Chapter XXVIII: Section III: Hindūstān (2)

From the date 910 at which the country of Kābul was conquered, down to now (932 AH.) (my) desire for Hindūstān had been constant, but owing sometimes to the feeble counsels of begs, sometimes to the non-accompaniment of elder and younger brethren,[1699] a move on Hindūstān had not been practicable and its territories had remained unsubdued. At length no such obstacles were left; no beg, great or small (_beg begāt_) of lower birth,[1700] could speak an opposing word. In 925 AH. (1519 AD.) we led an army out and, after taking Bajaur by storm in 2-3 _garī_ (44-66 minutes), and making a general massacre of its people, went on into Bhīra. Bhīra we neither over-ran nor plundered; we imposed a ransom on its people, taking from them in money and goods to the value of 4 _laks_ of _shāhrukhīs_ and having shared this out to the army and auxiliaries, returned to Kābul. From then till now we laboriously held tight[1701] to Hindūstān, five times leading an army into it.[1702] The fifth time, God the Most High, by his own mercy and favour, made such a foe as Sl. Ibrāhīm the vanquished and loser, such a realm as Hindūstān our conquest and possession.

(_b. Three invaders from Tramontana._)

From the time of the revered Prophet down till now[1703] three men from that side[1704] have conquered and ruled Hindūstān. Sl. Maḥmūd _Ghāzī_[1705] was the first, who and whose descendants sat long on the seat of government in Hindūstān. Sl. Shihābu'd-dīn [Sidenote: Fol. 269b.] of Ghūr was the second,[1706] whose slaves and dependants royally shepherded[1707] this realm for many years. I am the third.

But my task was not like the task of those other rulers. For why? Because Sl. Maḥmūd, when he conquered Hindūstān, had the throne of Khurāsān subject to his rule, vassal and obedient to him were the sulṯāns of Khwārizm and the Marches (_Dāru'l-marz_), and under his hand was the ruler of Samarkand. Though his army may not have numbered 2 _laks_, what question is there that it[1708] was one. Then again, rājas were his opponents; all Hindūstān was not under one supreme head (_pādshāh_), but each rāja ruled independently in his own country. Sl. Shihābu'd-dīn again,—though he himself had no rule in Khurāsān, his elder brother Ghiyās̱u'd-dīn had it. The _T̤abaqāt-i-nāṣirī_[1709] brings it forward that he once led into Hindūstān an army of 120,000 men and horse in mail.[1710] His opponents also were rāīs and rājas; one man did not hold all Hindūstān.

That time we came to Bhīra, we had at most some 1500 to 2000 men. We had made no previous move on Hindūstān with an army equal to that which came the fifth time, when we beat Sl. Ibrāhīm and conquered the realm of Hindūstān, the total written down for which, taking one retainer with another, and [Sidenote: Fol. 270.] with traders and servants, was 12,000. Dependent on me were the countries of Badakhshān, Qūndūz, Kābul and Qandahār, but no reckonable profit came from them, rather it was necessary to reinforce them fully because several lie close to an enemy. Then again, all Māwarā'u'n-nahr was in the power of the Aūzbeg khāns and sulṯāns, an ancient foe whose armies counted up to 100,000. Moreover Hindūstān, from Bhīra to Bihār, was in the power of the Afghāns and in it Sl. Ibrāhīm was supreme. In proportion to his territory his army ought to have been 5 _laks_, but at that time the Eastern amīrs were in hostility to him. His army was estimated at 100,000 and people said his elephants and those of his amīrs were 1000.

Under such conditions, in this strength, and having in my rear 100,000 old enemies such as are the Aūzbegs, we put trust in God and faced the ruler of such a dense army and of domains so wide. As our trust was in Him, the most high God did not make our labour and hardships vain, but defeated that powerful foe and conquered that broad realm. Not as due to strength and effort of our own do we look upon this good fortune, but as had solely through God's pleasure and kindness. We know that this happiness was not the fruit of our own ambition and resolve, but that it was purely from His mercy and favour.

DESCRIPTION OF HINDŪSTĀN.

(_a. Hindūstān._)

The country of Hindūstān is extensive, full of men, and full [Sidenote: Fol. 270b.] of produce. On the east, south, and even on the west, it ends at its great enclosing ocean (_muḥiṯ daryā-sī-gha_). On the north it has mountains which connect with those of Hindū-kush, Kāfiristān and Kashmīr. North-west of it lie Kābul, Ghaznī and Qandahār. Dihlī is held (_aīrīmīsh_) to be the capital of the whole of Hindūstān. From the death of Shihābu'd-dīn _Ghūrī_ (d. 602 AH.-1206 AD.) to the latter part of the reign of Sl. Fīrūz Shāh (_Tūghlūq Turk_ d. 790 AH.-1388 AD.), the greater part of Hindūstān must have been under the rule of the sulṯāns of Dihlī.

(_b. Rulers contemporary with Bābur's conquest._)

At the date of my conquest of Hindūstān it was governed by five Musalmān rulers (_pādshāh_)[1711] and two Pagans (_kāfir_). These were the respected and independent rulers, but there were also, in the hills and jungles, many rāīs and rājas, held in little esteem (_kīchīk karīm_).

First, there were the Afghāns who had possession of Dihlī, the capital, and held the country from Bhīra to Bihār. Jūnpūr, before their time, had been in possession of Sl. Ḥusain _Sharqī_ (Eastern)[1712] whose dynasty Hindūstānīs call Pūrabī (Eastern). His ancestors will have been cup-bearers in the presence of Sl. Fīrūz Shāh and those (Tūghlūq) sulṯāns; they became supreme in Jūnpūr after his death.[1713] At that time Dihlī was in the hands of Sl. `Alāu'u'd-dīn (`Ālam Khān) of the Sayyid dynasty to whose ancestor Tīmūr Beg had given it when, after having captured it, he went away.[1714] Sl. Buhlūl _Lūdī_ and his son (Sikandar) got possession of the capital Jūnpūr and the capital Dihlī, and brought both under one government (881 AH.-1476 AD.).

Secondly, there was Sl. Muḥammad Muz̤affer in Gujrāt; he departed from the world a few days before the defeat of Sl. Ibrāhīm. He was skilled in the Law, a ruler (_pādshāh_) seeking [Sidenote: Fol. 271.] after knowledge, and a constant copyist of the Holy Book. His dynasty people call Tānk.[1715] His ancestors also will have been wine-servers to Sl. Fīrūz Shāh and those (Tūghlūq) sulṯāns; they became possessed of Gujrāt after his death.

Thirdly, there were the Bāhmanīs of the Dakkan (Deccan, _i.e._ South), but at the present time no independent authority is left them; their great begs have laid hands on the whole country, and must be asked for whatever is needed.[1716]

Fourthly, there was Sl. Maḥmūd in the country of Malwā, which people call also Mandāū.[1717] His dynasty they call Khilīj (_Turk_). Rānā Sangā had defeated Sl. Maḥmūd and taken possession of most of his country. This dynasty also has become feeble. Sl. Maḥmūd's ancestors also must have been cherished by Sl. Fīrūz Shāh; they became possessed of the Malwā country after his death.[1718]

Fifthly, there was Naṣrat Shāh[1719] in the country of Bengal. His father (Ḥusain Shāh), a sayyid styled `Alāu'u'd-dīn, had ruled in Bengal and Naṣrat Shāh attained to rule by inheritance. A surprising custom in Bengal is that hereditary succession is rare. The royal office is permanent and there are permanent offices of amīrs, wazīrs and manṣab-dārs (officials). It is the office that Bengalis regard with respect. Attached to each office is a body of obedient, subordinate retainers and servants. If the royal heart demand that a person should be dismissed [Sidenote: Fol. 271b.] and another be appointed to sit in his place, the whole body of subordinates attached to that office become the (new) office-holder's. There is indeed this peculiarity of the royal office itself that any person who kills the ruler (_pādshāh_) and seats himself on the throne, becomes ruler himself; amīrs, wazīrs, soldiers and peasants submit to him at once, obey him, and recognize him for the rightful ruler his predecessor in office had been.[1720] Bengalis say, "We are faithful to the throne; we loyally obey whoever occupies it." As for instance, before the reign of Naṣrat Shāh's father `Alāu'u'd-dīn, an Abyssinian (_Ḥabshī_, named Muz̤affar Shāh) had killed his sovereign (Maḥmūd Shāh _Ilyās_), mounted the throne and ruled for some time. `Alāu'u'd-dīn killed that Abyssinian, seated himself on the throne and became ruler. When he died, his son (Naṣrat) became ruler by inheritance. Another Bengali custom is to regard it as a disgraceful fault in a new ruler if he expend and consume the treasure of his predecessors. On coming to rule he must gather treasure of his own. To amass treasure Bengalis regard as a glorious distinction. Another custom in Bengal is that from ancient times _parganas_ have been assigned to meet the charges of the treasury, stables, and all royal expenditure and to defray these charges no impost is laid on other lands.

These five, mentioned above, were the great Musalmān rulers, honoured in Hindūstān, many-legioned, and broad-landed. Of the Pagans the greater both in territory and army, is the Rāja of Bījānagar.[1721] [Sidenote: Fol. 272.]

The second is Rānā Sangā who in these latter days had grown great by his own valour and sword. His original country was Chitūr; in the downfall from power of the Mandāū sulṯāns, he became possessed of many of their dependencies such as Rantanbūr, Sārangpūr, Bhīlsān and Chandīrī. Chandīrī I stormed in 934 AH. (1528 A.D.)[1722] and, by God's pleasure, took it in a few hours; in it was Rānā Sangā's great and trusted man Midnī Rāo; we made general massacre of the Pagans in it and, as will be narrated, converted what for many years had been a mansion of hostility, into a mansion of Islām.

There are very many rāīs and rājas on all sides and quarters of Hindūstān, some obedient to Islām, some, because of their remoteness or because their places are fastnesses, not subject to Musalmān rule.

(_c. Of Hindūstān._)

Hindūstān is of the first climate, the second climate, and the third climate; of the fourth climate it has none. It is a wonderful country. Compared with our countries it is a different world; its mountains, rivers, jungles and deserts, its towns, its cultivated lands, its animals and plants, its peoples and their tongues, its rains, and its winds, are all different. In some respects the hot-country (_garm-sīl_) that depends on Kābul, is like Hindūstān, but in others, it is different. Once the water of Sind is crossed, everything is in the Hindūstān way (_ṯāriq_) [Sidenote: Fol. 272b.] land, water, tree, rock, people and horde, opinion and custom.

(_d. Of the northern mountains._)

After crossing the Sind-river (eastwards), there are countries, in the northern mountains mentioned above, appertaining to Kashmīr and once included in it, although most of them, as for example, Paklī and Shahmang (?), do not now obey it. Beyond Kashmīr there are countless peoples and hordes, _parganas_ and cultivated lands, in the mountains. As far as Bengal, as far indeed as the shore of the great ocean, the peoples are without break. About this procession of men no-one has been able to give authentic information in reply to our enquiries and investigations. So far people have been saying that they call these hill-men Kas.[1723] It has struck me that as a Hindūstānī pronounces _shīn_ as _sīn_ (_i.e._ _sh_ as _s_), and as Kashmīr is the one respectable town in these mountains, no other indeed being heard of, Hindūstānīs might pronounce it Kasmīr.[1724] These people trade in musk-bags, _b:ḥrī-qūṯās_,[1725] saffron, lead and copper.

Hindīs call these mountains Sawālak-parbat. In the Hindī tongue _sawāī-lak_ means one lak and a quarter, that is, 125,000, and _parbat_ means a hill, which makes 125,000 hills.[1726] The snow on these mountains never lessens; it is seen white from many districts of Hind, as, for example, Lāhor, Sihrind and Saṃbal. The range, which in Kābul is known as Hindū-kush, comes from Kābul eastwards into Hindūstān, with slight inclination to the south. The Hindūstānāt[1727] are to the south of it. Tībet lies to the north of it and of that unknown horde called Kas. [Sidenote: Fol. 273.]

(_e. Of rivers._)

Many rivers rise in these mountains and flow through Hindūstān. Six rise north of Sihrind, namely Sind, Bahat (Jīlam), Chān-āb [_sic_], Rāwī, Bīāh, and Sutluj[1728]; all meet near Multān, flow westwards under the name of Sind, pass through the Tatta country and fall into the `Umān(-sea).

Besides these six there are others, such as Jūn (Jumna), Gang (Ganges), Rahap (Raptī?), Gūmtī, Gagar (Ghaggar), Sirū, Gandak, and many more; all unite with the Gang-daryā, flow east under its name, pass through the Bengal country, and are poured into the great ocean. They all rise in the Sawālak-parbat.

Many rivers rise in the Hindūstān hills, as, for instance, Chaṃbal, Banās, Bītwī, and Sūn (Son). There is no snow whatever on these mountains. Their waters also join the Gang-daryā.

(_f. Of the Arāvallī._)

Another Hindūstān range runs north and south. It begins in the Dihlī country at a small rocky hill on which is Fīrūz Shāh's residence, called Jahān-nāma,[1729] and, going on from there, appears near Dihlī in detached, very low, scattered here and there, rocky [Sidenote: Fol. 273b.] little hills.[1730] Beyond Mīwāt, it enters the Bīāna country. The hills of Sīkrī, Bārī and Dūlpūr are also part of this same including (tūtā) range. The hills of Gūālīār—they write it Gālīūr—although they do not connect with it, are off-sets of this range; so are the hills of Rantanbūr, Chitūr, Chandīrī, and Mandāū. They are cut off from it in some places by 7 to 8 _kurohs_ (14 to 16 m.). These hills are very low, rough, rocky and jungly. No snow whatever falls on them. They are the makers, in Hindūstān, of several rivers.

(_g. Irrigation._)

The greater part of the Hindūstān country is situated on level land. Many though its towns and cultivated lands are, it nowhere has running waters.[1731] Rivers and, in some places, standing-waters are its "running-waters" (_āqār-sūlār_). Even where, as for some towns, it is practicable to convey water by digging channels (_ārīq_), this is not done. For not doing it there may be several reasons, one being that water is not at all a necessity in cultivating crops and orchards. Autumn crops grow by the downpour of the rains themselves; and strange it is that spring crops grow even when no rain falls. To young trees water is made to flow by means of buckets or a wheel. They are given water constantly during two or three years; after which they need no more. Some vegetables are watered constantly.

In Lāhor, Dībālpūr and those parts, people water by means of a wheel. They make two circles of ropes long enough to suit the depth of the well, fix strips of wood between them, and on these fasten pitchers. The ropes with the wood and attached [Sidenote: Fol. 274.] pitchers are put over the well-wheel. At one end of the wheel-axle a second wheel is fixed, and close (_qāsh_) to it another on an upright axle. This last wheel the bullock turns; its teeth catch in the teeth of the second, and thus the wheel with the pitchers is turned. A trough is set where the water empties from the pitchers and from this the water is conveyed everywhere.

In Āgra, Chandwār, Bīāna and those parts, again, people water with a bucket; this is a laborious and filthy way. At the well-edge they set up a fork of wood, having a roller adjusted between the forks, tie a rope to a large bucket, put the rope over the roller, and tie its other end to the bullock. One person must drive the bullock, another empty the bucket. Every time the bullock turns after having drawn the bucket out of the well, that rope lies on the bullock-track, in pollution of urine and dung, before it descends again into the well. To some crops needing water, men and women carry it by repeated efforts in pitchers.[1732]

(_h. Other particulars about Hindūstān._)

The towns and country of Hindūstān are greatly wanting in charm. Its towns and lands are all of one sort; there are no walls to the orchards (_bāghāt_), and most places are on the dead level plain. Under the monsoon-rains the banks of some of its rivers and torrents are worn into deep channels, difficult and [Sidenote: Fol. 274b.] troublesome to pass through anywhere. In many parts of the plains thorny jungle grows, behind the good defence of which the people of the _pargana_ become stubbornly rebellious and pay no taxes.

Except for the rivers and here and there standing-waters, there is little "running-water". So much so is this that towns and countries subsist on the water of wells or on such as collects in tanks during the rains.

In Hindūstān hamlets and villages, towns indeed, are depopulated and set up in a moment! If the people of a large town, one inhabited for years even, flee from it, they do it in such a way that not a sign or trace of them remains in a day or a day and a half.[1733] On the other hand, if they fix their eyes on a place in which to settle, they need not dig water-courses or construct dams because their crops are all rain-grown,[1734] and as the population of Hindūstān is unlimited, it swarms in. They make a tank or dig a well; they need not build houses or set up walls—_khas_-grass (_Andropogon muricatum_) abounds, wood is unlimited, huts are made, and straightway there is a village or a town!

(_i. Fauna of Hindūstān:—Mammals._)

The elephant, which Hindūstānīs call _hāt(h)ī_, is one of the wild animals peculiar to Hindūstān. It inhabits the (western?) borders of the Kālpī country, and becomes more numerous in its wild state the further east one goes (in Kālpī?). From this tract it is that captured elephants are brought; in Karrah and [Sidenote: Fol. 275.] Mānikpūr elephant-catching is the work of 30 or 40 villages.[1735] People answer (_jawāb bīrūrlār_) for them direct to the exchequer.[1736] The elephant is an immense animal and very sagacious. If people speak to it, it understands; if they command anything from it, it does it. Its value is according to its size; it is sold by measure (_qārīlāb_); the larger it is, the higher its price. People rumour that it is heard of in some islands as 10 _qārī_[1737] high, but in this tract it[1738] is not seen above 4 or 5. It eats and drinks entirely with its trunk; if it lose the trunk, it cannot live. It has two great teeth (tusks) in its upper jaw, one on each side of its trunk; by setting these against walls and trees, it brings them down; with these it fights and does whatever hard tasks fall to it. People call these ivory (_`āj_, var. _ghāj_); they are highly valued by Hindūstānīs. The elephant has no hair.[1739] It is much relied on by Hindūstānīs, accompanying every troop of their armies. It has some useful qualities:—it crosses great rivers with ease, carrying a mass of baggage, and three or four have gone dragging without trouble the cart of the mortar (_qazān_) it takes four or five hundred men to haul.[1740] But its stomach is large; one elephant eats the corn (_būghūz_) of two strings (_qiṯār_) of camels.[1741]

The rhinoceros is another. This also is a large animal, equal [Sidenote: Fol. 275b.] in bulk to perhaps three buffaloes. The opinion current in those countries (Tramontana) that it can lift an elephant on its horn, seems mistaken. It has a single horn on its nose, more than nine inches (_qārīsh_) long; one of two _qārīsh_ is not seen.[1742] Out of one large horn were made a drinking-vessel[1743] and a dice-box, leaving over [the thickness of] 3 or 4 hands.[1744] The rhinoceros' hide is very thick; an arrow shot from a stiff bow, drawn with full strength right up to the arm-pit, if it pierce at all, might penetrate 4 inches (_aīlīk_, hands). From the sides (_qāsh_) of its fore and hind legs,[1745] folds hang which from a distance look like housings thrown over it. It resembles the horse more than it does any other animal.[1746] As the horse has a small stomach (appetite?), so has the rhinoceros; as in the horse a piece of bone (pastern?) grows in place of small bones (T. _āshūq_, Fr. _osselets_ (Zenker), knuckles), so one grows in the rhinoceros; as in the horse's hand (_aīlīk_, Pers. _dast_) there is _kūmūk_ (or _gūmūk_, a _tibia_, or marrow), so there is in the rhinoceros.[1747] It is more ferocious than the elephant and cannot be made obedient and submissive. There are masses of it in the Parashāwar and Hashnagar jungles, so too between the Sind-river and the jungles of the Bhīra country. Masses there are also on the banks of [Sidenote: Fol. 276.] the Sārū-river in Hindūstān. Some were killed in the Parashāwar and Hashnagar jungles in our moves on Hindūstān. It strikes powerfully with its horn; men and horses enough have been horned in those hunts.[1748] In one of them the horse of a _chuhra_ (brave) named Maqṣūd was tossed a spear's-length, for which reason the man was nick-named the rhino's aim (_maqṣūd-i-karg_).

The wild-buffalo[1749] is another. It is much larger than the (domestic) buffalo and its horns do not turn back in the same way.[1750] It is a mightily destructive and ferocious animal.

The _nīla-gāū_ (blue-bull)[1751] is another. It may stand as high as a horse but is somewhat lighter in build. The male is bluish-gray, hence, seemingly, people call it nīla-gāū. It has two rather small horns. On its throat is a tuft of hair, nine inches long; (in this) it resembles the yak.[1752] Its hoof is cleft (_aīrī_) like the hoof of cattle. The doe is of the colour of the _būghū-marāl_[1753]; she, for her part, has no horns and is plumper than the male.

The hog-deer (_kotah-pāīcha_) is another.[1754] It may be of the size of the white deer (_āq kiyīk_). It has short legs, hence its name, little-legged. Its horns are like a _būghū_'s but smaller; like the _būghū_ it casts them every year. Being rather a poor runner, it does not leave the jungle.

Another is a deer (_kiyīk_) after the fashion of the male deer (_aīrkākī hūna_) of the _jīrān_.[1755] Its back is black, its belly white, its horns longer than the _hūna's_, but more crooked. A Hindūstānī [Sidenote: Fol. 276b.] calls it _kalahara_,[1756] a word which may have been originally _kālā-haran_, black-buck, and which has been softened in pronunciation to _kalahara_. The doe is light-coloured. By means of this _kalahara_ people catch deer; they fasten a noose (_ḥalqa_) on its horns, hang a stone as large as a ball[1757] on one of its feet, so as to keep it from getting far away after it has brought about the capture of a deer, and set it opposite wild deer when these are seen. As these (_kalahara_) deer are singularly combative, advance to fight is made at once. The two deer strike with their horns and push one another backwards and forwards, during which the wild one's horns become entangled in the net that is fast to the tame one's. If the wild one would run away, the tame one does not go; it is impeded also by the stone on its foot. People take many deer in this way; after capture they tame them and use them in their turn to take others;[1758] they also set them to fight at home; the deer fight very well.

There is a smaller deer (_kiyīk_) on the Hindūstān hill-skirts, as large may-be as the one year's lamb of the _arqārghalcha_ (_Ovis poli_).

The _gīnī-cow_[1759] is another, a very small one, perhaps as large as the _qūchqār_ (ram) of those countries (Tramontana). Its flesh is very tender and savoury.

The monkey (_maimūn_) is another—a Hindūstānī calls it _bandar_. Of this too there are many kinds, one being what people [Sidenote: Fol. 277.] take to those countries. The jugglers (_lūlī_) teach them tricks. This kind is in the mountains of Nūr-dara, in the skirt-hills of Safīd-koh neighbouring on Khaibar, and from there downwards all through Hindūstān. It is not found higher up. Its hair is yellow, its face white, its tail not very long.—Another kind, not found in Bajaur, Sawād and those parts, is much larger than the one taken to those countries (Tramontana). Its tail is very long, its hair whitish, its face quite black. It is in the mountains and jungles of Hindūstān.[1760]—Yet another kind is distinguished (_būlā dūr_), quite black in hair, face and limbs.[1761]

The _nawal_ (_nūl_)[1762] is another. It may be somewhat smaller than the _kīsh_. It climbs trees. Some call it the _mūsh-i-khūrma_ (palm-rat). It is thought lucky.

A mouse (T. _sīchqān_) people call _galāhrī_ (squirrel) is another. It is just always in trees, running up and down with amazing alertness and speed.[1763]

(_j. Fauna of Hindūstān:—Birds._)[1764]

The peacock (Ar. _ṯāūs_) is one. It is a beautifully coloured and splendid animal. Its form (_andām_) is not equal to its colouring and beauty. Its body may be as large as the crane's (_tūrna_) but it is not so tall. On the head of both cock and hen are 20 to 30 feathers rising some 2 or 3 inches high. The hen has neither colour nor beauty. The head of the cock has an iridescent collar (_ṯauq sūsanī_); its neck is of a beautiful blue; [Sidenote: Fol. 277b.] below the neck, its back is painted in yellow, parrot-green, blue and violet colours. The flowers[1765] on its back are much the smaller; below the back as far as the tail-tips are [larger] flowers painted in the same colours. The tail of some peacocks grows to the length of a man's extended arms.[1766] It has a small tail under its flowered feathers, like the tail of other birds; this ordinary tail and its primaries[1767] are red. It is in Bajaur and Sawād and below them; it is not in Kunur [Kūnūr] and the Lamghānāt or any place above them. Its flight is feebler than the pheasant's (_qīrghāwal_); it cannot do more than make one or two short flights.[1768] On account of its feeble flight, it frequents the hills or jungles, which is curious, since jackals abound in the jungles it frequents. What damage might these jackals not do to birds that trail from jungle to jungle, tails as long as a man's stretch (_qūlāch_)! Hindūstānīs call the peacock _mor_. Its flesh is lawful food, according to the doctrine of Imām Abū Ḥanīfa; it is like that of the partridge and not unsavoury, but is eaten with instinctive aversion, in the way camel-flesh is.

The parrot (H. _ṯūṯī_) is another. This also is in Bajaur and countries lower down. It comes into Nīngnahār and the Lamghānāt in the heats when mulberries ripen; it is not there at other times. It is of many, many kinds. One sort is that which people carry into those (Tramontane) countries. They [Sidenote: Fol. 278.] make it speak words.—Another sort is smaller; this also they make speak words. They call it the jungle-parrot. It is numerous in Bajaur, Sawād and that neighbourhood, so much so that 5 or 6000 fly in one flock (_khail_). Between it and the one first-named the difference is in bulk; in colouring they are just one and the same.—Another sort is still smaller than the jungle-parrot. Its head is quite red, the top of its wings (_i.e._ the primaries) is red also; the tip of its tail for two hands'-thickness is lustrous.[1769] The head of some parrots of this kind is iridescent (_sūsanī_). It does not become a talker. People call it the Kashmīr parrot.—Another sort is rather smaller than the jungle-parrot; its beak is black; round its neck is a wide black collar; its primaries are red. It is an excellent learner of words.—We used to think that whatever a parrot or a _shārak_ (_mīna_) might say of words people had taught it, it could not speak of any matter out of its own head. At this juncture[1770] one of my immediate servants Abū'l-qāsim _Jalāīr_, reported a singular thing to me. A parrot of this sort whose cage must have been covered up, said, "Uncover my face; I am stifling." And another time when palkī bearers sat down to take breath, this parrot, presumably on hearing wayfarers pass by, said, "Men are going past, are you not going on?" Let credit rest with the narrator,[1771] but never-the-less, so long as a person has not heard with his own ears, he may not believe!—Another kind is of a beautiful [Sidenote: Fol. 278b.] full red; it has other colours also, but, as nothing is distinctly remembered about them, no description is made. It is a very beautiful bird, both in colour and form. People are understood to make this also speak words.[1772] Its defect is a most unpleasant, sharp voice, like the drawing of broken china on a copper plate.[1773]

The (P.) _shārak_[1774] is another. It is numerous in the Lamghānāt and abounds lower down, all over Hindūstān. Like the parrot, it is of many kinds.—The kind that is numerous in the Lamghānāt has a black head; its primaries (_qānāt_) are spotted, its body rather larger and thicker[1775] than that of the (T.) _chūghūr-chūq_.[1776] People teach it to speak words.—Another kind they call _p:ndāwalī_[1777]; they bring it from Bengal; it is black all over and of much greater bulk than the _shārak_ (here, house-_mīna_). Its bill and foot are yellow and on each ear are yellow wattles which hang down and have a bad appearance.[1778] It learns to speak well and clearly.—Another kind of _shārak_ is slenderer than the last and is red round the eyes. It does not learn to speak. People call it the wood-_shārak_.[1779] Again, at the time when (934 AH.) I had made a bridge over Gang (Ganges), crossed it, and put my adversaries to flight, a kind of _shārak_ was seen, in the neighbourhood of Laknau and Aūd (Oude), for the first time, which had a white breast, piebald head, and black back. This kind does not learn to speak.[1780]

The _lūja_[1781] is another. This bird they call (Ar.) _bū-qalamūn_ (chameleon) because, between head and tail, it has five or six changing colours, resplendent (_barrāq_) like a pigeon's throat. [Sidenote: Fol. 279.] It is about as large as the _kabg-i-darī_[1782] and seems to be the _kabg-i-darī_ of Hindūstān. As the _kabg-i-darī_ moves (_yūrūr_) on the heads (_kulah_) of mountains, so does this. It is in the Nijr-aū mountains of the countries of Kābul, and in the mountains lower down but it is not found higher up. People tell this wonderful thing about it:—When the birds, at the onset of winter, descend to the hill-skirts, if they come over a vineyard, they can fly no further and are taken. God knows the truth! The flesh of this bird is very savoury.

The partridge (_durrāj_)[1783] is another. This is not peculiar to Hindūstān but is also in the _Garm-sīr_ countries[1784]; as however some kinds are only in Hindūstān, particulars of them are given here. The _durrāj_ (_Francolinus vulgaris_) may be of the same bulk as the _kīklīk_[1785]; the cock's back is the colour of the hen-pheasant (_qīrghāwal-ning māda-sī_); its throat and breast are black, with quite white spots.[1786] A red line comes down on both sides of both eyes.[1787] It is named from its cry[1788] which is something like _Shir dāram shakrak_.[1789] It pronounces _shir_ short; _dāram shakrak_ it says distinctly. Astarābād partridges are said to cry _Bāt mīnī tūtīlār_ (Quick! they have caught me). The partridge of Arabia and those parts is understood to cry, _Bi'l_ _shakar tadawm al ni`am_ (with sugar pleasure endures)! The hen-bird has the colour of the young pheasant. These birds are found below Nijr-aū.—Another kind is called _kanjāl_. Its bulk may be that of the one already described. Its voice is very like that of the _kīklīk_ but much shriller. There is little [Sidenote: Fol. 279b.] difference in colour between the cock and hen. It is found in Parashāwar, Hashnagar and countries lower down, but not higher up.

The _p(h)ūl-paikār_[1790] is another. Its size may be that of the _kabg-i-darī_; its shape is that of the house-cock, its colour that of the hen. From forehead (_tūmāgh_) to throat it is of a beautiful colour, quite red. It is in the Hindūstān mountains.

The wild-fowl (_ṣaḥrāī-tāūgh_)[1791] is another. It flies like a pheasant, and is not of all colours as house-fowl are. It is in the mountains of Bajaur and lower down, but not higher up.

The _chīlsī_ (or _jīlsī_)[1792] is another. In bulk it equals the _p(h)ūl-paikār_ but the latter has the finer colouring. It is in the mountains of Bajaur.

The _shām_[1793] is another. It is about as large as a house-fowl; its colour is unique (_ghair mukarrar_).[1794] It also is in the mountains of Bajaur.

The quail (P. _būdana_) is another. It is not peculiar to Hindūstān but four or five kinds are so.—One is that which goes to our countries (Tramontana), larger and more spreading than the (Hindūstān) quail.[1795]—Another kind[1796] is smaller than the one first named. Its primaries and tail are reddish. It flies in flocks like the _chīr_ (_Phasianus Wallichii_).—Another kind is smaller than that which goes to our countries and is darker on throat [Sidenote: Fol. 280.] and breast.[1797]—Another kind goes in small numbers to Kābul; it is very small, perhaps a little larger than the yellow wag-tail (_qārcha_)[1798]; they call it _qūrātū_ in Kābul.

The Indian bustard (P. _kharchāl_)[1799] is another. It is about as large as the (T.) _tūghdāq_ (_Otis tarda_, the great bustard), and seems to be the _tūghdāq_ of Hindūstān.[1800] Its flesh is delicious; of some birds the leg is good, of others, the wing; of the bustard all the meat is delicious and excellent.

The florican (P. _charz_)[1801] is another. It is rather less than the _tūghdīrī_ (_houbara_)[1802]; the cock's back is like the _tūghdīrī's_, and its breast is black. The hen is of one colour.

The Hindūstān sand-grouse (T. _bāghrī-qarā_)[1803] is another. It is smaller and slenderer than the _bāghrī-qarā_ [_Pterocles arenarius_] of those countries (Tramontana). Also its cry is sharper.

Of the birds that frequent water and the banks of rivers, one is the _dīng_,[1804] an animal of great bulk, each wing measuring a _qūlāch_ (fathom). It has no plumage (_tūqī_) on head or neck; a thing like a bag hangs from its neck; its back is black; its breast is white. It goes sometimes to Kābul; one year people brought one they had caught. It became very tame; if meat were thrown to it, it never failed to catch it in its bill. Once it swallowed a six-nailed shoe, another time a whole fowl, wings [Sidenote: Fol. 280b.] and feathers, all right down.

The _sāras_ (_Grus antigone_) is another. Turks in Hindūstān call it _tīwa-tūrnā_ (camel-crane). It may be smaller than the _dīng_ but its neck is rather longer. Its head is quite red.[1805] People keep this bird at their houses; it becomes very tame.

The _mānek_[1806] is another. In stature it approaches the _sāras_, but its bulk is less. It resembles the _lag-lag_ (_Ciconia alba_, the white stork) but is much larger; its bill is larger and is black. Its head is iridescent, its neck white, its wings partly-coloured; the tips and border-feathers and under parts of the wings are white, their middle black.

Another stork (_lag-lag_) has a white neck and all other parts black. It goes to those countries (Tramontana). It is rather smaller than the _lag-lag_ (_Ciconia alba_). A Hindūstānī calls it _yak-rang_ (one colour?).

Another stork in colour and shape is exactly like the storks that go to those countries. Its bill is blacker and its bulk much less than the _lag-lag_'s (_Ciconia alba_).[1807]

Another bird resembles the grey heron (_aūqār_) and the _lag-lag_; but its bill is longer than the heron's and its body smaller than the white stork's (_lag-lag_).

Another is the large _buzak_[1808] (black ibis). In bulk it may equal the buzzard (Turkī, _sār_). The back of its wings is white. It has a loud cry.

The white _buzak_[1809] is another. Its head and bill are black. [Sidenote: Fol. 281.] It is much larger than the one that goes to those countries,[1810] but smaller than the Hindūstān _buzak_.[1811]

The _gharm-pāī_[1812] (spotted-billed duck) is another. It is larger than the _sūna būrchīn_[1813] (mallard). The drake and duck are of one colour. It is in Hashnagar at all seasons, sometimes it goes into the Lamghānāt. Its flesh is very savoury.

The _shāh-murgh_ (_Sarcidiornis melanonotus_, comb duck or _nukta_) is another. It may be a little smaller than a goose. It has a swelling on its bill; its back is black; its flesh is excellent eating.

The _zummaj_ is another. It is about as large as the _būrgūt_ (_Aquila chrysaetus_, the golden eagle).

The (T.) _ālā-qārgha_ of Hindūstān is another (_Corvus cornix_, the pied crow). This is slenderer and smaller than the _ālā-qārgha_ of those countries (Tramontana). Its neck is partly white.

Another Hindūstān bird resembles the crow (T. _qārcha_, _C. splendens_) and the magpie (Ar. _`aqqa_). In the Lamghānāt people call it the jungle-bird (P. _murgh-i-jangal_).[1814] Its head and breast are black; its wings and tail reddish; its eye quite red. Having a feeble flight, it does not come out of the jungle, whence its name.

The great bat (P. _shapara_)[1815] is another. People call it (Hindī) _chumgādur_. It is about as large as the owl (T. _yāpālāq_, _Otus brachyotus_), and has a head like a puppy's. When it is thinking of lodging for the night on a tree, it takes hold of a branch, turns head-downwards, and so remains. It has much singularity.

The magpie (Ar. _`aqqa_) is another. People call it (H.?) _matā_ (_Dendrocitta rufa_, the Indian tree-pie). It may be somewhat less than the _`aqqa_ (_Pica rustica_), which moreover is pied black and white, while the _matā_ is pied brown and black.[1816]

Another is a small bird, perhaps of the size of the (T.) _sāndūlāch_.[1817] [Sidenote: Fol. 281b.] It is of a beautiful red with a little black on its wings.

The _karcha_[1818] is another; it is after the fashion of a swallow (T. _qārlūghāch_), but much larger and quite black.

The _kūīl_[1819] (_Eudynamys orientalis_, the koel) is another. It may be as large as the crow (P. _zāg_) but is much slenderer. It has a kind of song and is understood to be the bulbul of Hindūstān. Its honour with Hindūstānīs is as great as is the bulbul's. It always stays in closely-wooded gardens.

Another bird is after the fashion of the (Ar.) _shiqarrāk_ (_Cissa chinensis_, the green-magpie). It clings to trees, is perhaps as large as the green-magpie, and is parrot-green (_Gecinus striolatus_, the little green-woodpecker?).

(_k. Fauna of Hindūstān:—Aquatic animals._)

One is the water-tiger (P. _shīr-ābī_, _Crocodilus palustris_).[1820] This is in the standing-waters. It is like a lizard (T. _gīlās_).[1821] People say it carries off men and even buffaloes.

The (P.) _siyāh-sār_ (black-head) is another. This also is like a lizard. It is in all rivers of Hindūstān. One that was taken and brought in was about 4-5 _qārī_ (_cir._ 13 feet) long and as thick perhaps as a sheep. It is said to grow still larger. Its snout is over half a yard long. It has rows of small teeth in its upper and lower jaws. It comes out of the water and sinks into the mud (_bātā_).

The (Sans.) _g[h]aṛīāl_ (_Gavialus gangeticus_) is another.[1822] It is said to grow large; many in the army saw it in the Sarū (Gogra) river. It is said to take people; while we were on that river's banks (934-935 A.H.), it took one or two slave-women (_dādūk_), and it took three or four camp-followers between Ghāzīpūr and Banāras. In that neighbourhood I saw one but from a distance only and not quite clearly.

The water-hog (P. _khūk-ābī_, _Platanista gangetica_, the porpoise) is another. This also is in all Hindūstān rivers. It comes up suddenly out of the water; its head appears and disappears; it [Sidenote: Fol. 282.] dives again and stays below, shewing its tail. Its snout is as long as the _siyāh-sār's_ and it has the same rows of small teeth. Its head and the rest of its body are fish-like. When at play in the water, it looks like a water-carrier's bag (_mashak_). Water-hogs, playing in the Sarū, leap right out of the water; like fish, they never leave it.

Again there is the _kalah_ (or _galah_)-fish [_bāligh_].[1823] Two bones each about 3 inches (_aīlīk_) long, come out in a line with its ears; these it shakes when taken, producing an extraordinary noise, whence, seemingly, people have called it _kalah_ [or _galah_].

The flesh of Hindūstān fishes is very savoury; they have no odour (_aīd_) or tiresomeness.[1824] They are surprisingly active. On one occasion when people coming, had flung a net across a stream, leaving its two edges half a yard above the water, most fish passed by leaping a yard above it. In many rivers are little fish which fling themselves a yard or more out of the water if there be harsh [Sidenote: Fol. 282b.] noise or sound of feet.

The frogs of Hindūstān, though otherwise like those others (Tramontane), run 6 or 7 yards on the face of the water.[1825]

(_l. Vegetable products of Hindūstān: Fruits._)

The mango (P. _anbah_) is one of the fruits peculiar to Hindūstān. Hindūstānīs pronounce the _b_ in its name as though no vowel followed it (_i.e._ Sans. _anb_);[1826] this being awkward to utter, some people call the fruit [P.] _naghzak_[1827] as Khwāja Khusrau does:—

_Naghzak-i mā_ [var. _khẉash_] _naghz-kun-i būstān,
Naghztarīn mewa_ [var. _na`mat_]_-i-Hindūstān_.[1828]

Mangoes when good, are very good, but, many as are eaten, few are first-rate. They are usually plucked unripe and ripened in the house. Unripe, they make excellent condiments (_qātīq_), are good also preserved in syrup.[1829] Taking it altogether, the mango is the best fruit of Hindūstān. Some so praise it as to give it preference over all fruits except the musk-melon (T. _qāwūn_), but such praise outmatches it. It resembles the _kārdī_ peach.[1830] It ripens in the rains. It is eaten in two ways: one is to squeeze it to a pulp, make a hole in it, and suck out the juice,—the other, to peel and eat it like the _kārdī_ peach. Its tree grows very large[1831] and has a leaf somewhat resembling the peach-tree's. The trunk is ill-looking and ill-shaped, but in Bengāl and Gujrāt is heard of as growing handsome (_khūb_).[1832]

The plantain (Sans. _kelā_, _Musa sapientum_) is another.[1833] An [Sidenote: Fol. 283.] `Arab calls it _mauz_.[1834] Its tree is not very tall, indeed is not to be called a tree, since it is something between a grass and a tree. Its leaf is a little like that of the _amān-qarā_[1835] but grows about 2 yards (_qārī_) long and nearly one broad. Out of the middle of its leaves rises, heart-like, a bud which resembles a sheep's heart. As each leaf (petal) of this bud expands, there grows at its base a row of 6 or 7 flowers which become the plantains. These flowers become visible with the lengthening of the heart-like shoot and the opening of the petals of the bud. The tree is understood to flower once only.[1836] The fruit has two pleasant qualities, one that it peels easily, the other that it has neither stone nor fibre.[1837] It is rather longer and thinner than the egg-plant (P. _bādanjān_; _Solanum melongena_). It is not very sweet; the Bengāl plantain (_i.e._ _chīnī-champa_) is, however, said to be very sweet. The plantain is a very good-looking tree, its broad, broad, leaves of beautiful green having an excellent appearance.

The _anblī_ (H. _imlī_, _Tamarindus indica_, the tamarind) is another. By this name (_anblī_) people call the _khurmā-i-hind_ (Indian date-tree).[1838] It has finely-cut leaves (leaflets), precisely like those of the (T.) _būīā_, except that they are not so finely-cut.[1839] It is a very good-looking tree, giving dense shade. It grows wild in masses too.

The (Beng.) _mahuwā_ (_Bassia latifolia_) is another.[1840] People call it also (P.) _gul-chikān_ (or _chigān_, distilling-flower). This also is a very large tree. Most of the wood in the houses of Hindūstānīs [Sidenote: Fol. 283b.] is from it. Spirit (_`araq_) is distilled from its flowers,[1841] not only so, but they are dried and eaten like raisins, and from them thus dried, spirit is also extracted. The dried flowers taste just like _kishmish_;[1842] they have an ill-flavour. The flowers are not bad in their natural state[1843]; they are eatable. The _mahuwā_ grows wild also. Its fruit is tasteless, has rather a large seed with a thin husk, and from this seed, again,[1844] oil is extracted.

The mimusops (Sans. _khirnī_, _Mimusops kauki_) is another. Its tree, though not very large, is not small. The fruit is yellow and thinner than the red jujube (T. _chīkdā_, _Elæagnus angustifolia_). It has just the grape's flavour, but a rather bad after-taste; it is not bad, however, and is eatable. The husk of its stone is thin.

The (Sans.) _jāman_ (_Eugenia jambolana_)[1845] is another. Its leaf, except for being thicker and greener, is quite like the willow's (T. _tāl_). The tree does not want for beauty. Its fruit is like a black grape, is sourish, and not very good.

The (H.) _kamrak_ (Beng. _kamrunga_, _Averrhoa carambola_) is another. Its fruit is five-sided, about as large as the _`ain-ālū_[1846] and some 3 inches long. It ripens to yellow; gathered unripe, it is very bitter; gathered ripe, its bitterness has become sub-acid, not bad, not wanting in pleasantness.[1847]

The jack-fruit (H. _kadhil_, B. _kanthal_, _Artocarpus integrifolia_) is another.[1848] This is a fruit of singular form and flavour; it looks [Sidenote: Fol. 284.] like a sheep's stomach stuffed and made into a haggis (_gīpa_);[1849] and it is sickeningly-sweet. Inside it are filbert-like stones[1850] which, on the whole, resemble dates, but are round, not long, and have softer substance; these are eaten. The jack-fruit is very adhesive; for this reason people are said to oil mouth and hands before eating of it. It is heard of also as growing, not only on the branches of its tree, but on trunk and root too.[1851] One would say that the tree was all hung round with haggises.[1852]

The monkey-jack (H. _badhal_, B. _burhul_, _Artocarpus lacoocha_) is another. The fruit may be of the size of a quince (var. apple). Its smell is not bad.[1853] Unripe it is a singularly tasteless and empty[1854] thing; when ripe, it is not so bad. It ripens soft, can be pulled to pieces and eaten anywhere, tastes very much like a rotten quince, and has an excellent little austere flavour.

The lote-fruit (Sans. _ber_, _Zizyphus jujuba_) is another. Its Persian name is understood to be _kanār_.[1855] It is of several kinds: of one the fruit is larger than the plum (_ālūcha_)[1856]; another is shaped like the Ḥusainī grape. Most of them are not very good; we saw one in Bāndīr (Gūālīār) that was really good. The lote-tree sheds its leaves under the Signs _S̤aur_ and _Jauzā_ (Bull and Twins), burgeons under _Saraṯān_ and _Asad_ (Crab and Lion) which are the true rainy-season,—then becoming fresh and green, and it ripens its fruit under _Dalū_ and _Ḥaut_ (Bucket _i.e._ Aquarius, and Fish).

The (Sans.) _karaūndā_ (_Carissa carandas_, the corinda) is another. It grows in bushes after the fashion of the (T.) _chīka_ of our country.[1857] but the _chīka_ grows on mountains, the _karaūndā_ on the [Sidenote: Fol. 284b.] plains. In flavour it is like the rhubarb itself,[1858] but is sweeter and less juicy.

The (Sans.) _pānīyālā_ (_Flacourtia cataphracta_)[1859] is another. It is larger than the plum (_ālūcha_) and like the red-apple unripe.[1860] It is a little austere and is good. The tree is taller than the pomegranate's; its leaf is like that of the almond-tree but smaller.

The (H.) _gūlar_ (_Ficus glomerata_, the clustered fig)[1861] is another. The fruit grows out of the tree-trunk, resembles the fig (P. _anjīr_), but is singularly tasteless.

The (Sans.) _āmlā_ (_Phyllanthus emblica_, the myrobalan-tree) is another. This also is a five-sided fruit.[1862] It looks like the unblown cotton-pod. It is an astringent and ill-flavoured thing, but confiture made of it is not bad. It is a wholesome fruit. Its tree is of excellent form and has very minute leaves.

The (H.) _chirūnjī_ (_Buchanania latifolia_)[1863] is another. This tree had been understood to grow in the hills, but I knew later about it, because there were three or four clumps of it in our gardens. It is much like the _mahuwā_. Its kernel is not bad, a thing between the walnut and the almond, not bad! rather smaller than the pistachio and round; people put it in custards (P. _pālūda_) and sweetmeats (Ar. _ḥalwa_).

The date-palm (P. _khurmā_, _Phœnix dactylifera_) is another. This is not peculiar to Hindūstān, but is here described because it is not in those countries (Tramontana). It grows in Lamghān also.[1864] Its branches (_i.e._ leaves) grow from just one place at its top; its leaves (_i.e._ leaflets) grow on both sides of the branches (midribs) from neck (_būīn_) to tip; its trunk is rough and ill-coloured; [Sidenote: Fol. 285.] its fruit is like a bunch of grapes, but much larger. People say that the date-palm amongst vegetables resembles an animal in two respects: one is that, as, if an animal's head be cut off, its life is taken, so it is with the date-palm, if its head is cut off, it dries off; the other is that, as the offspring of animals is not produced without the male, so too with the date-palm, it gives no good fruit unless a branch of the male-tree be brought into touch with the female-tree. The truth of this last matter is not known (to me). The above-mentioned head of the date-palm is called its cheese. The tree so grows that where its leaves come out is cheese-white, the leaves becoming green as they lengthen. This white part, the so-called cheese, is tolerable eating, not bad, much like the walnut. People make a wound in the cheese, and into this wound insert a leaf(let), in such a way that all liquid flowing from the wound runs down it.[1865] The tip of the leaflet is set over the mouth of a pot suspended to the tree in such a way that it collects whatever liquor is yielded by the wound. This liquor is rather pleasant if drunk at once; if drunk after two or three days, people say it is quite exhilarating (_kaifīyat_). Once when I had gone to visit Bārī,[1866] and made an [Sidenote: Fol. 285b.] excursion to the villages on the bank of the Chaṃbal-river, we met in with people collecting this date-liquor in the valley-bottom. A good deal was drunk; no hilarity was felt; much must be drunk, seemingly, to produce a little cheer.

The coco-nut palm (P. _nārgīl_, _Cocos nucifera_) is another. An `Arab gives it Arabic form[1867] and says _nārjīl_; Hindūstān people say _nālīr_, seemingly by popular error.[1868] Its fruit is the Hindī-nut from which black spoons (_qarā qāshūq_) are made and the larger ones of which serve for guitar-bodies. The coco-palm has general resemblance to the date-palm, but has more, and more glistening leaves. Like the walnut, the coco-nut has a green outer husk; but its husk is of fibre on fibre. All ropes for ships and boats and also cord for sewing boat-seams are heard of as made from these husks. The nut, when stripped of its husk, near one end shews a triangle of hollows, two of which are solid, the third a nothing (_būsh_), easily pierced. Before the kernel forms, there is fluid inside; people pierce the soft hollow and drink this; it tastes like date-palm cheese in solution, and is not bad.

The (Sans.) _tāṛ_ (_Borassus flabelliformis_, the Palmyra-palm) is another. Its branches (_i.e._ leaves) also are quite at its top. Just as [Sidenote: Fol. 286.] with the date-palm, people hang a pot on it, take its juice and drink it. They call this liquor _tāṛī_;[1869] it is said to be more exhilarating than date liquor. For about a yard along its branches (_i.e._ leaf-stems)[1870] there are no leaves; above this, at the tip of the branch (stem), 30 or 40 open out like the spread palm of the hand, all from one place. These leaves approach a yard in length. People often write Hindī characters on them after the fashion of account rolls (_daftar yūsūnlūq_).

The orange (Ar. _nāranj_, _Citrus aurantium_) and orange-like fruits are others of Hindūstān.[1871] Oranges grow well in the Lamghānāt, Bajaur and Sawād. The Lamghānāt one is smallish, has a navel,[1872] is very agreeable, fragile and juicy. It is not at all like the orange of Khurāsān and those parts, being so fragile that many spoil before reaching Kābul from the Lamghānāt which may be 13-14 _yīghāch_ (65-70 miles), while the Astarābād orange, by reason of its thick skin and scant juice, carries with [Sidenote: Fol. 286b.] less damage from there to Samarkand, some 270-280 _yīghāch_.[1873] The Bajaur orange is about as large as a quince, very juicy and more acid than other oranges. Khwāja Kalān once said to me, "We counted the oranges gathered from a single tree of this sort in Bajaur and it mounted up to 7,000." It had been always in my mind that the word _nāranj_ was an Arabic form;[1874] it would seem to be really so, since every-one in Bajaur and Sawād says (P.) _nārang_.[1875]