must cheerfully obey, and after they have performed their duty they may remonstrate.

=Obidos.= A town of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, situated on the Amaya, 45 miles northwest from Lisbon. An engagement took place here between the French and English in 1808.

=Object.= A word in military movements and evolutions, synonymous with _point_. Thus, in marching forward in line, etc., the guide of a squad, company, or battalion, must take two objects at least to fix his line of march by which the whole body is regulated. As he advances he selects succession objects or points to prolong the line.

=Object.= The mark aimed at in the fire of small-arms or artillery.

=Objective-points.= The point to be reached or gained by an army in executing a movement, has been termed the “objective-point.” There are two classes of objectives, viz., _natural_ and _accidental_. The term _geographical_ is frequently used to designate the first of these.

A _natural objective_ may be an important position, strong naturally, or made so by fortifications, the possession of which gives control over a tract of country, and furnishes good points of support or good lines of defense for other military operations. Or, it may be a great business centre, or a capital of a country, the possession of which has the effect of discouraging the enemy and making him willing to sue for peace.

_Accidental objectives_ are dependent upon the military operations which have for their object the destruction or disintegration of the enemy’s forces. These objectives are sometimes called “_objective-points of manœuvre_.” The position of the enemy determines their location. Thus, if the enemy’s forces are greatly scattered, or his front much extended, the central point of his position would be a good objective-point, since the possession of it would divide the enemy’s forces, and allow his detachments to be attacked separately. Or, if the enemy has his forces well supported, a good objective would be on that flank, the possession of which would allow his communications with his base to be threatened. It is well to remark that the term “point” used in this connection is not to be considered merely in its geometrical sense, but is used to apply to the object which the army desires to attain, whether it be a position, a place, a line, or even a section of country.--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._

=Oblat= (_Fr._). Disabled soldier formerly maintained by abbeys.

=Oblique.= In tactics, indicates a direction which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the front, but more or less diagonal. It is a command of warning in the tactics for the movement. It is used in referring to diagonal alignments, attacks, orders of battles, squares against cavalry, changes of front, fires, etc.

=Oblique Deployments.= When the component parts of a column that is extending into line, deviate to the right or left, for the purpose of taking up an oblique position, its movements are called _oblique_ deployments.

=Oblique Fire.= See FIRE, OBLIQUE.

=Oblique Flank.= See FLANK, OBLIQUE.

=Oblique Order of Battle.= See ORDER OF BATTLE, OBLIQUE.

=Oblique Percussion.= Is that wherein the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, or is not in line with its centre of gravity.

=Oblique Position.= Is a position taken in an oblique direction from the original line of formation.

=Oblique Projection.= Is that wherein the direction of the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, which makes an oblique angle with the horizontal line.

=Oblique Radius.= Is a line extending from the centre to the exterior side of a polygon.

=Oblique Step.= Is a step or movement in marching, in which the soldier, while advancing, gradually takes ground to the right or left at an angle of about 25°. It is not now practiced.

=Oblique, To.= In a military sense, is to move forward to the right or left, by obliquing in either of those directions, according to the words of command.

=Oblong Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES.

=Obsequies.= See FUNERAL HONORS.

=Observation, Army of.= An army assigned to the duty of observing and checking the movements of an enemy.

=Observer Sergeants.= In the United States, are sergeants in the signal service, stationed in large towns and important commercial centres, to give timely warning of the approach of storms, rise of rivers, and all other important weather news for the guidance of merchants and others.

=Observe, To.= To watch closely, etc. Hence, _to observe_ the motions of an enemy, is to keep a good lookout by means of small corps of armed men, or of intelligent and steady spies and scouts, and to be constantly in possession of information regarding his different movements.

=Obsession.= The act of besieging.

=Obsidional.= Belonging to a siege.

=Obsidional Crown= (Fr. _couronne obsidionale_). A crown so called among the ancient Romans, which was bestowed upon a governor or general, who by his skill and exertions, either held out or caused the siege to be raised of any town belonging to the republic. It was made from the grass which grew on the spot, and was therefore called _gramineus_ (Lat. _gramen_, “grass”).

=Obsidionale Monnaie= (_Fr._). Any substitute for coin which has a value put upon it that is greater than its intrinsic worth; and a currency given to answer the convenience of the inhabitants of a besieged place.

=Obstacles.= Are narrow passes, woods, bridges, or any other impediments which present themselves when a battalion is marching to front or rear; or abatis, crows-feet, palisades, etc., which, being placed in the glacis of a fortress, obstruct the operations of an assaulting party.

=Obstinate.= In a military sense, means determined; fixed in resolution; as, an obstinate resistance.

=Obstruct.= To block up; to stop up or close, as a way or passage; to fill with obstacles or impediments that prevent passing; as, to obstruct a road, highway, channel, etc.

=Obstruction.= The act of obstructing, or the state of being obstructed. Also, that which obstructs or impedes; obstacle; impediment; hindrance.

=Obtain.= To get hold of by effort; to gain possession of.

=Obus=, or =Obusier= (_Fr._). A species of small mortar, resembling a mortar in everything but the carriage, which was made in the form of that belonging to a gun, only shorter. It has been frequently used at sieges; and was well calculated to sweep the covert way, and to fire ricochet shots. They were usually loaded with cartouches.

=Obusier= (_Fr._). Howitzer, called _haubitz_ by the Dutch. In 1434 it was known under the name of _husenicze_.

=Oc.= A Turkish arrow.

=Ocana.= A town of Spain, in New Castile, 33 miles southeast from Madrid. Near here the Spaniards were defeated by the French, commanded by Mortier and Soult, November 19, 1809.

=Occasion= (_Fr._). Has the same signification in military matters that _affair_ bears among the French. _Une occasion bien chaude_, a warm contest, battle, or engagement; it further means, as with us, the source from whence consequences ensue. _Les malheurs du peuple sont arrivés à l’occasion de la guerre_, “the misfortunes of the people have been occasioned by the war,” or “the war has been the occasion of the people’s misfortunes.” The French make a nice distinction which may hold good in our language, between cause and occasion, viz.: _Il n’en est pas la cause,--il n’en est que l’occasion, l’occasion innocente_,--“He is not the cause, he is only the occasion, the innocent occasion of it.”

=Occupation.= The state of occupying or taking possession. Also, the state of being occupied or possessed; possession.

=Occupation, Army of.= An army which invades an enemy’s country and establishes itself in it either temporarily or permanently, is termed an _army of occupation_.

=Occupy.= Is a military phrase for taking possession of a work or fort, or to remain stationary in any place.

=Octagon.= A figure or polygon that has eight equal sides, which likewise form eight equal angles. The octagon in fortification is well calculated in its ground for the construction of large towns, or for such as have the advantage of neighboring rivers, especially if the engineer can so place the bastions, that the entrances and outlets of the rivers may be in some of the curtains. By means of this disposition no person could come in or go out of the garrison without the commandant’s permission, as the sentinels must have a full view from the flanks of the neighboring bastions.

=Oczakov=, or =Otshakov=. A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of Cherson, near the mouth of the Dnieper. This place was once the object of obstinate contests between the Turks and Russians.

=Oda.= The different corps or companies into which the Janissaries were divided bore this appellation. The word itself means a room, and the companies were so called from messing separately.

=Oda-Bachi.= Captain superintending the gunners at Constantinople.

=Odas.= Company of soldiers.

=Odessa.= A fortified seaport of European Russia, in the government of Cherson, on a small bay of the Black Sea between the Dniester and Dnieper, 85 miles west from Kherson. In the beginning of the 15th century the Turks constructed a fortress here, which was taken by the Russians in 1789. On the outbreak of the Crimean war, April, 1854, the British steamer “Furious” went to Odessa for the purpose of bringing away the British consul. While under a flag of truce, she was fired upon by the batteries of the city. On the failure of the written message from the admiral in command of the fleet to obtain explanations, 12 war-steamers invested Odessa, April 22, and in a few hours destroyed the fortifications, blew up the powder-magazines, and took a number of Russian vessels. On May 12, the English frigate “Tiger” stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The captain, Giffard, and many of his men were killed, and the rest made prisoners.

=Odius.= A herald in the camp of the Greeks before Troy.

=Odometer.= An instrument attached to the wheel of a carriage to measure distances in traveling, indicating on a dial the number of revolutions made by the wheel.

=Odrysæ.= The most powerful people in Thrace, dwelt, according to Herodotus, on both sides of the river Artiscus, a tributary of the Hebrus, but also spread farther west over the whole plain of the Hebrus. Their king Teres retained his independence of the Persians 508 B.C. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, and in 429 aided the Athenians against Perdiccas II. of Macedon with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces was killed in battle with the Triballi, 424. Cotys, another king (382-353), disputed the possession of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens; after nine or ten years’ warfare, Philip II. of Macedon reduced the Odrysæ to tributaries.

=Œniadæ= (now _Triyardon_, or _Trikhardo_). An ancient town of Acarnania, situated on the Achelous, near its mouth. Œniadæ espoused the cause of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. At the time of Alexander the Great, the town was taken by the Ætolians, who expelled the inhabitants; but the Ætolians were expelled in their turn by Philip V., king of Macedonia, who surrounded the place with fortifications. The Romans captured and restored the town to the Acarnanians 211 B.C.

=Œnophyta= (now _Inia_). A town in Bœotia, on the left bank of the Asopus, and on the road from Tanagra to Oropus, memorable for the victory gained here by the Athenians over the Bœotians, 456 B.C.

=Oesel.= An island belonging to Russia, stretches across the mouth of the Gulf of Riga. It at one time belonged to the Teutonic knights, but was seized by the Danes at an early period, and ceded by them to Sweden in 1645. In the beginning of the 18th century it was taken possession of by Russia, to which power it was finally ceded in 1721.

=Ofanto= (anc. _Aufidus_). A river of Naples, which rises in the province of Principato Ultra, and after a course of 75 miles flows into the Adriatic, 4 miles from Barletta. Near its mouth was fought the famous battle of Cannæ, in which the Romans were defeated by Hannibal.

=Off, To Go.= To be discharged, as a gun.

=Off, To March.= To quit the ground on which you are regularly drawn up, for the purpose of going upon detachment, relieving a guard, or doing any other military duty.

=Off, To Tell.= To count the men composing a battalion or company, so as to have them readily and distinctly thrown into such proportions as suit military movements or evolutions.

=Offa’s Dyke.= An intrenchment from the Wye to the Dee, England, made by Offa, king of Mercia, to defend his country from the incursions of the Welsh, 779.

=Offense, Weapons of.= Those which are used in attack, in distinction from those of _defense_, which are used to repel.

=Offenses.= All acts that are contrary to good order and discipline, omissions of duty, etc., may be called military offenses. The principal ones are specified in the Articles of War (which see). No officer or soldier can be tried twice for the same offense, unless in the case of an appeal; nor can any officer or soldier be tried for any offense committed more than two years before the date of the order for trial, unless in cases where through some manifest impediment the offenders were not amenable to justice in that period, when they may be brought to trial any time within two years after the impediment has ceased.

=Offensive.= Used in attack; assailant; opposed to _defensive_; as, an offensive weapon or engine. Making the first attack; assailant; invading: opposed to _defensive_; as, an offensive war.

=Offensive and Defensive Fireworks.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Offensive and Defensive League.= A league that requires both or all parties to make war together against a nation, and each party to defend the other in case of being attacked.

=Offensive and Defensive Operations.= Are operations the object of which is not only to prevent the enemy’s advance, but to attack him whenever there is a favorable opportunity which promises success.

=Offensive Fortification.= See FORTIFICATION.

=Offensive War.= Military acts of aggression constitute what is called an _offensive war_. Those who assail an opposite or adverse army, or invade the dominions of another power, are said to wage an _offensive war_.

=Office.= Any place or department appointed for the officers and clerks to attend in, for the discharge of their respective employments; as, the adjutant-general’s office, etc.

=Office of Ordnance.= See BOARD OF ORDNANCE and ORDNANCE OFFICE.

=Officer, Brevet.= See BREVET.

=Officer, Field-.= See FIELD-OFFICER.

=Officer, General.= See GENERAL OFFICER.

=Officer in Waiting.= In the British service, the officer next for duty is so called. He is also mentioned in orders, and ought to be ready for the service specified at a minute’s warning. He must not on this account quit the camp, garrison, or cantonment.

=Officer, Non-commissioned.= See NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER.

=Officer of the Day.= Is an officer whose immediate duty is to attend to the interior economy of the corps or garrison to which he belongs, or of those with which he may be doing duty. The officer of the day has charge of the guard, prisoners, and police of the garrison, inspects the soldiers’ barracks, messes, hospital, etc.

=Officer of the Guard.= An officer detailed daily for service with the guard. It is his duty, under the officer of the day, to see that the non-commissioned officers and men of his guard are well instructed in all their duties, he inspects the reliefs, visits the sentinels, is responsible for the prisoners and the property used by them and the guard; he is also responsible for good order, alertness, and discipline, and should never quit his guard duty unless properly relieved.

=Officer, To.= To furnish with officers; to appoint officers over.

=Officers.= Commissioned officers are all those officers of a government who receive their commissions from the executive, and are of various grades from the ensign to the marshal, all of which see under their respective headings. See APPOINTING POWER and COMMISSIONS.

=Officers, Marine.= All those who command in that body of troops employed in the sea service.

=Officers, Staff-.= Are all those officers who are not attached to regiments, whose duties extend over the whole, or a large section, such as a brigade or a division; such as the adjutant-general, the quartermaster-general, etc., and their subordinates, together with brigade-majors and aides-de-camp. The regimental staff-officers are those who are not attached to companies; they are the adjutant and quartermaster, in the U. S. service, and in European armies the surgeon, paymaster, adjutant, assistant-surgeon, and quartermaster. See STAFF.

=Officers, Subaltern.= Are all those officers below the grade of captain.

=Officers, Warrant-.= Are those who have no commissions, but only warrants from such boards or persons as are authorized by law to grant them. The only warrant-officers in the British service are master-gunners and schoolmasters. Technically the non-commissioned officers of the U. S. army are not warrant-officers, though they are appointed by warrants.

=Official.= All orders, reports, applications, memorials, etc., which pass through the regular channels of communication, are called official.

=Official Courtesies.= The interchange of official compliments and visits between foreign military or naval officers and the authorities of a military post are international in character. In all cases it is the duty of the commandant of a military post, without regard to his rank, to send a suitable officer to offer civilities and assistance to a vessel of war (foreign or otherwise) recently arrived. After such offer it is the duty of the commanding officer of the vessel to send a suitable officer to acknowledge such civilities, and request that a time be specified for his reception by the commanding officer of the post. The commanding officer of the post, after the usual offer of civilities, is always to receive the first visit without regard to rank. The return visit by the commanding officer of the military post is made the following day, or as soon thereafter as practicable.

When a military commander officially visits a vessel of war he gives notice of his visit to the vessel previously thereto, or sends a suitable officer (or an orderly) to the gangway to announce his presence, if such notice has not been given. He is then received at the gangway by the commander of the vessel, and is accompanied there on leaving by the same officer. The officer who is sent with the customary offer of civilities is met at the gangway of a vessel of war by the officer of the deck; through the latter he is presented to the commander of the vessel, with whom it is his duty to communicate.

When a civil functionary entitled to a salute arrives at a military post, the commanding officer meets or calls upon him as soon as practicable. The commanding officer tenders a review, provided the garrison of the place is not less than four companies of troops. When an officer entitled to a salute visits a post within his own command, the troops are paraded and he receives the honor of a review, unless he directs otherwise. When a salute is to be given an officer junior to another present at a post, the senior will be notified to that effect by the commanding officer. Military or naval officers of whatever rank, arriving at a military post or station, are expected to call upon the commanding officer. Under no circumstances is the flag of a military post _dipped_ by way of salute or compliment.

=Officially.= By the proper officer; by virtue of the proper authority; in pursuance of the special powers vested; as, accounts or reports officially verified or rendered; letters officially communicated; persons officially notified.

=Off-reckonings.= A specific account was so called which existed between the government and colonels of British regiments for the clothing of the men.

=Ogee=, or =Ogive=. In pieces of ordnance, an ornamental molding on guns, mortars, and howitzers.

=Ogival.= The form given the head of oblong projectiles. It was found by Borda that this shape experienced less resistance from the air than any other.

=Ohio.= One of the Western States of the American Confederacy, lying between Lakes Michigan, Erie, and the Ohio River. In 1680, La Salle explored the State, and built a military post on the Ohio, which the French claimed; but in 1763 they relinquished it. The first settlement was made subsequent to the Revolution, a company of New Englanders having settled at Marietta in April, 1788. The early inhabitants were much annoyed by incursions of the Indians, who had successively defeated Gens. Harmar and St. Clair (the latter with great slaughter of his troops, leaving scarcely one-fourth) in 1791 and 1792, but were themselves in turn utterly routed by Gen. Wayne in August, 1794. Ohio was admitted as a State in 1802. In the second war with Great Britain, Ohio suffered greatly from raids by the British and Indians. Fort Sandusky was attacked by Gen. Proctor, with 500 regulars and as many Indians, and was successfully defended by Maj. Croghan, a youth of twenty-one years, with 160 men. But the most important action which occurred was the naval engagement on Lake Erie, fought at Put-in-Bay, September 10, 1813, in which Commodore O. H. Perry defeated a superior British fleet under command of Barclay. Ohio contributed greatly to the cause of the Union in the late civil war; she sent her full quotas of troops to the field, and the women attended to the sick and wounded with untiring zeal. The State was twice invaded by Confederate guerrillas, but suffered no material damage.

=Oillets=, or =Œillets=. Apertures for firing through in the walls of a fort.

=Ojibways.= See CHIPPEWAS.

=Okanagans=, or =Cutsanim=. A semi-civilized tribe of Indians who, to the number of about 300, reside to the east of the Cascade Mountains, in Washington Territory.

=Olcades.= An ancient people in Hispania Tarraconensis, north of Carthago Nova, nearer the sources of the Anas, in a part of the country afterwards inhabited by the Oretani. They are mentioned only in the wars of the Carthaginians with the inhabitants of Spain.

=Oldensworth= (Denmark). A conference was held here in 1713, between Peter the Great and Frederick IV. of Denmark.

=Olifant=, or =Oliphant= (_Fr._). A horn which a paladin or knight sounded in token of defiance, or as a challenge.

=Olinde.= A sort of sword-blade.

=Olivenza.= A fortified town of Spain, in Estremadura, situated on the Guadiana, 16 miles southwest from Badajos. This town was ceded by Portugal to Spain in 1801; and for having arranged this cession, Godoy received his title of “Prince of Peace.” In 1811 it was taken by the French.

=Olmütz.= The chief fortress of Moravia, in the district of the same name, in Austria, 40 miles north-northeast from Brünn. Olmütz was taken by the Swedes during the Thirty Years’ War; but was besieged in vain for seven weeks by Frederick the Great in 1758. Lafayette was confined here in 1794. A conference was held here November 29, 1850, under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties between Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs of Hesse-Cassel were arranged.

=Olot.= A town of Spain, in the province of Gerona, 85 miles from Barcelona. It figured and suffered much in the war of independence, being a strong point, and passed alternately into the hands of French and Spaniards, until the latter dismantled the fortifications. In the civil war of 1856 and 1857 it was much coveted and frequently attacked by the Carlists, but unsuccessfully.

=Oltenitza.= A fortified village of Turkey in Europe, in Wallachia, situated on the Danube, 2 miles north from Turtukai. A Turkish force having crossed the Danube under Omar Pasha, established themselves at Oltenitza in spite of the vigorous attacks of the Russians, who were repulsed with loss November 2-3, 1853. On November 4, a desperate attempt to dislodge the Turks by Gen. Danneberg with 9000 men, was defeated with great loss.

=Olympic Games.= Were instituted by Hercules A.M. 2856, in honor of Jupiter Olympus, at Olympia, a city of Elis, in Peloponnesus. They were celebrated about every four years, about the summer solstice. The design of them was to accustom the young military men to running, leaping, and every other military exercise.

=Olynthus.= A town of Chalcidice, stood at the head of the Toronaic Gulf, between the headlands of Sithonia and Pallene, about 60 stadia from Potidæa. During the second Persian invasion of Greece, Artabazus, the general of Xerxes, captured the town, slaughtered its Bottiæan inhabitants, and gave it to the Chalcidians. It was subdued in war by Sparta in 382-379 B.C. It resisted Philip of Macedon 350 B.C., by whom it was destroyed in 347.

=Omagh= (Irish, _Oigh magh_, “seat of the chiefs”). An ancient town, capital of the county of Tyrone, in Ireland, 34 miles south from Londonderry. Omagh grew up around an abbey founded in the year 792, but is first heard of as a fortress of Art O’Nial in the end of the 15th century, about which time it was forced to surrender to the English, although its possession long continued to alternate between Irish and English hands. It formed part of James I.’s “Plantation grants,” and was strongly garrisoned by Mountjoy. On its being evacuated by the troops of James II. in 1689, it was partially burned.

=Omaha Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, of Dakota stock, who, to the number of 1000, inhabit a reservation in Nebraska. They are generally peaceful and industrious.

=Omer, St.= A fortified town of France, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 miles southeast from Calais. This place was taken by Louis XIV. in 1677. It suffered severely during the revolution of 1830.

=Omra=, or =Omhra= (plural of _ameer_, a “lord”) Ind. They were persons of considerable consequence in the dominions of the Great Mogul. Some of them had command of 1000 horse, others of 2000, and so on to 20,000; their pay being regulated according to their commands. The governors and great officers of state were generally chosen out of this body.

=On.= A preposition frequently used in military exercise. It precedes the word of command which directs the change or formation of bodies of men upon points that are fixed; as, form on the centre company.

=On the Alert.= In a state of vigilance or activity.

=Onagre= (_Fr._). A warlike machine, which was used by the ancients to throw stones of different sizes. It is mentioned by Vegetius.

=Oneidas.= A tribe of Indians forming one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, who resided in the county and near the lake which bears their name. They were continually at war with the early French settlers in Canada, and took sides with the colonists against the British in the war of the Revolution. For this they suffered severely. Their castle, church, and villages were destroyed by the Tories in 1780, and they were compelled to flee to the white settlements for protection. In 1788 they ceded most of their lands to the State and moved to Canada; subsequently some of the tribe settled in Wisconsin, where they are still comfortably located on a reservation; and a remnant still resides near Rome, Oneida Co., N. Y. They are well advanced in the arts of civilization, and, contrary to the usual fate of Indian tribes, have increased in numbers.

=Onein.= An offensive weapon of mediæval times, consisting of a staff with a hooked iron head.

=Onondagas.= One of the confederate tribes of Indians known as the Five Nations. They resided in the State of New York, in the county which bears their name. They were long the enemies of the Canadian French, with whom, and with the Hurons, they were continually at war. They were allies of the English in the French war, 1756-63, fought against the colonists in the Revolutionary war, and suffered severely in the contest. In 1788 they ceded their lands to the State and moved to Ontario, Canada, where about 400 of them now reside.

=Onset.= A rushing or setting upon; a violent attack; assault; a storming; especially the assault of an army or body of troops upon an enemy or a fort.

=Onsetting.= A rushing upon or assaulting.

=Onslaught.= Attack; onset; aggression; assault. “By storm and onslaught to proceed.”

=Onward.= Toward the point before or in front; forward; as, to move onward.

=Oodeypoor=, or =Mewar=. A Rajpoot state in India. It became tributary to the British government by the treaty of 1818. A corps of Bheels was raised in 1841 at the joint expense of the British and Oodeypoor governments, in order to reduce to subjection the Bheel districts of the country.

=Oojein=, or =Oojain=. A city of India, in the territory of Gwalior, 152 miles southwest from Goonah. It fell into the power of the Mohammedans in 1310. At this time it was the capital of Malwa; and along with this country it afterwards came under the power of the Patans, but was recovered by Akbar in 1561. In the middle of the 18th century it was conquered by the Mahrattas.

=Opatas=, or =Yakis=. An Indian people who reside in the state of Sonora, Mexico. They number about 25,000, and are generally peaceable and industrious.

=Open.= In military movements and dispositions, this term is frequently used in contradistinction to _close_; as, open column, open distance, open order, etc. It also constitutes part of a word of command; as, rear rank take open order. By _open distance in column_ is meant that the intervals are always equal in depth to the extent in front of the different component parts of the column.

=Open Flank.= In fortification, is that part of the flank which is covered by the orillon.

=Opening of Trenches.= Is the first breaking of ground by the besiegers, in order to carry on their approaches towards the place.

=Operations, Lines of.= See LINES OF OPERATIONS.

=Operations, Military.= Consist in the resolute application of preconcerted measures in secrecy, dispatch, regular movements, occasional encampments, and desultory combats or pitched battles.

=Opinion.= In military proceedings that regard the interior government of an army, this word signifies decision, determination, judgment formed upon matters that have been laid before a court-martial or court of inquiry.

=Opinion.= Officers on courts-martial give their opinion by seniority, beginning with the youngest in rank.

=Oporto.= A city of Portugal, in the province of Entre-Douro-e-Minho, about 2 miles from the mouth of the Douro, and 175 miles north from Lisbon. It was attacked by the Moors under Abderrahman in 820. In 1092 certain knights of Gascony, commanded by Don Alfonso Fredrico, captured it from the Moors. It was famous for the strength of its fortifications during the Middle Ages, its walls being 3000 paces in circumference, 30 feet in height, and flanked with towers. From the 17th to the present century, Oporto has been the scene of an unusual number of popular insurrections. In 1808 it was taken by the French. The French, under Marshal Soult, were surprised here by Lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. It was besieged in 1832 and 1833 by Dom Miguel, and successfully defended by Dom Pedro with 7500 men. In this siege, the city suffered severely, and more than 16,000 of the inhabitants were killed. It has since been the scene of civil war. The insurgents entered Oporto January 7, 1847; a Spanish force entered Oporto, and the Junto capitulated, June 26, 1847.

=Oppenheim.= A town of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles southeast of Mayence. It occupies the site of the Roman castle of _Bauconia_, and was made a royal palatinate under the Carlovingians. It afterwards became one of the most important free towns of the empire. It was taken in 1218 by Adalbert, archbishop of Mayence, in 1620 by the Spaniards, in 1631 by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1634 by the Imperialists, suffering much upon all these occasions. In 1689 the French under Melac almost entirely destroyed it.

=Opponent.= One who oppones, or opposes; an adversary; an antagonist; a foe.

=Oppose.= To act as an adversary against another; to resist, etc. It likewise signifies to place as an obstacle.

=Oppugn.= To fight against, whether in attack, resistance, or simple opposition; to attack; to oppose; to resist.

=Oppugnant.= Tending to awaken hostility; hostile; opposing.

=Or.= In heraldry the metal gold, represented in heraldic engravings by an unlimited number of dots.

=Oran.= A seaport town of Algeria, about 220 miles west-southwest of Algiers; it is defended by strongly armed forts. The town of Oran was built by the Moors. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1509, by the Turks in 1708, and again by the Spaniards in 1732. It was taken by the French in 1831, and has since remained in their hands.

=Orb.= In tactics, is the disposing of a number of soldiers in circular form of defense. The orb has been thought of consequence enough to employ the attention of the famous Marshal de Puysegur, in his “Art of War,” who prefers this position to throw a body of infantry in an open country to resist cavalry, or even a superior force of infantry; because it is regular, and equally strong, and gives an enemy no reason to expect better success by attacking one place than another. Cæsar drew up his whole army in this form when he fought against Labienus. The whole army of the Gauls was formed into an orb, under the command of Sabinus and Cotta, when fighting against the Romans. The orb was generally formed six deep.

=Orchomenus.= A city of Bœotia, and the capital of the powerful tribe of the Minyæ, was situated near the western shore of Lake Copaic, on a hill which overlooked the windings of the Cephissus. Its original inhabitants are said to have been Thessalian emigrants, and its name was derived from Orchomenus, one of the kings of the Minyans. Homer compares its treasures to those of Egyptian Thebes, and tells us that it sent 30 ships to the Trojan war. Some time after this event it became a member of the Bœotian confederacy. During the Persian war, like the other towns of Bœotia, it abandoned the national cause. Its government was thoroughly aristocratic, and after the Peloponnesian war, when Thebes became a democracy, Orchomenus took part with Sparta, and shared in its first triumph over Thebes; but the victory of Epaminondas at Leuctra (371 B.C.) placed it at the mercy of the Thebans, who soon after destroyed it by fire, and sold its inhabitants as slaves. It was again rebuilt during the Phocian war, but was a second time destroyed in the reign of Philip of Macedon, who, however, once more rebuilt it; but it never again became prominent in history. The site is now occupied by the modern village of Skripú.