Chapter D: Caldwell, (35)

_Gunner’s_-LEVEL, for levelling pieces of artillery, consists of a triangular brass plate, about 4 inches, at the bottom of which is a portion of a circle divided into 45 degrees; which angle is sufficient for the highest elevation of cannons, mortars, and howitzers, and for giving shot and shells the greatest range: on the centre of this segment of a circle is screwed a piece of brass, by means of which it may be fixed or screwed at pleasure; the end of this piece of brass is made so as to serve for a plummet and index, in order to shew the different degrees of elevation of pieces of artillery. This instrument has also a brass foot, to act upon cannon or mortars, so that when these pieces are horizontal, the instrument will be perpendicular. The foot of this instrument is to be placed on the piece to be elevated, in such a manner, as that the point of the plummet may fall on the proper degree, &c.

The most curious instrument for the use of the artillerist, was lately invented by the very ingenious colonel Congreve, of the British artillery; having the following qualifications, viz. 1. It will find the inclination of any plane, whether above or below the horizon. 2. By applying it either to the cylinder, or outside of any piece of ordnance, angles of elevation or depression may be given to the 60th part of a degree, with less trouble than the common gunner’s quadrant, which only gives to the 4th part of a degree. 3. It will give the line of direction for laying either guns or mortars to an object above or below the horizon. 4. It will find the centre of metals of any piece of ordnance. 5. With it, a point may be found in the rear of a mortar-bed, in the vertical plane of the mortar’s axis; consequently a longer line of sight is given for directing them to the object than the usual way. 6. It answers all the purposes of a pair of callipers, with the advantage of knowing (to the 100th part of an inch) diameters, whether concave or convex, without the trouble of laying the claws upon a diagonal scale. 7. On the sides of the instrument are the following lines, viz. equal parts, solids, plains, and polygons, logarithms, tangents, versed sines, and numbers, plotting scales, and diagonal scale of inches for cutting fuzes by. 8. In the lid of the instrument-case is a pendulum to vibrate half seconds. It is likewise of singular use in surveying; as, 1. It takes horizontal angles to the 60th part of a degree. 2. Vertical angles. 3. Levels. 4. Solves right angled plane triangles. 5. Oblique-angled plane triangles. 6. Answers all the purposes of a protractor, with the advantage of laying down angles exactly as taken in the field. N. B. captain Jordane’s ingenious instrument answers nearly the same purposes.

_Spirit_-LEVEL. See AIR LEVEL.

By the term _level_ is also to be understood the line of direction in which any missive weapon is aimed.

LEVELLING, the finding a line parallel to the horizon at one or more stations, and so to determine the height of one place in regard to another.

A truly level surface is a segment of any spherical substance, which is concentric to the globe of the earth. A true line of level is an arch of a great circle which is imagined to be described upon a true level surface.

The apparent level is a straight line drawn tangent to an arch or line of true level. Every point of the apparent level except the point of contact, is higher than the true level.

The common methods of levelling are sufficient for laying pavements of walks, for conveying water to small distances, for placing horizontal dials, or astronomical instruments; but in levelling the bottoms of canals or ditches in a fortification, which are to convey water to the distance of many miles, the difference between the apparent and true level must be taken into the account.

Dr. Halley suggests a method of levelling, which is performed wholly by the barometer, in which the mercury is found to be suspended to so much the less height, as the place is more remote from the centre of the earth. Hence it follows, that the different height of the mercury in two places gives the difference of level.

Mr. Derham, from some observations at the top and bottom of the monument in London, found that the mercury fell ¹⁄₁₀th of an inch at every 82 feet of perpendicular ascent, when the mercury was at 30 inches. Dr. Halley allows of ¹⁄₁₀th of an inch for every 30 yards; and considering how accurately barometers are now made, we think this method sufficiently exact to take levels for the conveyance of water, or any other military purposes, and indeed less liable to errors than the common levels. Mr. Derham also found a difference of 3 inches ⁸⁄₁₀ths between the height of the mercury at the top and bottom of Snowdonhill in Wales.

For the common occasions of levelling, set a pole upright in a spring, pond, &c. and mark how many feet and inches are above water; then set up another pole of equal length with the other, in the place to which the water is to come. Place the centre of a quadrant on the top of this last pole, the plummet hanging free; spy through the sights at the top of the pole in the water, and if the thread cuts any degree of the quadrant, the water may be conveyed by a pipe laid in the earth. If you cannot see from one extreme to the other, the operation may be repeated.

LEVELLING.--_Table shewing the difference between the true and apparent level._

+------+------+------+------+------+--------+------+-------+
| | Dif- | | Dif- | | Dif- | | Dif- |
| | fer- | | fer- | | fer- | | fer- |
| | ence | | ence | | ence | | ence |
| Dis- | of | Dis- | of | Dis- | of | Dis- | of |
|tance.|level.|tance.|level.|tance.| level. |tance.| level.|
+------+------+------+------+------+--------+------+-------+
| Yds. | Inch.| Yds. | Inch.| Mls. |Ft. in.| Mls. |Ft. in.|
| 100 | 0.026| 1000 | 2.570| ¹⁄₄ | 0 0¹⁄₂| 7 | 32 6 |
| 200 | 0.103| 1100 | 3.110| ¹⁄₂ | 0 2 | 8 | 42 6 |
| 300 | 0.231| 1200 | 3.701| ³⁄₄ | 0 4¹⁄₂| 9 | 53 9 |
| 400 | 0.411| 1300 | 4.344| 1 | 0 8 | 10 | 66 4 |
| 500 | 0.643| 1400 | 5.038| 2 | 2 8 | 11 | 80 3 |
| 600 | 0.925| 1500 | 5.784| 3 | 6 0 | 12 | 95 2 |
| 700 | 1.260| 1600 | 6.580| 4 |10 7 | 13 |112 2 |
| 800 | 1.645| 1700 | 7.425| 5 |16 7 | 14 |130 1 |
| 900 | 2.081| | | 6 |23 11 | 15 |150 |
| | | | | | | 16 |175 |
+------+------+------+------+------+--------+------+-------+

This table will answer several useful purposes.

First.--_To find the height of the apparent level above the true, at any distance._--If the given distance be contained in the table, the correction of level is found in the same line with it; but if the exact distance be not found in the table, then multiply the square of the distance in yards, by 2.57, and divide by 1,000,000, or cut off 6 places on the right for decimals; the rest are inches: or multiply the square of the distance in miles, by 66 feet 4 inches, and divide by 100.

Second.--_To find the extent of the visible horizon, or how far can be seen from any given height, on a horizontal plane, at sea_, &c.--The height of the observer’s eye above the horizon being known, the extent of his visible horizon is found in the column opposite, under the word _Distances_.

Third.--_To find the distance of any object when it first comes in sight, its height being known._--For the distance of any object will be the extent of the visible horizon of the observer, added to the visible horizon of the point he observes. It is necessary in this case for the observer to know only the height of that part of the object which is kept from his view, by the curvilinear figure of the globe.--Knowing the distance of an object, its height may be found in the same manner.

If the height or distance exceed the limits in the table; then, first, if the distance be given, divide it by 2, 3, or 4, till the quotient comes within the distances in the table; then take out the height answering to the quotient, and multiply it by the square of the divisor for the height required. But when the height is given, divide it by one of these square numbers, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c. till the quotient come within the limits of the table, and multiply the quotient by the square root of the divisor.

LEVELLING _staves_, instruments used in levelling, that carry the marks to be observed, and at the same time measure the heights of those marks from the ground. These usually consist of two wooden square rulers, that slide over one another, and are divided into feet, inches, &c.

LEVELLING has two distinct applications in the art of war, in the one case it implies the reduction of an uneven surface to that of a plane, so that the works of a fortification may be of a correspondent height or figure throughout. The other is the art of conveying water from one place to another; in this process, it is found necessary to make an allowance between the true and apparent level, or in other words, for the figure of the earth, for the true level is not a straight line, but a curve which falls below the straight line about 8 inches in a mile, 4 times 8 in 2 miles, 9 times 8 in 3 miles, 16 times 8 in 4 miles, always increasing with the square of the distance.

LEVELLING _System_, a term which since the commencement of the French revolution has been grossly misinterpreted, and cannot be found in any civilized country to answer any other purpose than that of delusion; such was the calumny raised by the patricians of Rome, when they having plundered the soldiers of their lands and appropriated to themselves; when the people complained they were thus reproached; the _agrarian law_ which proposed only to restore the lands to the owners, was called a levelling system; but the people were robbed and the consequence was the ultimate ruin of Roman liberty, and Rome itself; the word Jacobin in modern times has superseded leveller.

LEVER, a balance which rests upon a certain determinate point called a fulcrum.

LEVER in _mechanics_, an inflective line, rod, or beam, moveable about, or upon a fixed point, called the prop or fulcrum, upon one end of which is the weight to be raised, at the other end is the power applied to raise it; as the hand, &c.

Since the momentum of the weight and power are as the quantities of matter in each, multiplied by their respective celerities; and the celerities are as the distances from the centre of motion, and also as the spaces passed through in a perpendicular direction in the same time, it must follow, that there will be an equilibrium between the weight and power, when they are to each other reciprocally as the distances from the centre, or as the celerities of the motions, or as the perpendicular ascent or descent in the same time; and this universally in all mechanical powers whatsoever, and which is therefore the fundamental principle of all mechanics. See MECHANICAL POWERS.

LEVET, the blast of a trumpet.

LEVIER, _Fr._ Lever. The French writers having been more explicit on this head than any of our lexicographers, we shall extract the following passages as conducive to general information. The levier or lever is an instrument made of wood or iron, by whose means the heaviest weights may be raised with few hands. When the lever is made of iron, it is called pince or crow. The lever may be considered as the first of all machines. Wheels, pullies, capstans, &c. act only by the power it possesses. The lever must be looked upon as a straight line, which has three principal points, namely, the one on which the load is placed, and which is to be raised, the appui or rest which is the centre round which it turns, and which the French mechanics call _orgueil_, and lastly the human arm, which is the power that puts the lever into motion. The different arrangements or disposition which is given to these three points, or rather the unequal distances at which they are placed, occasion the force that is collectively displayed.

Belidor makes the following remarks on this useful machine. It is an inflexible bar which must be considered as having no weight in itself, upon which three powers are made to act in three different points in such a manner, that the action of two powers must be directly opposed to the one that resists them. The point where the opposing power acts is called the _point d’appui_.

LEVIER, in artillery, a wedge.

LEVIER _de pointage_, _Fr._ a wedge to assist in pointing pieces of ordnance.

LEVIERS _de support_, _Fr._ a wedge by which cannon is raised to a certain line of direction.

_To_ LEVY, has three distinct military acceptations, as to _levy_ or _raise_ an army, to _levy_ or make war; and, to _levy_ contributions.

LEVY, the levying, or raising troops, by enregistering the names of men capable of bearing arms, for the common defence and safety of a country, has from time immemorial been a leading principle among men.

There are indeed some people still existing, who indiscriminately go to war, leaving, for the immediate security of their huts or habitations, only their old men, their wives and children.

Among the Romans, however, and in some other civilized countries, it was a prevailing maxim never to employ above a certain proportion of matured population, and that proportion consisted uniformly of men who were expert at arms.

National assemblies were called together whenever the situation of the country required, that the senate’s decree should be published and put into effect.

The levying or raising of troops for service was regulated in the following manner under two specific heads, called ordinary and extraordinary levy. The ordinary levy took place in consequence of a decree from the senate by which all males of a certain age were called out to do military service: the extraordinary levy was enforced when a deficiency was found in the ordinary levy to answer the immediate exigencies of the state.

The extraordinary levy, which was further distinguished by the word evocation, (See _Evocati_) was performed as follows. A public orator mounted the rostrum, and after having expatiated upon the urgency of the case, and paid a handsome tribute of commendation to all who should voluntarily step forward to defend their country, he entrusted the conclusion of the business to two superior officers who were to command the new levies.

These officers instantly unfurled two flags, and emphatically exclaimed, _let all those brave men who have the safety of the Republic at heart flock to our standards!_ A red flag was the rallying mark for all who were to serve on foot, and a blue flag pointed out the rendezvous for cavalry. Every one was at liberty to chuse the service he liked best.

With respect to the ordinary levy by which every citizen was liable to be called upon for personal service, it was conducted in the following manner.

All the different tribes into which the inhabitants of the country were divided, assembled in places marked out for that purpose, and as soon as a whole tribe, consisting of males only, had entered, the public crier called over, in a distinct and audible manner, the names of four persons, after which the first military tribune, from among those of that rank who were to command the intended legion, selected one out of the four, and had him enrolled.

The crier then called over the names of four others belonging to the same class, and the second tribune selected one from the four in the same manner as the first had done. This selection went on through the different classes, until the whole tribe was drafted, and another tribe was then subjected to the same rotation. Legions were formed out of these levies, and completed to so effective a strength, that three of them generally composed a Roman army. The Romans readily submitted to these calls of the state; and they did so the more cheerfully, because it was a fundamental rule amongst them, that no man could be provided for in a military or civil way, unless he had served a prescribed number of years.

Kennett, in his antiquities of Rome, gives the following account, which the reader will perceive differs in some particulars from the former.

“At the same time of the year as the consuls were declared _elect_ or _designed_, they chose the military tribunes; fourteen out of the body of the Equites who had served in the army five years, and ten out of the commonalty, such as had made ten campaigns. The former they called _tribuni juniores_, and the latter _seniores_.

The consuls having agreed on a levy (as, in the time of the commonwealth they usually did every year,) they issued out an edict, commanding all persons who had reached the military age (about seventeen years) to appear (commonly) in the capitol, or in the area before the capitol, as the most sacred and august place, on such a day. The people being come together, and the consuls who presided in the assembly having taken their seat, in the first place, the four and twenty tribunes were disposed of according to the number of legions they designed to make up, which was generally four. The _junior_ tribunes were assigned, four to the first legion, three to the second and last. After this, every tribe, being called out by lot, was ordered to divide into their proper centuries; out of each century were soldiers cited by name, with respect had to their estate and class; for which purpose, there were tables ready at hand, in which the name, age, and wealth of every person were exactly described. Four men, as much alike in all circumstances, as could be pitched upon, being presented out of the century, first the tribunes of the first legion chose one, then the tribunes of the second another, the tribunes of the third legion a third man, and the remaining person fell to the tribunes of the fourth. Then four more were drawn out; and now the right of chusing first belonged to the tribunes of the second legion; in the next four to the tribunes of the third legion, then to the tribunes of the fourth legion, and so round; those tribunes chusing last the next time, who chose first the time before; the most equal and regular method imaginable.

Cicero has remarked a superstitious custom observed in these proceedings; that the first soldier pitched upon should for the omen’s sake, be such as had fortunate names, as Salvius, Valerius, and the like. Cic. de Divinat. lib. 1.

There were in those times, (as in the present with respect to the militia) many legal excuses which might keep persons from the list; as, in case they were fifty years old, for then they could not be obliged to serve; or if they enjoyed any civil or sacred office, which they could not conveniently relinquish; or if they had already made twenty campaigns, which was the time required for every foot soldier; or if, upon account of extraordinary merit, they had been by public authority, released from the trouble of serving for such a time; or if they were maimed in any part, and so ought not to be admitted into the legions; as Suetonius tells us of a father who cut off the thumbs of his two sons on purpose to keep them out of the army (Sueton. August. chap. 24.) and Valerius Maximus gives a relation of the like nature. (Val. Max. lib. 6. cap. 3.)

Otherwise they were necessitated to submit, and in case of a refusal, were usually punished either with imprisonment, fine or stripes, according to the lenity, or severity of the consul. And therefore it seems strange, that Machiavel should particularly condemn the Roman discipline, upon account of forcing no one to the wars, when we have in all parts of history, such large intimations of a contrary practice. Nay, we read too of the _conquisitores_ or impress-masters, who were commissioned upon some occasions, to go about, and compel the men to the service of the state.

Valerius Maximus (lib. 6. chap. 3.) gives one example of changing this custom of taking out every particular soldier by the tribunes, for that of chusing them by lot. And Appianus Alexandrinus (in Iberic.) acquaints us, that in the Spanish war, managed by Lucullus, upon complaint to the senate of several unjust practices in the levies, the senate thought fit to chuse all the soldiers by lot. Yet the same author assures us, that within five years time the old custom returned of making the levies in the manner already described.

However, upon any extraordinary occasion of immediate service, they omitted the common formalities, and without much distinction, listed such as they met with, and led them out on an expedition. These they called _Milites Subitarii_. Kennett’s Ant. page 183, b. iv.

The French always followed the example of the Romans with regard to the first principles of levying men, which was effected by a proclamation from the court, called the _ban_. This ban was addressed to the principal person belonging to a province, who, in pursuance to its instructions, assembled his vassals, and got them fit and ready for immediate service.

In England a similar rotation took place; and the balloting for militia-men still exhibits some remains of that feudal system. But when regular armies became necessary in Europe (necessary only from the ambition of contiguous and rival nations!) a different system was adopted, and the natural strength of the country was made a secondary object. Disposable means of offence and defence were resorted to by crowned heads; and as war was became a science, permanent bodies of armed men were kept on foot to answer the purposes of prompt and vigorous decision.

Charles VIII. was the first monarch among the French who dispensed with the service of his noblemen, in themselves and vassals; these he replaced by raising regular companies of gendarmes, who were paid out of his privy purse; in process of time cavalry and infantry regiments, with appropriate trains of artillery, &c. were formed into a military establishment, and have continued ever since.

During the existence of the old government in France, it was customary for the king to issue orders that a certain bounty should be offered to all recruits who would inlist; and when regiments, in time of war, suffered materially, men were frequently drafted out of the militia to complete their establishment.

With respect to the standing or permanent army of England, the first traces of it are to be found during the reign of Henry VII.; from that period until the present time the military establishment of Great Britain has been progressive. Levies have been made in various ways, upon various principles.

The French system of conscription is the most profound and perfect that has ever been devised; no man is exempted. And in this respect it is the only system in its principle adapted to a free state, where all individuals having equal rights, have also corresponding duties and obligations.

LEVY likewise means inlisting money.

LICE, _Fr._ List for combats.

LICENCIEMENT _des troupes_, _Fr._ At the end of a campaign this generally happened in France, when troops could not any longer keep the field owing to the severity of the weather. In former times it was usual, during the continuance of a war, for the French army to retire into winter quarters about the latter end of October. But since the revolution, hostilities have been carried on at all seasons, and under the most disheartening pressure of the weather.

LICENCIEMENT _des equipages des vivres_, _Fr._ It was usual in the old French army, for an order to be issued by which the contractors and commissaries, for the time being, were discharged at the close of a campaign. The director general of the stores always preserved this order, as it formed the only final voucher, upon which the contractors could receive any demand against government. The greatest attention was paid to this important branch of military economy; and, if at the conclusion of a campaign, it was found necessary to retain any part of the establishment for the immediate subsistence of the troops in winter quarters, that part was minutely noticed in the order.

LICENCIER, _Fr._ to discharge.

LIDE, _Fr._ a warlike machine, which was formerly used to throw large stones against a fortified place, or upon an enemy.

_To_ LIE, in a military acceptation of the term, to be in quarters, in cantonments, or to be in camp: the fourth regiment of foot, for instance, LIES encamped between Fort Adams and Orleans: or it LIES at Orleans. The light dragoons LIE along the frontier.

_To_ LIE _in ambush_, to be posted in such a manner as to be able to surprise your enemy, should he presume to advance, without having previously cleared the woods, hedges, &c.

_To_ LIE _under cover_, to be under the protection of a battery, or to be sheltered by a wood, &c.

_To_ LIE _in wait_, to take a position unobserved by the enemy, and to remain under arms, in the expectation of suddenly falling upon his flanks or rear.

LIEU, _Fr._ League. There are three sorts of lieues or leagues in France, the great, middling, and small. The great French league contains three thousand geometrical paces, or two thousand five hundred toises; and the small league two thousand geometrical paces, that is, twice the extent of the Italian mile; which is so called, because it contains one thousand geometrical paces. According to an old existing regulation, the leagues of France were directed to contain two thousand two hundred toises, and two thousand six hundred and forty geometrical paces. See MEASURE.

_In_ LIEU. In the room, place, or stead of.

LIEUTENANT. This word is originally derived from the Latin legatus, locum tenens, and comes immediately to us from the French _lieu-tenant_, supplying or holding the place of another. In a military sense it means the second person or officer in command. _Lieutenant-general_, the next in command to a general; _lieutenant-colonel_, the next to a colonel; _captain-lieutenant_, an intermediate rank; and _lieutenant_, the next to a captain, in every company of both foot and horse, and who takes the command upon the death or absence of his superior officer. Fuzileer corps, grenadiers, and light infantry, in the British service, have second lieutenants and no ensigns, a very absurd distinction.

LIEUTENANT _of artillery_. In the British service each company of artillery has 4; 1 first and 3 second lieutenants. The first lieutenant has the same detail of duty with the captain, because in his absence he commands the company: he is to see that the soldiers are clean and neat: that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements are in good and serviceable order; and to watch over every thing else, which may contribute to their health. He must give attention to their being taught their exercise, see them punctually paid, their messes regularly kept, and visit them in the hospitals when sick. He must assist at all parades, &c. He ought to understand the doctrine of projectiles and the science of artillery, with the various effects of gunpowder, however managed or directed. He should likewise be able to construct and dispose batteries to the best advantage; to plant cannon, mortars, and howitzers, so as to produce the greatest annoyance to an enemy. He is to be well skilled in the attack and defence of fortified places, and to be conversant in arithmetic, mathematics, and mechanics, &c.

_Second_ LIEUTENANT, in the _artillery_, is the same as an ensign in an infantry regiment, being the youngest commissioned officer in the company. It is his duty to assist the first lieutenant in the detail of the company. His other qualifications should be the same as those required in the first lieutenant.

LIEUTENANT _of engineers_. See ENGINEERS.

LIEUTENANT-_colonel_. See COLONEL.

LIEUTENANT-_general_. See GENERAL.

LIEUTENANT _du Roi_, _Fr._ During the monarchy of France there was a deputy governor in every fortified place, or strong town, who commanded in the absence of the governor, and was a check upon his conduct when present. This person was called LIEUTENANT _du Roi_.

LIEUTENANT _Reduced_, (_Lieutenant Reformé_, _Fr._) he whose company or troop is broke or disbanded, but who continued in whole or half pay, and still preserves his right of seniority and rank in the army.

LIEUTENANT _de la Colonelle_, _Fr._ the second officer, or what was formerly styled the captain lieutenant of the colonel’s company of every infantry regiment, was so called in France.

LIEUTENANS _des Gardes Francoises et Suisses_, _Fr._ lieutenants belonging to the French and Swiss guards. During the existence of the monarchy in France they bore the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and took precedence of all captains.

LIEUTENANS _Provinciaux d’Artillerie_, _Fr._ were certain officers belonging to the old French service, and immediately attached to the artillery, who bore the title or name of the particular province in which they were stationed. The majority of this description were employed in the ordnance department; another part superintended different artillery departments upon the frontiers. Some were excused from all duty on account of their age and seniority.

Several provincial lieutenants, who had military employments under the board of ordnance, received the rank of lieutenant general in the army from the king, and could rise to the most exalted stations in common with other officers.

LIEUTENANT _Général_, _Fr._ The title and rank of lieutenant-general was of a more desultory nature in France under the old government of that country, than in other countries. High officers of justice were distinguished by the name; and all governors of provinces, as far as their jurisdiction extended, together with the persons who acted under them, were called _lieutenants généraux_. There were likewise persons who bore the title of lieutenant-general of the kingdom at large. Every officer, moreover, that acted immediately under a general, and was next to him in rank, was styled lieutenant-general. It is the same, in this respect, in England. In both countries, however, (considering the subjects as appertaining to a monarchical institution) the title of general was only ostensible and honorary, as his functions were delegated to him by his sovereign, the real general and head of the army. So that intrinsically a general could only be considered as lieutenant-general to the king; but the lieutenant-general who acts under him, must be viewed as holding a relative rank inferior to both. The words of the two commissions sufficiently explain our observation. They are as follow for a lieutenant-general with the nominal rank of general:--_We have made and constituted_ N. _our lieutenant-general, &c._ and for those acting under him:--_We have made and constituted_ N. _one of our lieutenant-generals_. Which plainly indicates, that of the first class there can only be one who represents his sovereign; whereas there are and may be many of the other description. Lieutenant-generals, in the French service, did not receive any pay, in consequence of the rank they bore, unless they actually commanded some part of the army, and received a commission from the king for that purpose. This commission was renewed annually, according to his majesty’s pleasure.

LIEUTENANT-_General d’Artillerie_. See _Lieutenant-general of the_ ORDNANCE.

LIEUTENANT-_General des Armèes Navales du Roi_. _Fr._ an officer in the old French service, belonging to the naval department. He took rank of all chefs d’escadre, or commodores, and issued orders through them to inferior officers.

LIFE GUARDS.--See GUARDS.

LIGHT BOBS, a familiar term used for the light infantry.

LIGHT HORSE. All mounted soldiers, that are lightly armed and accoutred for active and desultory service, may be considered under this term. Thus light dragoons, hussars, mounted riflemen, &c. are strictly speaking light horse.

LIGHT INFANTRY, an active, strong body of men, selected from the aggregate of battalion companies, and made up of the most promising recruits that are occasionally inlisted.

When the light infantry companies are in line with their battalions, they are to form and act in every respect as a company of the battalion; but when otherwise disposed of, they may loosen their files to six inches

The open order of light infantry is usually two feet between each file.

The files may be extended from right, left, or centre; in executing it, each front rank man must carefully take his distance from the man next to him on that side from which the extension is made: the rear rank men conform to the movement of their file leaders.

When light infantry men fire in extended order, it is to be a standing rule, that the two men of the same file are never unloaded together; for which purpose as soon as the front rank man has fired, he is to slip round the left of the rear rank man, who will take a short pace forward, and put himself in the other’s place, whom he is to protect while loading.

The extended order of light infantry varies according to circumstances and situations. They may sometimes loosen their files to three times the distance of open order. But the general rule is to allow convenient intervals for the rear rank men to slip by, and return after they have fired.

All movements of light infantry, except when firing, advancing, or retreating, are to be in quick time.

The officer commanding the company in line will be on the right, covered by a serjeant; the next on the left also covered by a serjeant. The youngest officer in the rear. In extended order the post of the officers and serjeants is always in the rear at equal distances.

In marching by files the officer commanding leads: by divisions each officer leads one. The supernumerary officer, if there be one, is in both cases with the officer commanding, ready to obey any directions he may receive from him.

The arms of light infantry in general are carried sloped, when the bayonets are fixed. Flanking or advanced parties, however, or parties in particular situations, may carry them trailed, and without bayonets, for the purpose of taking a more cool and deliberate aim.

When the light infantry is ordered to cover the line to the front, the divisions will move from their inner flanks round the flanks of the battalions, and when at the distance of fifty paces, the leading flanks will wheel towards each other, so as to meet opposite the centre of the battalion, opening their files gradually from the rear, so as to cover the whole extent of the battalion.

The files are not to wait for any word of command, but to halt and front themselves. In this position, and in all positions of extended order, the post of the officer commanding is in the rear of the centre, and the movements are to be regulated by the company belonging to the battalion, which governs those of the line. See _Am. Mil. Lib._

Light infantry men, like hussars, are frequently detached to act as scouts on the flanks, in the front, or with the rear guard of the body of troops to which they belong. They then acquire the appellation of skirmishers, and being previously told off for that specific duty, they advance and form in the front in rank entire; which is effected by each man from the rear rank placing himself on the left of his file leader. The rank entire may be resorted to for various purposes during the movements of one or more battalions, since it may serve not only to cover them from the enemy’s observation, but in some cases, especially in foggy weather, will itself appear a larger body than it really is. Too much attention cannot be given to the organization of light troops on foot. They are very properly called the eyes of an army, and ought always to be considered as indispensibly necessary.

LIGHT TROOPS. By light troops are generally meant all horse and foot which are accoutred for detached service.

LIGNE, _Fr._ See LINE.

LIGNE _d’Eau_, _Fr._ a term used in aquatics. It is the hundredth and fortieth portion of an inch of water, and furnishes or supplies one hundred and four pints of water, Paris measure, in twenty four hours.

LIGNE _de moindre résistance_, _Fr._ is the line that being drawn from the centre of the _fourneau_ or chamber of a mine, runs up in a perpendicular direction to the nearest outward surface.

LIGNES _en forme de Crémaillère_, _Fr._ _Indented lines, or lines resembling the teeth of a saw, or stairs_: they are connected with one another like crotchets; or united by small flanks comprising fourteen or fifteen toises each. M. de Clairac has given a particular account of their construction in his _Ingenieur de Campagne_. The effect, observes that writer, which is produced by the concentrated fire that may be poured from these lines, is perhaps unexampled. One advantage is certain, that of being able to increase your efforts of defence, in proportion as the enemy advances; since it must be evident, that constructed as the flanks are, and enchasing one another, the execution becomes multiplied in every quarter. It may moreover be stated among other advantages, that as the salient points are double in number, and are flanked within half a distance of musquet shot, without stretching far into the country, they must of course be less exposed to the enemy’s approaches. From the figure of these lines the troops are enabled to keep up an uninterrupted and regular direct fire; and it is the only construction from which an equal discharge of ordnance or musquetry may be served in every quarter at once.

LIMBER, in _artillery_, a two-wheel carriage with shafts to fasten the trail of travelling carriages by means of a pintle or iron pin, when travelling, and taken off on the battery, or when placed in the park of artillery; which is called unlimbering the guns.

LIME, in _military architecture_, is made of all kind of stones, that will calcine: that which is made of the hardest stone is the best, and the worst of all that which is made of chalk.

Lime will not be sufficiently burnt in less than 60 hours. The signs of well burnt lime are, that its weight is to that of the stone in a sesquialterate proportion; that it be white, light, and sonorous; that when slaked, it sticks to the sides of the vessel, sending forth a copious thick smoke, and requires a great deal of water to slake it.

In some countries, as the East Indies and the United States, they make good lime of shells of fish, which dries and hardens in a very short time; and when it is mixed with Dutch terras, is fit for all kind of aquatic works.

Lime should always be burnt with coals, and never with wood, the coals being strongly impregnated with sulphureous particles, which, mixed with the lime, make it more adhesive. See MORTAR.

LIMINARQUE, _Fr._ an office of distinction, which existed in the Roman empire. The persons invested with it were directed to watch the frontiers of the empire, and they commanded the troops that were employed upon that service.

LIMITARY, a guard or superintendant, placed at the confines or boundaries of any kingdom or state.

LIMITS, in a military sense, is that distance which a sentry is allowed on his post, namely 50 paces to the right, and as many to the left.

LINCH-_pin_, in artillery, that which passes through the ends of the arms of an axle-tree, to keep the wheels or trucks from slipping off in travelling.

LINCH-_clout_, in artillery, the flat iron under the end of the arms of an axle-tree, to strengthen them, and to diminish the friction of the wheels.

LINDEN TREE. The wood used in artificial fire-works, &c.

LINE, in geometry, signifies length, without any supposed breadth or depth. A _straight or right line_ is the shortest way from one point to another. A _curved or crooked line_ is that which deviates from the shortest way, and embraces a greater space between one point and another. A _perpendicular line_ is a straight line, which falling upon another line does not incline either to one side or the other. _Parallel lines_ are lines which are at equal distances from one another, in such a manner, that although they may be prolonged ad infinitum, they never can meet.

Euclid’s second book treats mostly of lines, and of the effects of their being divided, and again multiplied into one another.

_Horizontal_ LINE is that which is spread upon the plane of the horizon; such, for instance, are those lines that may be supposed to form the level surface of a plain.

_Inclined_ LINE, (_ligne inclineé_, _Fr._) is that line which leans or is raised obliquely upon the plane of the horizon, and which might resemble the sloping or declivity of a hillock.

_Oblique_ LINE, (_ligne oblique_, _Fr._) a straight line which leans more to one side than another the instant it is brought into contact with any other line.

LINE _tangent_, (_ligne tangente_, _Fr._) a straight line, which, without intersecting it meets a curve at one point, and does not enter, but barely touches it.

_Vertical_ LINE, (_ligne verticale_, _Fr._) a line which is raised perpendicularly above or below the horizon. Of this description are all lines that express height or depth.

_The_ LINE. This term is frequently used to distinguish the regular army from other establishments of a military nature. All numbered or marching regiments are called the line. The marines, militia, and volunteers, do not come under the term. It is, however, a corruption of the word, since the true import of line in military matters, means that solid part of an army which is called the main body, and has a regular formation from right to left. Thus in the seven years war, when prince Ferdinand commanded the allied army, the British troops under the marquis of Granby did not belong to the line, because they were always detached and acted in front of the main body. Grenadiers and light infantry, when from their several corps, cannot be called the line, but the instant they are incorporated they become so. According to this explanation, and we think it a correct one, the word is very generally misapplied, as it cannot strictly be used to distinguish any particular establishment from another.

LINE, or _line of battle_, is the arrangement or disposition of an army for battle: its front being extended along a straight _line_ as far as the ground will permit, in order that the several corps of cavalry and infantry which compose it, may not be cut off or flanked by the enemy.

The Ottoman troops are generally drawn up on a curve line, or half-moon, for the purpose of surrounding their enemies by superior numbers. European armies are usually drawn up in three lines; the first being named the _van_, (_avant-garde_, _Fr._) the second, _main body_, (_corps de bataille_, _Fr._) and the third, which was formerly the weakest, is called the _reserve_, or _rear-guard_. (_Corps de réserve, ou arrière-garde_, _Fr._) Each of these lines is so drawn up, that the wings or extremities are always composed of some squadrons of horse, whose intervals are likewise supported by infantry platoons. The battalions are posted in the centre of each line; sometimes they are intermixed with squadrons of horse, when there is a considerable body of cavalry attached to the army. The space of ground, which in each line separates the different corps from one another, is always equal in extent to the front that is occupied by them. These intervals are left in order to facilitate their several movements, and to enable them to charge the enemy without being exposed to confusion and disorder. It must be observed, as a general rule, that the intervals or spaces which are between each battalion and squadron belonging to the second _line_ should invariably correspond with the ground that is occupied by the battalions and squadrons, which constitute the first _line_; in order that the first _line_, on being forced to fall back, may find sufficient ground to rally upon, and not endanger the disposition of the second _line_, by precipitately crowding on it.

Each line is divided into right and left wings. Each wing is composed of one or more divisions. Each division is composed of one or more brigades. Each brigade is formed of two, three, or four, or more battalions.

Battalions are formed in line at a distance of twelve paces from each other, and this interval is occupied by two or more cannon, which are attached to each battalion. There is no increased distance betwixt brigades, unless particular circumstances attend it. In exercise, should there be no cannon betwixt the battalions, the interval may be reduced to six paces.

LINE, _how regulated_. Its regulating body in movement is, in general, the battalion of that flank which is nearest to, and is to preserve the appui, or which is to make the attack. There are very few cases in which the centre ought to regulate, although the direct march of the line in front appears to be the easiest conducted by a battalion of the centre. It is the flank, however, that must preserve the line of appui in all movements in front, if the line is thrown backward or forward, it is generally on a flank point.

It may not be superfluous to remark, that the term _line_, as expressing a military disposition for battle, was not known until the sixteenth century.--Before that period when armies were ranged in order of battle upon three lines; the first _line_ was called _advanced guard_, (_avant garde_,) the second, _main body only_, (_corps de bataille_,) and the third, _rear guard_, (_arriére garde_.)--These terms are never used in modern times, except when any army is on its march; when drawn up for action, or in the field for review, _columns_, or _lines_ are substituted.

LINES _of support_, are lines of attack, which are formed to support one another. Where there are several, the second should outflank the first, the third the second; the advanced one being thereby strengthened and supported on its outward wing.

LINE _of march_. The regular and tactical succession of the component parts of an army that is put in motion.

LINES _of march_, are bodies of armed men marching on given points to arrive at any straight alignement on which they are to form. The general direction of such alignement is always determined before the troops enter it, and the point in that line at which their head is to arrive, must next be ascertained. See _Am. Mil. Lib._

The line is said to be well dressed, when no part is out of the straight alignement. That this may be effected, at the word _dress_, which is given by the commander, it is immediately to commence from the centre of each battalion, the men looking to their own colors, and the correcting officers lining them upon the colors of their next adjoining battalion.

LINE-_firings_, are executed separately and independently by each battalion.

_Inversion of the line_, in formation. This is a manœuvre which ought only to be resorted to on the most urgent occasions, as it is prudent to avoid the inversion of all bodies in line. The inversion is effected by facing a battalion or line to the right about, instead of changing its position by a counter march; sometimes, indeed, it may be necessary to form to a flank with its rear in front. The column with its line in front may arrive on the left of its ground, and be obliged immediately to form up and support that point, so that the right of the line will become the left. Part of a second line may double round on the extremity of a first line, thereby to outflank an enemy. These, and various other movements, may be found necessary, and they can only be practised with safety and expedition by the inversion of the line.

LINES _advancing to engage an enemy. Lignes marchant à l’ennemi_, _Fr._ According to Marshal Puységur, all lines should take the centre for the regulating point of movement, and not the right, as others have maintained. He grounds his opinion upon a known fact, that the more extended a line is, the more difficult it must prove to march by the right. By making the centre the directing portion of the line, more than half the difficulty is removed. To which it may be added, that the centre is more easily discernible from the right and left, than the right is within the just observation of the left, or the left within that of the right.

When the _line_ advances it must uniformly preserve a convexity from the centre, so that when it halts, the right and left may have to dress up; but this convexity must be scarcely perceptible. Were the line to be concave on approaching the enemy, a necessity would occur of throwing the wings back, perhaps even of putting several corps to the _right_ about, during which operation the whole army might be endangered.

When lines are marching forward they must be occasionally halted: in which cases the centre halts first, and when the line is ordered to advance again, the centre steps off though in an almost imperceptible manner, before the right and left.

Each commanding officer must place himself in the centre of that proportion of the line which he has under his immediate orders, unless he should be otherwise directed. The centre is always the most convenient point, from whence every thing that passes on the right and left may be observed. When the line advances in charging order, he must march at the head of his battalion or squadron, taking care, that he is followed by his troops with an equal cadenced step, and regulating his own movement by that of the divisions which are formed on his right and left. The greater the extent of line proves, which is composed of several battalions and squadrons that advance forward with the same front, the more difficult will be the movement of the several bodies; but as we have already observed, a great part of this difficulty is overcome when the centre is made the directing body. The right and left must be invariably governed by it.

_Retiring_ LINE, are bodies of armed men that have advanced against an opposing enemy in order of battle, withdrawing themselves with regularity from the immediate scene of action. On this occasion it is of the greatest importance, that the line should be correctly dressed before it faces to the right about; and the battalions will prepare for the retreat in the manner prescribed for the single one by receiving the caution, that the _line will retire_.

_To form the_ LINE, in land tactics, is to arrange the troops in order of battle, or battle array.

_To break the_ LINE, to change the direction from that of a straight line, in order to obtain a cross fire.

_Turning out of the_ LINE, in a military sense. The line turns out without arms whenever the general commanding in chief comes along the front of the camp.

In the British army the following is the usage:

When the _line_ turns out, the private men are drawn up in a line with the bells of arms; the corporals on the right and left of their respective companies: the piquet forms behind the colors, with their accoutrements on, but without arms.

The serjeants draw up one pace in the front of the men, dividing themselves equally.

The officers draw up in ranks, according to their commissions, in the front of the colors; two ensigns taking hold of the colors.

The field officers advance before the captains.

The camp colors on the flanks of the parade are to be struck, and planted opposite to the bells of arms; the officers espontoons are to be planted between the colors, and the drums piled up behind them; the halberts are to be planted between, and on each side the bells of arms, and the hatchets turned from the colors.

_Full or close_ LINES, (_lignes pleines_, _Fr._) Marshal Puységur in his _Art de la Guerre_ is a strong advocate for full or _close lines_, in his disposition of the order of battle, provided the ground will admit it. He proposes, in fact, that the battalions of infantry and the squadrons of horse should form one continuity of line, without leaving the least interval between them.