Chapter D: Caldwell, (26)

It is to be observed, that the length to which the riband is drawn, is always near the chord of the arc described by the ascent; it being so placed, as to differ insensibly from those chords which must frequently occur: and these chords are known to be in the proportion of the velocities of the pendulum acquired from the stroke. Hence it follows, that the proportion between the lengths of the riband, drawn out at different times, will be the same with that of the velocities of the impinging shots.

Now from the computations delivered by Mr. Robins, it appears, that the velocity of the bullet was 1641 feet in one second of time, when the chord of the arc described by the ascent of the pendulum, in consequence of the blow, was 17¹⁄₄ inches, the proportion of the velocity with which the bullets impinge, to the known velocity of 1641 feet in one second, will be determined.

Mr. Robins was (till of late) the only author who attempted to ascertain the velocity of a military projectile by experiment; yet his conclusions seem to be unsatisfactory. Perhaps he was too much attached to the forming of a system, and warped his experiments a little in favor of it. The resisting power he assigns to the air is probably too great; and his notion of the tripling of this power when the velocity of the projectile exceeds that of sound, seems to be rather an ingenious theory than a well-grounded fact. However, experiment alone must decide these points.

The great importance of the art of gunnery is the reason that we distinguish it from the doctrine of projectiles in general; for in truth it is no more than an application of those laws which all bodies observe when cast into the air, to such as are put in motion by the explosion of guns or other engines of that sort: and it matters not whether we talk of projectiles in general, or of such only as belong to gunnery; for, from the moment the force is impressed, all distinction, with regard to the power which put the body first in motion is lost, and it can only be considered as a simple projectile.

Every body cast into the air moves under the influence of two distinct forces. By the one it is carried forward with an equal motion, and describes equal spaces in equal times, in the direction in which it was projected; and by the other, which we call gravity, is drawn downwards in lines perpendicular to the surface of the earth, with a motion continually accelerated, or whose velocity is always increasing. If either of these forces were destroyed, the body would move according to the direction of the other alone, so far as its motion was not hindered by the interposition of other bodies; but as both continue to act, the course of the projectile must be determined by a power compounded of those two forces.

GUNNERY is also the province of the artillerist, and comprehends, in an active sense, the perfect knowlege of the power of the machine, and the proportions of powder to be employed in order to produce any required effect. It also comprehends a knowlege of the properties and composition of gunpowder, and the various kinds of shot, which are employed in the practice of gunnery; the metal best adapted to make guns, the proper weight and corresponding proportions between the calibre of the gun and the shot fired from it, and also the dimensions fitted for the various services in which gunnery is employed: for batteries of permanent works, for ships, for field service, and the light or flying artillery. Gunnery indeed comprehends all the duties of the able artillerist and bombardier.

GUNNERY. By the assistance of good tables of practice, and the tables of amplitudes, sines, tangents, and secants, all the cases in gunnery in a nonresisting medium may be easily solved; and perhaps the solution may be sufficiently correct for practice, if the initial velocity of the projectile be not so great as to make the air’s resistance considerable.

For the tables of ranges with ordnance, see the different natures, as _Gun_, _Mortar_, &c. and for the tables of amplitudes, sines, tangents, and secants, see pages 247 and 248.

_Upon Horizontal Planes._

1. The greatest range is at 45° nearly.

2. The ranges with different elevations with the same charge, are as the double sines of the angles of elevation.

3. Any angle and its complement give the same range nearly.

4. The times of flight are as the sines of the angles of elevation.

5. The altitude of the curve, at any elevation is found by this proportion: as Radius : tangent of angle of elevation ∷

range
----- : altitude.
4

6. The time of flight at 45° is equal the square root of the range in feet, divided by 4, or more nearly = √(quotient²) of the range in feet, divided by 16.1, or the space passed through in the first second by gravity.

Having the first graze with a given elevation and charge, to determine the charge for any other first graze and elevation, multiply the known charge and elevation into the proposed first graze; also the proposed elevation into the known first graze, and divide the first product by the last, for the charge required.

_Upon inclined Planes, at 45° Elevation. Case 1st. Given the charge and inclination of the plane, to find the range._

Multiply the horizontal range with this given charge, (found in the tables of ranges) by the number found opposite the angle of inclination of the plane, in the first column of multiplyers, in the table of amplitudes, under the head _Ascents_, if it be inclined above the horizon; and _Descents_, if below the horizon, for the range required.

_Case 2d. Given the range and inclination of the plane, to find the charge._

Multiply the number found in the above mentioned table opposite the angle or inclination of the plane, in the second column of multipliers, under the head _Ascents_, or _Descents_, according as it is above or below the horizon, by the given range; for the range on a horizontal plane at 45°, the charge for which may be found from the tables of ranges.

_Upon inclined planes, at any elevation._

There are always two elevations with which any range, (less than the greatest) may be made; and these elevations are always the complements of each other. The greatest range upon a horizontal plane is at 45°; or when the direction bisects the angle formed by the horizontal and vertical plane; also the greatest change upon any plane is made with that direction which bisects the angle between the plane and the zenith; and all other directions which make equal angles with this direction, (on each side of it) will also make equal ranges on the said plane; for the direction that bisects the angle between any plane and the zenith is the same with respect to that plane as the direction at 45° is with respect to the plane of the horizon.

_Rules._--1st. The elevation which gives the greatest range on a given ascent is equal to half the sum of 90° added to the ascent.

2d. The elevation which gives equal ranges on a given ascent, are the complements of each other added to the ascent.

3d. The elevation which gives the greatest range on a descent, is equal to half the complement of the descent.

If the range and inclination be given, the least charge that will reach the object, may be found as follows: multiply the tangent of the proper elevation into the proposed range, for the horizontal range whose charge is required.

_Table of Amplitudes._

+--------+----------------++----------------+
|Degrees.| Ascents. || Descents. |
| | Multip’rs. || Multip’rs. |
+--------+--------+-------++--------+-------+
| |1st. cl.|2d. cl.||1st. cl.|2d. cl.|
| 1 | .983 | 1.02 || 1.02 | .983 |
| 2 | .966 | 1.03 || 1.04 | .966 |
| 3 | .949 | 1.06 || 1.05 | .950 |
| 4 | .932 | 1.07 || 1.07 | .932 |
| 5 | .916 | 1.09 || 1.09 | .916 |
| 6 | .900 | 1.11 || 1.11 | .900 |
| 7 | .884 | 1.13 || 1.13 | .884 |
| 8 | .868 | 1.15 || 1.15 | .868 |
| 9 | .852 | 1.18 || 1.17 | .853 |
| 10 | .836 | 1.20 || 1.19 | .836 |
| 11 | .821 | 1.22 || 1.22 | .821 |
| 12 | .805 | 1.24 || 1.24 | .805 |
| 13 | .789 | 1.27 || 1.27 | .789 |
| 14 | .774 | 1.29 || 1.29 | .774 |
| 15 | .758 | 1.32 || 1.31 | .763 |
| 16 | .742 | 1.35 || 1.34 | .745 |
| 17 | .726 | 1.38 || 1.37 | .730 |
| 18 | .711 | 1.40 || 1.39 | .720 |
| 19 | .693 | 1.45 || 1.42 | .704 |
| 20 | .677 | 1.48 || 1.45 | .690 |
| 21 | .660 | 1.52 || 1.48 | .675 |
| 22 | .643 | 1.56 || 1.52 | .662 |
| 23 | .625 | 1.60 || 1.55 | .645 |
| 24 | .607 | 1.64 || 1.58 | .633 |
| 25 | .589 | 1.70 || 1.62 | .617 |
| 26 | .570 | 1.76 || 1.66 | .603 |
| 27 | .550 | 1.82 || 1.69 | .592 |
| 28 | .530 | 1.86 || 1.73 | .578 |
| 29 | .510 | 1.96 || 1.78 | .562 |
| 30 | .488 | 2.05 || 1.82 | .549 |
| 31 | .466 | 2.14 || 1.87 | .534 |
| 32 | .442 | 2.26 || 1.92 | .526 |
| 33 | .418 | 2.41 || 1.97 | .508 |
| 34 | .393 | 2.55 || 2.02 | .495 |
| 35 | .366 | 2.73 || 2.08 | .488 |
| 36 | .338 | 2.96 || 2.13 | .470 |
| 37 | .309 | 3.24 || 2.20 | .455 |
| 38 | .278 | 3.60 || 2.26 | .443 |
| 39 | .245 | 4.09 || 2.33 | .430 |
| 40 | .210 | 4.80 || 2.40 | .417 |
| 41 | .173 | 5.78 || 2.48 | .404 |
| 42 | .134 | 7.46 || 2.56 | .390 |
| 43 | .092 | 10.90 || 2.64 | .380 |
| 44 | .045 | 22.22 || 2.73 | .370 |
| 45 | .000 | infi- || 2.88 | .360 |
| | | nite. || | |
+--------+--------+-------++--------+-------+

_Table of Natural Sines, Tangents, and Secants._

--------+------+---------+--------
Degrees.|Sines.|Tangents.|Secants.
--------+------+---------+--------
1 | .018 | .018 | 1.000
2 | .035 | .035 | 1.000
3 | .052 | .052 | 1.001
4 | .070 | .070 | 1.002
5 | .087 | .087 | 1.004
6 | .105 | .105 | 1.006
7 | .122 | .123 | 1.008
8 | .139 | .141 | 1.010
9 | .156 | .158 | 1.012
10 | .174 | .176 | 1.015
11 | .191 | .194 | 1.019
12 | .208 | .213 | 1.022
13 | .225 | .231 | 1.026
14 | .242 | .249 | 1.031
15 | .259 | .268 | 1.035
16 | .276 | .287 | 1.040
17 | .292 | .306 | 1.046
18 | .309 | .325 | 1.051
19 | .326 | .344 | 1.058
20 | .342 | .364 | 1.064
21 | .358 | .384 | 1.071
22 | .375 | .404 | 1.079
23 | .391 | .424 | 1.086
24 | .407 | .445 | 1.095
25 | .423 | .466 | 1.103
26 | .438 | .488 | 1.112
27 | .454 | .510 | 1.122
28 | .469 | .532 | 1.133
29 | .485 | .554 | 1.143
30 | .500 | .577 | 1.155
31 | .515 | .601 | 1.167
32 | .530 | .625 | 1.179
33 | .545 | .649 | 1.192
34 | .559 | .675 | 1.206
35 | .574 | .700 | 1.221
36 | .588 | .727 | 1.236
37 | .602 | .754 | 1.252
38 | .616 | .781 | 1.269
39 | .629 | .810 | 1.287
40 | .643 | .839 | 1.305
41 | .656 | .869 | 1.325
42 | .669 | .900 | 1.346
43 | .682 | .933 | 1.367
44 | .695 | .966 | 1.390
45 | .707 | 1.000 | 1.414
46 | .719 | 1.036 | 1.440
47 | .731 | 1.072 | 1.466
48 | .743 | 1.111 | 1.494
49 | .755 | 1.150 | 1.524
50 | .766 | 1.192 | 1.556
51 | .777 | 1.235 | 1.589
52 | .788 | 1.280 | 1.624
53 | .799 | 1.327 | 1.662
54 | .809 | 1.376 | 1.701
55 | .819 | 1.428 | 1.743
56 | .829 | 1.483 | 1.788
57 | .839 | 1.540 | 1.836
58 | .848 | 1.600 | 1.887
59 | .857 | 1.664 | 1.942
60 | .866 | 1.732 | 2.000
61 | .875 | 1.80 | 2.063
62 | .883 | 1.881 | 2.130
63 | .891 | 1.963 | 2.203
64 | .899 | 2.050 | 2.281
65 | .906 | 2.145 | 2.366
66 | .914 | 2.246 | 2.459
67 | .921 | 2.356 | 2.559
68 | .927 | 2.475 | 2.669
69 | .934 | 2.605 | 2.790
70 | .940 | 2.747 | 2.924
71 | .946 | 2.904 | 3.072
72 | .951 | 3.078 | 3.236
73 | .956 | 3.271 | 3.420
74 | .961 | 3.487 | 3.628
75 | .966 | 3.732 | 3.864
76 | .970 | 4.011 | 4.134
77 | .974 | 4.331 | 4.445
78 | .978 | 4.705 | 4.810
79 | .982 | 5.145 | 5.241
80 | .985 | 5.671 | 5.759
81 | .988 | 6.314 | 6.392
82 | .990 | 7.115 | 7.185
83 | .993 | 8.144 | 8.206
84 | .995 | 9.514 | 9.567
85 | .996 | 11.430 |11.474
86 | .998 | 14.301 |14.336
87 | .999 | 19.081 |19.107
88 | .999 | 28.636 |28.654
89 | .999 | 57.290 |57.299
90 |1.000 |infinite.| ----
--------+------+---------+-------

GUNS.--_Calibres of European Guns, expressed in inches._

+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| English.| French. | Spanish.| Dutch. | Russian.| Portug. |
+---+-----+---+-----+---+-----+---+-----+---+-----+---+-----+
|pr.|inch.|pr.|inch.|pr.|inch.|pr.|inch.|pr.|inch.|pr.|inch.|
| 42|7.018| --| -- | --| -- | --| -- | 36| 6.86| 48| 7.49|
| 32|6.41 | 36|6.9 | 36| 6.84| 32| 6.4 | 30| 6.47| 36| 6.8 |
| 24|5.823| 24|6.03 | 24| 6.03| 24| 5.92| 24| 6. | 24| 5.93|
| 18|5.292| 16|5.26 | 18| 5.52| 18| 5.45| 18| 5.45| 18| 5.4 |
| 12|4.623| 12|4.78 | 12| 4.8 | 12| 4.76| 12| 4.76| 12| 4.7 |
| 9|4.200| 8|4.18 | 9| 4.2 | 8| 4.13| 8| 4.17| 9| 4.3 |
| 6|3.668| --| -- | --| -- | 6| 3.78| 6| 3.78| 6| 3.75|
| 4|3.204| 4|3.315| --| -- | --| -- | --| -- | --| -- |
| 3|3.913| --| -- | --| -- | --| -- | --| -- | --| -- |
| 1|2.019| --| -- | --| -- | --| -- | --| -- | --| -- |
+---+-----+---+-----+---+-----+---+-----+---+-----+---+-----+

_Length and weight of English Brass guns._

-------------------+--------------+-----------
Kind. | Length in | Weight.
-------------------+------+-------+-----------
|Calib.|ft. in.|ct. qr. lb.
42 Pounders |16.244| 9 6 |66 -- --
32 ---- |18.721|10 0 |55 2 --
{Heavy |19.574| 9 6 |53 0 9
24 {Medium |16.483| 8 0 |41 3 2
{Light |10.302| 5 0 |16 3 13
{Do. new |13.000| 6 3 |24 0 --
18 Light do. |13.000| 5 9 |18 0 --
{Heavy |24.659| 9 0 |31 2 8
{Desagulier’s |19.468| 7 6 |22 1 21
12{Medium, old |16.872| 6 6 |21 3 --
{Medium, new |16.872| 6 6 |18 -- --
{Light |12.978| 5 0 | 8 3 4
* {Do. new |13.000| 5 0 |12 -- --
{Heavy |26.112| 8 0 |19 1 6
* {Desag’s. Med. |22.876| 7 0 |12 -- 24
6 { {new |18.500| 6 0 | 8 3 27
{Med.{reduced |17.000| 5 6 | 8 0 22
* {Gen. Belford’s|16.342| 5 0 | 5 2 21
{Light, common |14.706| 4 6 | 5 - 18
{Heavy |28.836| 7 0 |11 3 19
* {Desagulier’s |24.717| 6 0 | 6 -- --
*3 {Light, common |14.418| 3 6 | 2 2 27
{Light infantry |12.358| 3 0 | 1 3 16
{Gen. Pattison’s|12.358| 3 0 | 1 2 19
1 Pr. Amuzette |29.7 | 5 0 | 2 2 12
Do. |35.6 | 6 0 | 3 0 11
Do. |41.5 | 7 0 | 3 1 12
-------------------+------+-------+----------

The guns marked (*) are the only ones used by the British since 1795, on general service.

_Length and weight of French brass guns, in their old weights and measures._[9]

-----------------+------------------+----
Kind. | Length in |W’t.
-----------------+------+-----------+----
|Calib.|ft. in. li.|lbs.
24 Prs.}Siege {| -- | 9 11 5|5628
16 -- } {| -- | 9 7 --|4111
| | |
12 -- }Garrison{| -- | -- -- --|3184
8 } {| -- | -- -- --|2175
| | |
12 -- } {| 18.0 | 6 6 --|1808
8 -- }Field {| 18. | 5 8 --|1196
4 -- } {| 18. | 4 6 --| 590
1 -- | -- | -- -- --| 266
-----------------+------+-----------+----

[9] The French weights and measures have assumed new names, and are
reduced to strict proportions since the revolution. The weights here
referred to are the old. For the new French system of weights and
measures, see the word WEIGHTS.

_Length and weight of English iron guns._

---------+--------------+-------+--------
| | |[10]Pro-
| | |portion
| | |between
| | |shot and
Kind. | Length in | Wt. |gun.
---------+------+-------+-------+--------
|Calib.|ft. in.|ct. qr.|
42 Prs.{ |17.098|10 -- |67 -- |
{ |16.244| 9 6 |65 -- | 170
32 -- {|18.721|10 -- |58 -- |
{|17.725| 9 6 |55 -- | 193
{ |20.604|10 -- |52 -- |
24 -- { |19.574| 9 6 |49 2 | 231
{ |18.542| 9 -- |47 2 |
18 -- {|21.542| 9 6 |42 -- |
{|20.408| 9 -- |40 -- | 249
{ |24.659| 9 6 |34 -- |
12 -- { |23.361| 9 -- |32 -- |
{ |22.063| 8 6 |31 2 |
{ |19.468| 7 6 |29 1 | 294
{|21.4 | 7 6 |24 2 | 305
9 -- {|19.9 | 7 -- |23 -- |
{ |26.2 | 8 -- |22 -- |
6 -- { |19.6 | 6 -- |16 2 | 411
{|22.4 | 6 -- |22 1 | 343
4 -- {|20.6 | 5 6 |11 1 |
3 -- |18.6 | 4 6 | 7 1 | 270
---------+------+-------+-------+--------

[10] This column expresses the number of English pounds of metal in
the guns, to each pound in the shot.

_French iron guns, in English weights, &c._

------------+----------------+------------
Kind. | Length in | Weight.
------------+------+---------+------------
|Calib.|ft. in. |ct. qr. lbs.
36 Pounders | 16.18| 9 8 | 74 3 --
24 ---- | 18.18| 9 1¹⁄₂| 51 -- --
{| 21.01| 9 7 | 42 -- --
16 ---- {| 18.45| 8 4 | 43 2 --
{| 16.92| 7 8¹⁄₂| 35 -- --
{| 21.54| 8 7 | 31 2 --
12 ---- {| 20.5 | 8 2 | 20 3 --
{| 17.14| 6 10 | 28 -- --
8 ---- {| 24.64| 8 7 | 24 1 --
{| 17.22| 6 -- | 16 -- --
4 ---- | 17.19| 4 9 | -- -- --
============+======+=========+============

_Ranges of brass guns, with one shot. 1793._

------------------+--------+-----------------------------
| | To the first graze of
| | the shot.
Kind. | Charge.| PB | 1° | 2° | 3° | 4° | 5°
------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+----
|lbs. oz.|yds.|yds.|yds.|yds.|yds.|yds.
Heavy | 8 0 | 473| 781|1032|1405|1585|1710
24 Medium | 8 0 | 488| 757|1103|1425|1557|1745
Light | 3 0 | 162| 364| 606| 722| |1399
Heavy | | | | | | |
12 Medium | 4 0 | | 705| 973|1189| |
Light | 3 0 | | 601| 816|1063| |
{Desagulier’s | 2 0 | | 646| 966|1325| |
{6 Feet | 2 0 | | 683| 948|1327| |
6{5 : 6 Med. | 2 0 | | 775|1003|1444| |
{5 : 6 Red’d. | 2 0 | | 642| 976|1150| |
{5 Feet | 1 8 | | 587| 825| 950| |
{4 : 6 Feet. | 1 8 | | 628| 804| 991| |
3 Desagulier’s | 1 0 | | 679| 883| 918| |
Amuzette of 5 feet| 0 8 | | 604| 800| | |
Do. 7 feet | 0 8 | | 656| 830|1000| |
------------------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+----

_Ranges from Brass Guns, with Two Shot. 1793._

+------------------+--------+------+------------------+
| | |Eleva-|Medium first Graze|
| Kind. | Charge.| tion.| in yards. |
+------------------+--------+------+---------+--------+
| |lbs. oz.|1° 30′|1st Shot.|2d Shot.|
|12 Pounder, Medium| 4 -- |1 30 | 607 | 706 |
| 6 : Desagulier’s | 2 -- |1 30 | 621 | 739 |
| 6 : of 5 feet | 1 8 |1 30 | 586 | 732 |
| 3 : Desagulier’s | 1 -- |1 30 | 523 | 638 |
+------------------+--------+------+---------+--------+

_Ranges from Brass Field Guns, with small charges. 1798._

+------+-------+----------------------------------+-----------------+
| | | First Graze | |
| Kind.|Charge.| with different elevations. | Extreme range. |
|------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+-----------------+
| Pr. | | 1°| 2°| 3°| 4°| 5°| 6° | 7° | 8° | |
| 12 {| 10 oz.|199|290|390|385|597| 716| 695| 788|from 800 to 1000|
| {| 1 lb.|280|416|729|777|966|1090|1054|1295|from 1200 to 1500|
+------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+-----------------+
|6 Pr.{| 5 oz.|111|222|376|432|618| 625| 650| 788|from 800 to 1000|
| {| 8 oz.|277|401|754|826|925| 980|1103|1100|from 1000 to 1300|
+------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+-----------------+

N. B. The above was a 12 Pr. Medium, and a 6 Pr. Desagulier’s. The
distances are given in yards.

_Effects of case shot from a battalion gun--Light 6 Pr. length 5 feet--Weight 5 cwt. 3 qrs. 21 lbs. against a target 8 feet high, and 90 feet long._

--------+-----------------+-------+-----------------+-----------------
| | |No. put into the |No. put into the
Distance| Kind | |height of 6 feet,|height of 8 feet,
of | of | Ele- |or the height of |or the height of
Target.| charge. |vation.| Infantry. | Cavalry.
--------+-----------------+-------+-----------------+-----------------
Y’ds. | | deg. | |
500 {|12 balls, 8 oz. }| 1 | 3 | 3
{|each, 3 in a }| 1¹⁄₂ | 3 | 4
{|tier, 1¹⁄₄ lb. }| 2 | 3 | 4
{|powder. }| | |
{ | { | 1 | 6 | 6
400 { |same ch’ge { | 1¹⁄₂ | 4 | 5
{ | { | 2 | 4 | 5
{| {| ¹⁄₂ | 6 | 7
300 {|same ch’ge {| 1 | 3 | 3
{| {| 1¹⁄₂ | 4 | 6
{ |34 balls. 3 oz.} | P B | 10 | 12
400 { |each, 7 in a } | ¹⁄₂ | 9 | 10
{ |tier, 1¹⁄₄ lb. } | 1 | 6 | 8
{ |powder } | | |
{| {| P B | 11 | 13
300 {|same ch’ge {| ¹⁄₂ | 12 | 15
{| {| 1 | 7 | 9
--------+-----------------+-------+-----------------+-----------------

N. B. There were three rounds fired at each charge, but they were all so nearly alike, that it has been thought necessary to put down only one of them. 1802.

_Ranges with sea service iron guns. 1796._

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Kind of Guns, 32, 24, and 18 Pounders.
------+----------+--------------------------------------------+------
|Proportion| |
Eleva-| of | |
tion.| powder. | Kind of shot. |Range.
------+----------+--------------------------------------------+------
deg. | | |Yards.
2 | ¹⁄₃ |With single shot to the first graze | 1200
2 | ¹⁄₄ |Do. Do. | 1000
2 | ¹⁄₄ |2 shot, ranged close together, to | 500
4 | ¹⁄₃ |Single shot | 1600
4 | ¹⁄₄ |Do. | 1500
7 | ¹⁄₃ |Do. | 2150
7 | ¹⁄₄ |Do. | 2020
2 | ¹⁄₄ |1 round shot and 1 r’d. of grape range with |
| |effect together, to | 600
4 | ¹⁄₄ |One round of grape shot, alone, to | 1000
2 | ¹⁄₄ |One double headed, or bar shot will range to|
| |the first graze | 800
------+----------+--------------------------------------------+------

_Ranges with 5¹⁄₂ inch shells, from a 24 Pr. iron Gun. Length of Gun 9¹⁄₂ ft. Wt. 49 ct. 26lb._

+-----+------------------++------------------++------------------+
| | 2 Pounds. || 2 lbs. 8 oz. || 3 Pounds. |
| +-------+----------++-------+----------++-------+----------+
| |Flight.| ||Flight.| ||Flight.| |
| Ele-| +--+ Range to || +--+ Range to || +--+ Range to |
| va- | | First| Ex- || | First| Ex- || |First | Ex- |
|tion.| | Graze| treme|| | Graze| treme|| |Graze | treme|
+-----+----+------+------++----+------+------++----+------+------+
| deg.|Sec.|Yards.|Yards.||Sec.|Yards.|Yards.||Sec.|Yards.|Yards.|
| 1 |1 | 213 | 1139 ||2³⁄₄| 562 | 1456 ||1 | 277 | 1424 |
| 2 |1³⁄₄| 384 | 1267 ||1¹⁄₂| 442 | 1413 ||1³⁄₄| 526 | 1464 |
| 3 |2³⁄₄| 565 | 1413 ||2 | 647 | 1553 ||2¹⁄₄| 740 | 1600 |
| 4 |2¹⁄₄| 750 | 1479 ||3³⁄₄| 896 | 1639 ||3¹⁄₂| 880 | 1679 |
| 5 |3³⁄₄| 836 | 1670 ||4 | 915 | 1510 ||5 | 1182 | 1733 |
| 6 |4 | 896 | 1495 ||5 | 1140 | 1657 ||6¹⁄₄| 1384 | 1787 |
| 7 |6¹⁄₂| 1180 | 1492 ||6 | 1205 | 1481 ||6¹⁄₄| 1410 | 1749 |
| 8 |6³⁄₄| 1305 | 1526 ||6¹⁄₂| 1259 | 1544 ||7 | 1520 | 1744 |
| 9 |7¹⁄₂| 1329 | 1527 ||7 | 1341 | 1561 ||7³⁄₄| 1722 | 1938 |
| 9¹⁄₂|6³⁄₄| 1229 | 1453 ||----| ---- | ---- ||8¹⁄₂| 1748 | 1881 |
+-----+----+------+------++----+------+------++----+------+------+

_Ranges with 4²⁄₅ Shells from a 12 Pounder, Medium._

+-----+------------------++------------------++------------------+
| | 8 Ounces. || 12 Ounces. || 1 lb. 8oz. |
| +-------+----------++-------+----------++-------+----------+
| |Flight.| ||Flight.| ||Flight.| |
| Ele-| +--+ Range to || +--+ Range to || +--+ Range to |
| va- | | First| Ex- || | First| Ex- || |First | Ex- |
|tion.| | Graze| treme|| | Graze| treme|| |Graze | treme|
+-----+----+------+------++----+------+------++----+------+------+
| deg.|Sec.|Yards.|Yards.||Sec.|Yards.|Yards.||Sec.|Yards.|Yards.|
| 1 |1¹⁄₂| 156 }| || | | || | | |
| 2 |2 | 293 }| ||2¹⁄₂| 350 }| || | 707 }| |
| 3 |2¹⁄₂| 363 }| From ||3¹⁄₂| 355 }| From || | 758 }| From |
| 4 |3¹⁄₂| 462 }| 800 ||4 | 679 }| 1100 || | 849 }| 1400 |
| 5 |4 | 587 }| to ||3¹⁄₂| 641 }| to || |1075 }| to |
| 6 |4 | 621 }| 1200 ||5 | 941 }| 1300 || |1150 }| 1600 |
| 7 |4¹⁄₂| 898 }| ||6 |1020 }| || |1300 }| |
| 8 |5 | 781 }| || | | || | | |
+-----+----+------+------++----+------+------++----+------+------+

_Ranges with French brass field guns, with round shot._

------+------------+-------------------+-------
| | Elevation. |
| +-----------+-------+ Range
| | Lines of | | in
Kind.| Charge. |Tan. Scale.|Deg. M.|Toises.
------+------------+-----------+-------+-------
| {| L. M. |-- 58| 300
| {| 2 | 1 3| 350
12 Pr.| 4 lbs. {| 10 | 1 39| 400
| {| 14 | 1 49| 450
| {| 16 | 1 56| 480
| { | L. M. |-- 58| 300
| { | 6 | 1 24| 350
8 Pr.| 2¹⁄₂ lbs.{ | 12 | 1 51| 400
| { | 16 | 2 8| 450
| { | 20 | 2 24| 480
| {| L. M. |-- 58| 250
| {| 4 | 1 20| 300
4 Pr.| 1¹⁄₂ lbs. {| 8 | 1 40| 350
| {| 12 | 2 --| 400
| {| 16 | 2 20| 450
| {| 18 | 2 40| 480
------+------------+-----------+-------+-------

The above are in old French weights and measures.

_Definitions of_ GUNNERY. 1. The impetus at any point of the curve is the perpendicular height to which a projectile could ascend, by the force it has at that point; or the perpendicular height from which a body must fall to acquire the velocity it has at that point.

2. The diameter to any point of the curve is a line drawn through that point perpendicular to the horizon.

3. The points where the diameters cut the curve are called vertexes to these diameters.

4. The axis is that diameter which cuts the curve in its highest or principal vertex, and is perpendicular to the tangent at that point or vertex.

5. The ordinates to any diameter are lines drawn parallel to the tangent at the point where that diameter cuts the curve, and intercepted between the diameter and curve.

6. The absciss is that part of the diameter which is intercepted between the ordinate and the curve.

7. The altitude of the curve is the perpendicular height of the principal vertex above the horizon.

8. The amplitude, random, or range, is the distance between the point of projection and the object aimed at.

9. The elevation of the piece is the angle its axis (produced) makes with the horizon, and the axis itself is called the direction.

10. The horizontal distance to which a mortar, elevated to a given angle, and loaded with a given quantity of powder, throws a shell of a given weight, is called the range of that mortar, with that charge and elevation.

11. The inclination of a plane is the angle it makes with the horizon either above or below.

12. The directrix is the line of motion, along which the describing line or surface is carried in the genesis of any plane or solid figure.

_Laws of motion in_ GUNNERY.

1. Spaces equally run through with equal velocities, are to one another as the times in which they are run through, and conversely.

2. Spaces equally run through in the same or equal times, are to one another as the velocities with which they are run through, and conversely.

3. Spaces run through are in the same proportion to one another, as their times multiplied into their velocities, and conversely.

4. A body urged by two distinct forces in two different directions, will in any given time be found at the point where two lines meet that are drawn parallel to these directions, and through the points to which the body could have moved in the same time, had these forces acted separately.

5. The velocities of bodies, which by the action of gravity begin to fall from the rest, are in the same proportion as the times from their beginning of their falling.

6. The spaces run through by the descent of a body which began to fall from rest, are as the squares of the times, from the beginning of the fall.

7. The motion of a military projectile is in a curve.

GUN-_powder_, a composition of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, well mixed together and granulated, which easily takes fire, and expands with amazing force, being one of the strongest propellents known.

_Gun-powder.--Proportions of the different ingredients for making gunpowder, by different powers in Europe_:

+--------+----+------+-------+-------+------+-------+
| |Eng.| Fran.|Sweden.|Poland.|Italy.|Russia.|
+--------+----+------+-------+-------+------+-------+
|Nitre | 75| 75 | 75 | 80 | 76¹⁄₂| 70 |
|Sulphur | 10| 9¹⁄₂| 9 | 8 | 12¹⁄₂| 11¹⁄₂|
|Charcoal| 15| 15¹⁄₂| 16 | 12 | 12¹⁄₂| 18¹⁄₂|
+--------+----+------+-------+-------+------+-------+
| Pounds| 100|100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
+--------+----+------+-------+-------+------+-------+

GUNPOWDER. This well known powder is composed of seventy five parts, by weight, of nitre, sixteen of charcoal, and nine of sulphur, intimately blended together by long pounding in wooden mortars, with a small quantity of water. This proportion of the materials is the most effectual. But the variations of strength in different samples of gunpowder are generally occasioned by the more or less intimate division and mixture of the parts. The reason of this may be easily deduced from the consideration, that nitre does not detonate until in contact with inflammable matter; whence the whole detonation will be more speedy, the more numerous the surfaces of the contact. The same cause demands, that the ingredients should be very pure, because the mixture of foreign matter not only diminishes the quantity of effective ingredients which it represents, but likewise prevents the contacts by its interposition.

The nitre of the third boiling is usually chosen for making gunpowder, and the charcoal of light woods is preferred to that of those which are heavier, most probably because this last, being harder, is less pulverable. An improvement in the method of making the charcoal has lately been adopted, which consists in putting the wood, cut into pieces about nine inches long, into an iron cylinder laid horizontally, closed at one end, and furnished with small pipes at the other, that the pyroligneous acid and carburetted hidrogen may escape, and thus exposed to the heat of a fire made underneath. It is said, this charcoal improves the strength of gunpowder so much, that only two thirds of the old charge of gunpowder for ordnance are now used in our navy. The requisite pounding of the materials is performed in the large way by a mill, in which wooden mortars are disposed in rows, and in each of which a pestle is moved by the arbor of a water-wheel: it is necessary to moisten the mixture from time to time with water, which serves to prevent its being dissipated in the pulverulent form, and likewise obviates the danger of explosion from the heat occasioned by the blows. Twelve hours pounding is in general required to complete the mixture; and when this is done, the gunpowder is in fact made, and only requires to be dried to render it fit for use.

_Proofs of powder._--The first examination of powder in the British mills, is by rubbing it in the hands to find whether it contains any irregular hard lumps. The second is by blasting 2 drams of each sort on a copper plate, and in this comparing it with an approved powder; in this proof it should nor emit any sparks, nor leave any beads or foulness on the copper. It is then compared with an approved powder, in projecting an iron ball of 64 lbs. from an 8 inch mortar, with a charge of 2 ounces. The best cylinder powder generally gives about 180 feet range, and pit 150; but the weakest powder, or powder that has been redried, &c. only from 107 to 117 feet.

The merchants’ powder, before it is received into the government service, is tried against powder of the same kind made at the royal mills; and it is received if it gives a range of ¹⁄₂₀ less than the king’s powder with which it is compared. In this comparison both sorts are tried on the same day, and at the same time, and under exactly the same circumstances.

The proof of fine grained, or musquet powder, is with a charge of 4 drams from a musquet barrel, to perforate with a steel ball a certain number of ¹⁄₂ inch wet elm boards, placed ³⁄₄ inch asunder, and the first 39 feet 10 inches from the barrel: the king’s powder generally passes through 15 or 16, and restoved powder from 9 to 12. The last trial of powder is by exposing about 1 pound of each sort, accurately weighed, to the atmosphere for 17 or 18 days; during which time, if the materials are pure, it will not increase any thing material in weight, by attracting moisture from the atmosphere.

In this exposure 100 lbs. of good gunpowder should not absorb more than 12 oz. or somewhat less than one per cent.

Different modes of trying gunpowder have been adopted. A ready one is, to lay two or three small heaps on separate pieces of writing paper, and fire one with a red hot wire. If the flame ascend quickly, with a good report, leaving the paper free from white specks, and not burnt into holes; and at the same time the other heaps be not fired by the sparks, the powder is well made, and the ingredients are good.

There are experiments which seem to show, that gunpowder is stronger in the fine impalpable form, than when granulated. This appears to be true with regard to gunpowder originally made, or pounded till it assumes that form; but it may be doubted, whether it have any foundation in general, or indeed that the greater strength depends at all upon this form.

_British Powder Marks._--The different sorts of powder are distinguished by the following marks on the heads of the barrels.

N^{o.} ¹⁄₂} }
L G }Cylinder}
----- } }
N^{o.} 2} }
S G } Cylinder}Marked in Red.
----- } }
N^{o.} 3 } }
F G } Cylinder}
----- } }

~S A~--The dust from N^{o.}3, and F G cylinder.

~R A~--For rifle arms.

⁴⁄₇ Cylinder}mixed--Marked white L G.
³⁄₇ Restoved}

L G or F G in blue, is powder made of pitcoal.

/ \
/ \ {N^{o.} ¹⁄₂ L G}Marked in yellow, is restoved.
|R S| {N^{o.} 3 F G}
\ /
\ /

This _red_ L G, F G, or S G, denotes powder entirely made of the cylinder charcoal, and is that which is now always used on service. The white L G being a mixed powder, is not so uniform as the other, and is therefore generally used in filling shells, or for such other purposes as do not require much accuracy. All powder for service is mixed in proportions according to its strength, so as to bring it as much as possible to a mean and uniform force.

_French Gunpowder._--The French proof ball is of brass, and weighs 60 lbs. French: the diameter of the mortar 7 inches 9 points, or ³⁄₄ of a line, and has one line of windage. The chamber holds exactly 3 ounces; and their best powder must give a range of 90 toises, and their restoved powder a range of 80 toises, to be received into the service. But the powder they now make, when new, will give range of 100 and 120 toises; and Mr. Lombard calculates all his tables from experiments made with powder giving 125 toises with the eprouvette. The above dimensions and weights are all of old French standard.

_Invention of_ GUN-_powder_, is usually ascribed to one Bartholdus Schwartz, a German monk, who discovered it about the year 1320; it is said to have been first used in war by the Venetians against the Genoese in the year 1380. Thevel says its inventor was one Constantine Anelzen, a monk of Friburg. Peter Mexia says it was first used by Alphonsus XI. king of Castile, in the year 1342. Ducange adds, that there is mention made of this powder in the registers of the chambers of accounts of France, so early as the year 1338; and friar Bacon, expressly mentions the composition in his treatise _De Nullitate Magiæ_, published at Oxford in the year 1216. Some indeed are of opinion, that the Arabians or the latter Greeks were the first inventors of gunpowder, about the middle ages of our æra; because its Arabic name is said to be expressive of its explosive quality.

Considerable improvements have lately been made in the composition of gunpowder by the Chinese.

_Method of making_ GUNPOWDER. Take nitre, sulphur, and charcoal; reduce these to a fine powder, and continue to beat them for some time in a stone mortar with a wooden pestle, wetting the mixture occasionally with water, so as to form the whole into an uniform paste, which is afterwards reduced to grains, by passing it through a sieve; and in this form, being carefully dried, it becomes the common gunpowder. For greater quantities mills are used, by means of which more work may be performed in one day than a man can do in a hundred. See MILL.

This destructive powder is composed of 75 parts nitre, 9 sulphur, and 16 of charcoal, in the 100.

The granulation of gunpowder is performed by placing the mass, while in the form of a stiff paste, in a wire sieve, covering it with a board, and agitating the whole: by this means it is cut into small grains or parts, which, when of a requisite dryness, may be rendered smooth or glossy by rolling them in a cylindrical vessel or cask. Gunpowder in this form takes fire more speedily than if it be afterward reduced to powder, as may be easily accounted for from the circumstance, that the inflamation is more speedily propagated through the interstices of the grains. But the process of granulation does itself, in all probability, weaken the gunpowder, in the same manner as it is weakened by suffering it to become damp; for in this last case, the nitre, which is the only soluble ingredient, suffers a partial solution in the water, and a separation in crystals of greater or less magnitude; and accordingly the surfaces of contact are rendered less numerous.

The detonation of gunpowder has been always an interesting problem in chemistry. Numerous theories have been offered, to account for this striking fact. But it is now very well settled, that the nitric acid is decomposed by the heat of ignition; that is oxigen, combines with the charcoal, and forms carbonic acid, while the nitrogen, or other component part, with steam from the water of crystallization, becomes disengaged in the elastic form. Berthollet found, that the elastic product, afforded by the detonation of gunpowder, consisted of two parts nitrogen gas, and one carbonic acid gas. The sudden extrication and expansion of these airs are the cause of the effects of gunpowder.

The muriat afforded by combining the oxigenized muriatic acid and potash, affords gunpowder of much greater strength than the common nitre, but too dangerous for use. For the method of making this salt, See ACID (MURIATIC, OXIGENIZED).

_How to refine nitre._ Put into a copper, or any other vessel, 100 weight of rough nitre, with about 14 gallons of clean water, and let it boil gently for half an hour, and as it boils take off the scum; then stir it about in the copper, and before it settles put it into your filtering-bags, which must be hung on a rack, with glazed earthen pans under them, in which sticks must be laid across for the crystals to adhere to: it must stand in the pans for two or three days to shoot; then take out the crystals and let them dry. The water that remains in the pans boil again for an hour, and strain it into the pans as before, and the nitre will be quite clear and transparent; if not, it wants more refining; to effect which proceed as usual, till it is well cleansed of all its earthy parts.

_How to pulverize nitre._ Take a copper kettle, whose bottom must be spherical, and put into it 14lb, of refined nitre, with 2 quarts or 5 pints of clean water; then put the kettle on a slow fire; and when the nitre is dissolved, if any impurities arise, skim them off; and keep constantly stirring it with 2 large spattles till all the water exhales; and when done enough, it will appear like white sand, and as fine as flour; but if it should boil too fast, take the kettle off the fire, and set it on some wet sand, by which means the nitre will be prevented from sticking to the kettle. When you have pulverised a quantity of nitre, be careful to keep it in a dry place.

_Different kinds of_ GUNPOWDER. It being proper that every one who makes use of gun-powder should know of what it is composed, we shall give a brief account of its origin and use. Gunpowder, for some time after the invention of artillery, was of a composition much weaker than what we now use, or than that ancient one mentioned by Marcus Græcus: but this, it is presumed, was owing to the weakness of their first pieces, rather than to their ignorance of a better mixture: for the first pieces of artillery were of a very clumsy, inconvenient make, being usually framed of several pieces of iron bars, fitted together lengthways, and then hooped together with iron rings; and as they were first employed in throwing stone shot of a prodigious weight, in imitation of the ancient machines, to which they succeeded, they were of an enormous bore. When Mahomed II. besieged Constantinople in the year 1453, he battered the walls with stone bullets, and his pieces were some of them of the calibre of 1200lb. but they never could be fired more than four times in the 24 hours, and sometimes they burst by the first discharge. Powder at first was not grained, but in the form of fine meal, such as it was reduced to by grinding the materials together; and it is doubtful, whether the first grain of it was intended to increase its strength, or only to render it more convenient for the filling it into small charges, and the loading of small arms, to which alone it was applied for many years, whilst meal-powder was still made use of in cannon. But at last the additional strength, which the grained powder was found to acquire from the free passage of the fire between the grains, occasioned the meal-powder to be entirely laid aside. The coal for making gunpowder is either that of willow or hazle; but the lightest kind of willow is found to be the best, well charred in the usual manner, and reduced to powder. Corned powder was in use in Germany as early as the year 1568; but it was first generally used in England in the reign of Charles I.

_Government powder_, _Ordnance-powder_, such powder, as having undergone the customary proof, is so called, and received into the public magazines.

It has been recommended by a French writer to preserve gunpowder at sea by means of boxes, which should be lined with sheets of lead. M. de Gentien, a naval officer tried the experiment by lodging a quantity of gunpowder, and parchment cartridges, in a quarter of the ship which was sheathed in this manner. After they had been stowed for a considerable time, the gunpowder and cartridges were found to have suffered little from the moisture; whilst the same quantity, when lodged in wooden cases, became nearly half rotted.

_Proof of Gunpowder_, first take out of the several barrels of gunpowder a measure full, of about the size of a thimble, which spread upon a sheet of fine writing paper, and then fire it, if the inflammation be very rapid, the smoke rise perpendicular, and the paper be neither burnt nor spotted, it is then to be judged good powder.

Then 2 drams of the same powder are exactly weighed, and put into an eprouvette; which if it raises a weight of 24 pounds to the height of 3¹⁄₂ inches, it may be received into the public magazine as proof.

GUN-_powder prover_. See EPROUVETTE.

GUNSHOT, the reach or range of a gun. The space through which a shot can be thrown.

GUNSHOT-_wound_. Any wound received from the discharge of cannon or fire-arms.

GUNSMITH, a man who makes fire-arms.

GUNSTICK. The rammer or stick with which the charge is driven into the gun.

GUNSTOCK. The wood to which the barrel of the gun is fixed.

GUNSTONE. Such materials, chiefly stone, as were formerly discharged from artillery.

GUR, a house or dwelling in India.

GURRIES, mud forts made in India are so called. These forts are sometimes surrounded with ditches.

GURRY, an indian term to express a certain division of time, comprehending 24 minutes; but the word among the Europeans is generally understood to mean an _hour_. A watch is called a gurry.

GUALIOR, a stupendous military fortification on the summit of a rocky eminence in India, south of Jumma, 28 coss, or 56 English miles, from Agra. It was once taken by a daring enterprize by Col. Popham.

GHYRETTY, cantonments seven coss (14 English miles) from Calcutta. It is a palace built by Mr. Dupleix, which the British took by force in 1797, and imprisoned the principal French colonists of Chandernagore there. This was two years before the war in Europe.

GYMNASTIC, (_gymnastique_, _Fr._) pertaining to athletic exercises, such as leaping, wrestling, drawing the cross bow, fencing, &c. The Greeks, among whom the art originated, were accustomed to strip whenever they performed any part of it.

H.

HABERGEON, a small coat of mail, or only sleeves and gorget of mail, formed of little iron rings or meshes linked together.

HABILIMENTS _of war_, in ancient statutes, signify armor, harness, utensils, or other provisions, without which it is supposed there can be no ability to maintain a war.

HABILLEMENT _des troupes_, _Fr._ properly means the regimental clothing or the uniform of soldiers. The clothing of the French army was not reduced to any regular system before the reign of Louis the 14th. The following observations relative to this important object are too appropriate, and suit all countries too well, to be left unnoticed.

The dress of a soldier should be plain, and made up so as to facilitate every movement of his person, to guard him against the inclemency of the weather, and to be remarkable for its collective uniformity of appearance. Next to these general requisites, the ease of each individual should be consulted; particularly with regard to the breeches, trowsers, or pantaloons. Regimental surgeons will certainly say, that in some instances men have suffered as much from an inattention to this part of their dress, as from the most harrassing service in the face of an enemy. The loins should invariably be covered, the stride be made easy, and the bend of the knee be left unembarrassed. Under the old French government, the whole infantry was clothed in white, with facings of various colors; but both the officers and the men were extremely plain in every part of their dress. Since the revolution, the national color, which was white, has been changed to blue. Not only the soldiers, but the waggon-drivers, &c. had a particular dress to distinguish them from other people. See UNIFORM.

_Un_ HABIT _d’ordonnance_, _Un_ HABIT _d’uniforme_, _Fr._ regimental coat; or clothing.

HACHE, _Fr._ a hatchet.

HACHE _d’armes_, _Fr._ a hatchet or battle-axe.

In ancient times this weapon was frequently resorted to by whole armies when they engaged. At present it is only used on particular occasions, in sorties, &c. or boarding ships.

HACHE, _Fr._ A term which was formerly used among the French to express a certain punishment that military delinquents were obliged to undergo. It consisted in being loaded with a pack or saddle, which the guilty person was under the necessity of carrying a specified distance, and which entailed disgrace upon the bearer.

HACHER, _Fr._ to cut to pieces. This word is very frequently used among the French in a military sense, viz.

_Un bataillon, ou un escadron s’est fait_ HACHER _en pièces_, a battalion, or a squadron has suffered itself to be cut to pieces.

They likewise make use of the expression in familiar discourse, as speaking of truth, viz

_On se feroit_ HACHER _en pièces pour la verite_; one would be cut to pieces for the support of truth.

HACHEREAU, _Fr._ a small hatchet.

HACKERY, an Indian two wheel carriage or cart, drawn by oxen.

HACQUETON. See HATCHET.

HACQUET-WAGEN, a four-wheeled waggon, which is used in the Prussian service to convey pontoons. The under-frame of this carriage is built like that of a chariot, by which means it can turn without difficulty.

HAIL-SHOT. See GRAPE-SHOT.

HAIR-CLOTH, a stuff made of hair. It is laid on the door of powder-magazines and laboratories, to prevent accidents of fire from the shoes of the men treading or rubbing upon nails, sand, or gravel.

HAIR-CLOTH--Weight 30 lbs.--length 15 feet--breadth 11 feet.

HAKIM. A term used in India to signify a master, the governor of a city, a judge, or a king. It sometimes means the government, and power.

HALBERD, HALBERT, a weapon formerly carried by the serjeants of foot and artillery. It is a sort of spear, the shaft of which is about 6 feet long, generally made of ash. Its head is armed with a steel point edged on both sides. Besides this point, which is in a line with the shaft, there is a cross piece of iron, flat and turned down at one end, but not very sharp, so that it serves equally to cut down or thrust with. This weapon has of late been exchanged for the half-pike.

HALBERDIER, a soldier armed with a halbert.

HALEBARDE, _Fr._ halbert. This weapon, as well as the pike, was first adopted by the French, in imitation of a similar one which was carried by the Swiss troops. It was not known in that country before the reign of Louis XI. and when it fell into disuse among the rank and file, it was confined to the serjeants of infantry. The length of a French halbert was six of their feet from one extremity to the other. The handle or shaft was a long stick, with a strong, sharp, iron ferrel at the end, and the upper part had a flat sharp blade, with a cross bar attached to it.