Chapter D: Caldwell, (37)

The natural powers, wind and water, may be applied to vast advantage in working great engines, when managed with skill and judgment.--The due application of these has much abridged the labors of men; for there is scarce any labor to be performed, but an ingenious artificer can tell how to apply these powers to execute his design, and answer his purpose; for any constant motion being given, it may, by due application, be made to produce any other motions we desire. Therefore these powers are the most easy and useful, and of the greatest benefit to mankind. Besides, they cost nothing, and do not require any repetition nor renewing, like a weight or a spring, which require to be wound up. When these cannot be had, or cannot serve our end, we have recourse to some living power, as men, horses, &c.

4. Men may apply their strength several ways in working a _machine_. A man of ordinary strength, turning a roller by the handle, can act for a whole day against a resistance equal to 30 pounds weight; and if he works ten hours in a day, he will raise a weight 30lb. 3¹⁄₂ feet in a second; or if the weight be greater, he will raise it so much less in proportion.

But a man may act, for a small time, against a resistance of 50lb. or more.

If two men work at a windlass or roller, they can more easily draw up 70lb. than one man 30lb. provided the elbow of one of the handles be at right angles to that of the other: and with a fly or heavy wheel applied to it, a man may do ¹⁄₃d part more work; and for a little while act with a force, or overcome a continual resistance of 80lb. and work a whole day when the resistance is but 40lb.

Men used to carrying weighty burdens, such as porters, will carry some 150lb. others 200lb. or 250lb. according to their strength.

A man can draw but about 70 or 80lb. horizontally; for he can but apply half his weight.

If the weight of a man be 140lb. he can act with no greater force in thrusting horizontally, at the height of his shoulders, than 27lb.

A horse draws to greatest advantage, when the line of direction is a little elevated above the horizon, and the power acts against his breast: and can draw 200lb. for eight hours in a day, at two miles and an half an hour. If he draws 240lb. he can work but six hours, and not quite so fast; and, in both cases, if he carries some weight he will draw better than if he carried none. And this is the weight a horse is supposed to be able to draw over a pully out of a well. In a cart a horse may draw 1000lb. The most force a horse can exert is when he draws something above a horizontal direction.

The worst way of applying the strength of a horse, is to make him draw or carry up a hill: and three men with 100lb. on their backs, will climb up a steep hill faster than a horse with 300lb.

A round walk for a horse to draw in at a mill, &c. should not be less than 40 feet diameter.

5. Every machine should be made of as few parts, and those as simple as possible, to answer its purpose; not only because the expence of making and repairing will be less, but it will also be less liable to be put out of order.

6. If a weight is to be raised but a very little way, the lever is the most simple, easy, and ready machine; or, if the weight be very great, the common screw is most proper; but if the weight is to be raised a great way, the wheel and axle is a proper power, but blocks and pullies render the labor still more easy: the same may be done by the perpetual screw.

Great wheels, to be wrought by men or cattle, are of most use and convenience when their axles are perpendicular to the horizon; but if by water, &c. then it is best to have their axles horizontal.

7. As to the combination of simple _machines_ to make a compound one, though the lever when simple cannot raise a weight to any great height, and in this case is but of little service; yet it is of great use when compounded with others. Thus the spokes of a great wheel are all levers perpetually acting; and a beam fixed to the axis to draw the wheel about by men or horses, is a lever. The lever also may be combined with the screw, but not conveniently with pullies or with the wedge. The wheel and axle is combined to great advantage with pullies: but the perpetual screw, with the wheel is very serviceable. The wedge cannot be combined with any other mechanical power; and it only performs its effect by percussion; but this force of percussion may be increased by engines.

Pullies may be combined with pullies, and wheels with wheels. Therefore if any single wheel would be too large, and take up too much room, it may be divided into two or three more wheels and trundles, or wheels and pinions, as in clock work, so as to have the same power, and perform the same effect.

In wheels with teeth, the number of teeth that play together in two wheels, should be prime to each other, that the same teeth may not meet at every revolution: for when different teeth meet, they by degrees wear themselves into a proper figure: therefore they should so be contrived that the same teeth meet as seldom as possible.

8. The strength of every part of the _machine_ should be made proportional to the stress it is to bear: and therefore let every lever be made so much stronger, as its length and the weight it is to support are greater; and let its strength diminish proportionally from the fulcrum, or point where the greatest stress is to each end. The axles of wheels and pullies must be so much stronger as they are to bear greater weight. The teeth of wheels, and the wheels themselves, which act with greater force, must be proportionally stronger; and in any combination of wheels and axles, make their strength diminish gradually from the weight to the power, so that the strength of every part be reciprocally as its velocity. The strength of ropes must be according to their tension; that is, as the squares of their diameters: and, in general, whatever parts a _machine_ is composed of, the strength of every particular part of it must be adjusted to the stress upon the whole; therefore in square beams the cubes of the diameters must be made proportional to the stress they bear: and let no part be stronger or bigger than is necessary for the stress upon it; not only for the ease and well going of the _machine_, but for diminishing the friction; for all superfluous matter in any part of it, is a dead weight upon the machine, and serves only to impede its motion: hence he is the most perfect mechanic, who not only adjusts the strength to the stress, but who also contrives all the parts to last equally well, so that the whole _machine_ may fall together.

9. To have the friction as little as possible, the _machine_ should be made of the fewest and simplest parts. The diameters of the wheels and pullies should be large, and the diameters of the arbors or spindles they run on, as small as can be consistent with their strength. All ropes and cords must be as pliable as possible, and for that end rubbed with tar or grease: the teeth of wheels must be made to fit and fill up the openings, and cut into the form of epicycloids. All the axles, where the motion is, and all teeth where they work, and all parts that in working rub upon one another, must be made smooth: and when the machine goes, must be oiled or greased.

10. When any motion is to be long continued, contrive the power to move or act always one way, if it can be done, for this is better and easier performed than when the motion is interrupted, and the power is forced to move first one way, and then another; because every change of motion requires a new additional force to effect it. Besides, a body in motion cannot suddenly receive a contrary motion, without great violence: and the moving any part of the _machine_ contrary ways by turns, with sudden jerks, tends only to shake the _machine_ to pieces.

11. In a _machine_ that moves always one way, endeavor to have the motion uniform.

12. But when the nature of the thing requires that a motion is to be suddenly communicated to a body, or suddenly stopped: to prevent any damage or violence to the engine by a sudden jolt, let the force act against some spring, or beam of wood, which may supply the place of a spring.

13. In regard to the size of the _machine_, let it be made as large as it can conveniently; the greater the machine, the more exact it will work, and perform all its motions the better; for there will always be some errors in the making, as well as in the materials, and consequently in the working of the _machine_. The resistance of the medium in some _machines_ has a sensible effect; but all these mechanical errors bear a less proportion in the motion of great machines, than in that of little ones; being nearly reciprocally as their diameters, supposing they are made of the same matter, and with the same accuracy, and are equally well finished.

14. For engines that go by water, it is necessary to measure the velocity, drop in pieces of sticks, &c. and observe how far they are carried in a second, or any given time.

But if it flows through a hole in a reservoir, or standing receptacle of water, the velocity will be found from the depth of the whole below the surface.

Thus let _s_ = 16¹⁄₁₂; _v_ = velocity of the fluid per second; _B_ = the area of the hole; _H_ = the height of the water; all in feet. Then the velocity of _v_ = √(2 _s H_); and its force = the weight of the quantity

_v v_
-----_B_
2 _s_

or _H B_ of water, or =

62¹⁄₂
-----_H B_
112

hundred weight: because a cubic foot = 62¹⁄₂ lb. avoirdup. Also a hogshead is about 8¹⁄₂ feet, or 531lb. and a tun is 4 hogsheads.

When you have but a small quantity of water, you must contrive it to fall as high as you can, to have the greater velocity, and consequently more force upon the engine.

15. If water is to be conveyed through pipes to a great distance, and the descent be but small, much larger pipes must be used because the water will come slow.

Water should not be driven through pipes faster than four feet per second, by reason of the friction of the tubes; nor should it be too much wire-drawn, that is, squeezed through smaller pipes, for that creates a resistance, as water-way is less in narrow pipes.

16. When any thing is to be performed by a water-wheel, moved by the water running under it and striking the paddles or ladle-boards, the channel it moves in ought to be something wider than the hole of the adjutage, and so close to the floats on every side as to let little or no water pass; and when past the wheel, to open a little, that the water may spread. It is of no advantage to have a great number of floats or paddles; for those past the perpendicular are resisted by the back water, and those before it are struck obliquely. The greatest effect that such a wheel can perform, in communicating any motion, is when the paddles of the wheel move with one-third the velocity of the water; in which case, the force upon the paddle is four-ninths only; supposing the absolute force of the water against the paddle, when the wheel stands still, to be 1: so that the utmost motion which the wheel can generate, is but ⁴⁄₂₇ths of that which the force of the water against the paddles at rest would produce.

MADRAS. Fort St. George. A town and fort on the Coromandel coast, in the East Indies, belonging to the English. The town is called Madras by the inhabitants, but by the natives, Chilipatam. It is divided into two towns, the one called the White, and the other the Black town; the former being inhabited by Europeans, and the latter by Gentoos. The diamond mines of Golconda are a week’s journey from this place. The town is governed by a mayor and aldermen, with other officers. It is 63 miles north of Pondicherry, lat. 13, 5, N. long. 80, 34, E. It may not be irrelevant to state, that the establishments belonging to Great Britain, on the coast of Coromandel, is divided into several governments, independent of each other. Bombay commands the factories on the western side of the peninsula, commonly called the Malabar coast; together with those in Guzzerat: the establishments and possessions on the eastern or Coromandel coast, are under the government of Madras; and those in Bengal depend on Calcutta.

MADRIERS, are long planks of broad wood, used for supporting the earth in mining, carrying on a sap, making coffers, caponiers, galleries, and various other purposes at a siege; also to cover the mouth of petards after they are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to the gates or other places designed to be forced open. When the planks are not strong enough, they are doubled with plates of iron.

MAGAZIN, _Fr._ magazine.

_Petit_-MAGAZIN. _Fr._ This was a sort of intermediate building, called entrepot, where stores, provisions, &c. to answer daily consumptions were deposited.

MAGAZIN _d’approvisionnement_, _Fr._ magazine of stores.

MAGAZIN _d’artillerie_, _Fr._ gunpowder magazines.

MAGAZINE, a place in which stores are kept, or arms, ammunition, provisions, &c. Every fortified town ought to be furnished with a large magazine, which should contain stores of all kinds, sufficient to enable the garrison and inhabitants to hold out a long siege, and in which smiths, carpenters, wheel-wrights, bakers, &c. may be employed in making every thing belonging to the artillery, as carriages, waggons, &c.

_Powder_-MAGAZINE, is that place where the powder is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ greatly both in regard to situation and construction; but all agree, that they ought to be arched, and bomb-proof. In fortifications they are frequently placed in the rampart; but of late they have been built in different parts of the town. The first powder magazines were made with gothic arches; but M. Vauban, finding them too weak, constructed them in a semicircular form, whose dimensions are, 60 feet long, within; 25 broad; the foundations are eight or nine feet thick, and eight feet high from the foundation to the spring of the arch; the floor is 2 feet from the ground, which keeps it from dampness.

An engineer of great experience some time since, had observed, that after the centres of semicircular arches are struck, they settle at the crown and rise up at the hances, even with a straight horizontal extrados, and still much more so in powder magazines, whose outside at top is formed like the roof of a house, by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top of the arch, to give a proper descent to the rain; which effects are exactly what might be expected agreeable to the true theory of arches. Now, as this shrinking of the arches must be attended with very ill consequences, by breaking the texture of the cement, after it has been in some degree dried, and also by opening the joints of the voussoirs, at one end, so a remedy is provided for this inconvenience, with regard to bridges, by the _arch of equilibration_ in Mr. Hutton’s book on bridges; but as the ill effect is much greater in powder magazines, the same ingenious gentleman proposed to find an arch of equilibration for them also, and to construct it when the span is 20 feet the pich or height 10, (which are the same dimensions as the semicircle) the inclined exterior walls at top forming an angle of 113 degrees, and the height of their angular point above the top of the arch, equal to seven feet: this very curious question was answered in 1775 by the Rev. Mr. Wildbore, to be found in Mr. Hutton’s _Miscellanea Mathematica_.

_Artillery_-MAGAZINE, in a _siege_, the magazine is made about 25 or 30 yards behind the battery, towards the parallels, and at least 3 feet under ground, to hold the powder, loaded shells, port-fires, &c. Its sides and roof must be well secured with boards to prevent the earth from falling in: a door is made to it, and a double trench or passage is sunk from the magazine to the battery, one to go in and the other to come out at, to prevent confusion. Sometimes traverses are made in the passages to prevent ricochet shot from plunging into them.

MAGAZINES. The present practice is not to make large powder magazines for batteries, but to disperse the barrels of powder, or cartridges _here_ and _there_ in small magazines, about 6 or 7 fathoms, in the rear of the battery; as it appears better to lose a small quantity from time to time, than to run the risk of the whole being destroyed, by a single shell falling into the magazine. These small magazines or entrenchments, will hold about one or two tons of powder; and are about eight or 9 feet square. They ought to be well covered from the fire of the place, and always in the rear of one of the merlons. When they cannot be sunk in the ground, they should be secured by sand bags or gabions. They should be made with attention, as should the communication from them to the battery. Two magazines of this kind will be required for a battery of six pieces.

_Permanent powder magazines._ According to Vauban’s plan, powder magazines are commonly made 10 fathoms long, and 25 feet wide, in the clear. The foundation of the longest sides, is 9 or 10 feet thick, and 6 feet or more deep, according to the nature of the ground. The side walls raised upon these are 8 or 9 feet thick; and if there is not to be an upper story, 8 feet will be sufficient height above the foundation. By this means the flooring may be raised above the ground, free from damp, and there will remain 6 feet from the floor to the spring of the arch. The arch is formed of layers of bricks, arched one over the other, and ought to be 3 feet thick at the top. The exterior surface of the arch terminates with an angle at top, like a roof; which angle must be of such magnitude as to make a thickness of 8 feet over the key stone of the arch. The foundation at the gable ends is 5 feet thick, and the same depth as the sides; these ends are built up 4 feet thick, from the foundation to the top of the roof. The long sides are supported by counterforts, 6 feet thick and 4 feet long; and placed 12 feet asunder. The ventilators are placed, one in the centre of each space between the counterforts, and are made with a die across them of 1¹⁄₂ feet. These ventilators are also closed with plates of iron. The magazine is lighted by a window in each end, high up, which are opened and shut by means of a ladder. These windows are secured, each by two shutters, made of plank 2 or 3 inches thick; and the outer one covered with sheet iron, and both fastened with strong bolts. The entrance to the magazine is closed by two doors, one of which opens inwards, and the other outwards; the outward one is covered with sheet iron. The entrance of the magazine should, if possible, be placed towards the south. A wall of 1¹⁄₂ feet thick, and 10 feet high, is built round the magazine at 12 feet distance. A magazine of the above dimensions will contain about 94,800 lbs. of powder, in piles of 3 barrels each; for a greater number piled above each other destroys the barrels, damages the powder, and occasions accidents.

MAGNITUDE, or quantity, any thing locally continued, or that has several dimensions. Its origin is a point, which though void of parts, yet its flux forms a line, the flux of that a surface, and of that a body, &c.

MAGNA CHARTA, the great charter of liberties granted to the people of England in the 9th year of Henry III. and confirmed by Edward I. It is so called on account of the supposed excellence of the laws therein contained; or according to some writers, because another lesser charter, called Charter de Foresta, was established with it; or because it contained more than any other charter, &c. or in regard of the remarkable solemnity in the denouncing excommunications against the infringers of it. It is nevertheless a code of barbarity characteristic of the age; and to which imposture has given it all the consequence which ignorance ascribes to it.

MAHONNE, _Fr._ a species of galeas or double galley which the Turks use. The Venetian galeasses are larger and stronger built.

MAIDEN, an edged instrument used at Edinburgh in former times for the decapitation of criminals. The original invention is by some attributed to an inhabitant of Halifax, in Yorkshire. The guillotine, so called from a French physician of that name, and by which the unfortunate Louis the Sixteenth was executed, January 21st, 1793, owes its origin to the Maiden.

MAIL, primarily denotes the holes or meshes in a net: it likewise signifies a round iron ring. Hence

_Coat of_ MAIL, a coat of armor or steel net-work, anciently worn for defence.

MAILLET, _Fr._ a mallet. The French formerly made use of this instrument as an offensive weapon in their engagements.

In 1351 the mallet was used at the famous battle _des Trente_ (of thirty) which derived its name from the number of combatants that fought on each side.

This extraordinary combat, holds a distinguished place in the history of Britanny, and was entered into by the partisans of Charles of Blois, and the king of France on one side, and by the count Montfort and the king of England on the other.

Under the reign of Charles VI. a Parisian mob forced the arsenal, took out a large quantity of mallets, with which they armed themselves for the purpose of murdering the custom-house officers. The persons who assembled on this occasion were afterwards called Maillotins.

In the days of Louis XII. the English archers carried mallets as offensive weapons.

MAILLOTIN, _Fr._ an old French term; which signified, an ancient weapon that was used to attack men who wore helmets and cuirasses. A faction in France was distinguished by the appellation of Maillotins.

MAIN _Armée_, _Fr._ Armed force.--_Entrer a main armée dans un pays_, is to enter into a country with armed men.

MAIN. _Venir aux mains_, _Fr._ To come to close action.

MAIN-BATTLE. See BATTLE-ARRAY.

MAIN-BODY _of the army_, the body of troops that march between the advance and rear-guards. In a camp, that part of the army encamped between the right and left wings.

MAIN-GUARD, or grand-guard, a body of horse posted before a camp for the security of an army. In garrison, it is a guard generally mounted by a subaltern officer and about 24 men. See GUARD.

MAIN-_Guard_. The French observed the following general maxims, with respect to their _Grandes-Gardes_ or main-guards. In the first place, every main-guard on foot or horseback, must be so posted as to remain secure of not being surprised and carried off, nor easily forced to abandon its position. In order to accomplish these two objects, it must constantly be within the reach of the different piquets; and, if necessary, those piquets should be readily supported by the army itself.

MAINTAIN, when any body of men defend a place or post, against the attacks of an adverse party, they are said to _maintain_ it.

MAJOR. A superior officer in the army, whose functions vary according to the nature of the service on which he is employed.

MAJOR _of a regiment of foot_, the next officer to the lieutenant-colonel, generally promoted from the eldest captain: he is to take care that the regiment be well exercised, to see it march in good order, and to rally it in case of being broke in action: he is the only officer among the infantry that is allowed to be on horseback in time of action, that he may the more readily execute the colonel’s orders.

_The_ MAJOR _of a regiment of horse_ as well as foot, ought to be a man of honor, integrity, understanding, courage, activity, experience, and address: he should be master of arithmetic, and keep a detail of the regiment in every particular: he should be skilled in horsemanship, and ever attentive to his business: one of his principal functions is, to keep an exact roster of the officers for duty; he should have a perfect knowlege in all the military evolutions, as he is obliged by his post to instruct others, &c.

_Town_-MAJOR, the third officer in order in a garrison, and next to the deputy-governor. He should understand fortification, and has a particular charge of the guards, rounds, patroles, and centinels.

_Brigade_-MAJOR, is a particular officer appointed for that purpose, only in camp: or attached to a brigade when an army is brigaded; he goes every day to head quarters to receive orders from the adjutant general: from thence he goes and gives the orders, at the place appointed for that purpose, to the different majors or adjutants of the regiments which compose his brigade, and regulates with them the number of officers and men which each are to furnish for the duty of the army; taking care to keep an exact roster, that one may not give more than another, and that each march in their tour; in short, the major of brigade is charged with the particular detail in his own brigade, in much the same way as the adjutant-general is charged with the general detail of the duty of the army. He sends every morning to the adjutant-general an exact return, by battalion and company, of the men of his brigade missing at the retreat, or a report, expressing that none are absent: he also mentions the officers absent with or without leave.

As all orders pass through the hands of the majors of brigade, they have infinite occasions of making known their talents and exactness.

MAJOR _of Artillery_, is also the next officer to the lieutenant-colonel. His post is very laborious, as the whole detail of the corps particularly rests with him; and for this reason all the non-commissioned officers are subordinate to him, as his title of serjeant-major imports; in this quality they must render him an exact account of every thing which comes to their knowlege, either regarding the duty or wants of the artillery and soldiers. He should possess a perfect knowlege of the power of artillery, together with all its evolutions. In the field he goes daily to receive orders from the brigade-major, and communicates them with the parole to his superiors, and then dictates them to the adjutant. He should be a very good mathematician, and be well acquainted with every thing belonging to the train of artillery, &c.

MAJOR _of engineers_, should be very well skilled in military architecture, fortification, gunnery, and mining. He should know how to fortify in the field, to attack and defend all sorts of posts, and to conduct the works in a siege, &c. See ENGINEER.

_Aid_-MAJOR, is on sundry occasions appointed to act as major, who has a pre-eminence above others of the same denomination. Our horse and foot guards have their guidons, or second and third majors.

_Serjeant_-MAJOR, is a non-commissioned officer, of great merit and capacity, subordinate to the adjutant, as he is to the major. See SERJEANT.

_Drum_-MAJOR, is not only the first drummer in the regiment, but has the same authority over his drummers as the corporal has over his squad. He instructs them in their different beats; is daily at orders with the serjeants, to know the number of drummers for duty. He marches at their head when they beat in a body. In the day of battle, or at exercise, he must be very attentive to the orders given him, that he may regulate his beats according to the movements ordered.

_Fife_-MAJOR, is he that plays the best on that instrument, and has the same authority over the fifers as the drum-major has over the drummers. He teaches them their duty, and appoints them for guards, &c.

MAJOR-_General_. See GENERAL.

MAJOR, _Fr._ The French considered this term, in a military sense, under the following heads:--

MAJOR-_Général d’une Armée_, _Fr._ Major-general generally so called, which see.

MAJOR-_Général de l’Infanterie Francoise_, _Fr._ Major-general of the French infantry. This appointment was made under Francis the 1st in 1515.

MAJOR-_Général des Dragons_, _Fr._ a major-general of dragoons. His functions were similar to those exercised by the _Maréchal-géneral des logis de la Cavalerie_; and nearly the same as those of the major-general of infantry.

MAJOR _de Brigade_, _Fr._ Brigade-major.

MAJOR _d’un Régiment de Cavalerie_, _Fr._ Major in a regiment of cavalry.

MAJOR _d’un Régiment d’Infanterie_, _Fr._ Major of a regiment of infantry. Under the old government of France all majors of infantry regiments, were styled sergent-majors, or serjeant-majors in their commissions. They were not permitted to have any company of their own: because it was reasonably judged, that their own interest might render them more partial to that company, and the service be thereby injured.

MAJOR _d’une Place de Guerre_, _Fr._ Town-major.

MAJOR, _des quatres compagnies des Gardes du corps_, _Fr._ A rank which was exclusively given to an officer belonging to the old French guards. This was an appointment of considerable trust under the old government of France. He was lieutenant in each of the companies; and had the right of seniority over all lieutenants younger than himself in date of commission.

MAJOR _sur un vaisseau de guerre_, _Fr._ An officer on board a ship of war, whose duty it was to see the guard regularly mounted, and the sentries posted.

_Etat_-MAJOR, _Fr._ A comprehensive French term, in which is included every thing that can be conveyed under the word staff, as applicable to the British service. In a very recent publication, intituled, _Manuel des Adjudans-Généraux et leurs Adjoints_, the particular duties of the etat-major are accurately explained, of which an entire translation is incorporated with the _American Military Library_. Another work on the same subject, was published in 1809, by general _Grimoard_, entitled _Traité sur le Service des Armées contenant son organisation, et ses fonctions sous les rapports administratifs et Militaires_, with plates. The author began this work in 1778, and part of it was published in 1797, in the _Encyclopédie Methodique_. This work has superceded the work of Thiebault, only on account of its being more comprehensive; their views and principles are the same.

MAJOR-_Dome_, _Fr._ An officer belonging to the gallies, who has the chief superintendance of provisions.

MAJORITY, the office, charge, or appointment of a regimental major.

MAIRE, _Fr._ Under the old government of France the person so called was invested with the first dignity of the kingdom. Charles Martel, of whom so much is said in the history of the French kings, was _Maire_ of the palace. He was, in fact, grand master of the king’s household, and had an entire control over the officers belonging to that establishment.

The appellation of _Maire du Palais_, or mayor of the palace, was given in lieu of _Maitre du Palais_, or master of the palace. This name was borrowed from the Roman emperors, who had each a grand master of the palace. Du Tillet, a French author, in page 12 of his book, pretends that the word is derived from _Mer_, which signifies _Præfect_. At first he had only the care and superintendance of the king’s household, so that his functions were nearly similar to those that were exercised by the grand master of the king’s household previous to the Revolution. During the reign of Clotaire the Second, the power of the _Maires_ increased very considerably. Their influence grew greater through the weakness and effeminacy of the last kings of the second race; so much so, that they maintained an uncontroled power over the royal expenditure, and had the sole management of the king’s affairs. Pepin added the dignity and functions or Maire to the royal prerogative; but he did not suppress them wholly. He merely limited his functions to what they were originally; which however were soon restored, in consequence of the fall and extinction of the second race. As the Maires possessed an unlimited control over the finances and judicature of the country, and had more over the entire management of the war department, they found little difficulty in assuming a superiority over all the officers belonging to the crown. They took precedence of all dukes and counts who were the governors of provinces. On which account they were called _Ducs des Ducs_, or dukes of France. Hugh Capet was duke of France at the time he proclaimed himself king of the country; but the kings belonging to the third race, being convinced that the authority which was thus vested in one person, must eventually prove extremely dangerous, abolished the office of _Maire du Palais_, or duke of France. They divided the functions, and created the four great officers that were immediately attached to the crown. The command and superintendance of the army, were entrusted to the constable; the administration of civil justice was vested in the chancellor; the management of the finances was given to the grand treasurer, and the care of the king’s household devolved upon the seneschal, who was afterwards styled grand master.

MAISON-_du-Roi_, _Fr._ The king’s household. Certain select bodies of troops were so called during the monarchy of France, and consisted of the _gardes du corps_ or body-guards, the _Gendarmes_, _Chevaux legers_ or light horse, _Mousquetaires_ or musqueteers, _la gendarmerie_, _grenadiers à cheval_ or horse-grenadiers, the regiments belonging to the French and Swiss guards, and the _cent Suisses_ or hundred Swiss guards. The _Maison-du-Roi_ or king’s household, was not considered as a separate establishment from the rest of the army, until the reign of Louis IV. This establishment was successively formed by different kings out of militia companies, which they took into their body guard.

MAISON _Meurtriere_, _Fr._ This term was formerly given to casemates.

MAITRE _des armes_, _Fr._ Master at arms. An officer, during the existence of the Grecian empire, who took precedence of the _Maitre de la milice_, or commander of the militia.

MAITRE _d’armes_, _Fr._ A term in general use among the French, signifying a fencing master. Every regiment has a _maitre d’armes_ attached to it.

MAKE-_Ready_, a word of command in the firing, on which the soldier brings his piece to the _recover_, at the same time cocking it ready for firing.

MAL _d’armée_, _Fr._ A sort of contagious disorder which sometimes rages in an army, and is occasioned by too much fatigue, or by bad food.

MAL-_de-Mer_, _Fr._ Sea-sickness.

MAL-_de-Terre_, _Fr._ The scurvy is so called by the French.

MALABAR GUNS, _Ind._ Heavy pieces of ordnance, which are made in the Malabar country, and are formed by means of iron bars joined together with hoops. They are very long, and extremely unwieldy.

MALADES, _Fr._ The sick.

_Soldats_-MALADES, _Fr._ Soldiers on the sick list.

MALANDRINS, _Fr._ a set of free-booters, who under the reign of Charles V. infested France. During the 14th century, these plunderers made their appearance twice in considerable bodies. They consisted chiefly of discharged soldiers who formed themselves into marauding parties, and pillaged with impunity all the travellers they met. _Abbé de Choisi_, relates that it was extremely hazardous to oppose them in their first onset. These pillagers, whom the inhabitants called _Malandrins_, assembled in different cantons, chose their own leaders, and observed a sort of discipline in their depredations.

They usually contrived to station themselves in such a manner, that it was impossible to attack them.

They plundered or destroyed many places and buildings through which they passed, and paid no regard to church or state. Their principal and most notorious leaders, were the Chevalier de Vert, brother to the count d’Auxerre, Hugues de Caurelée, Mathieu de Gournar, Hugues de Varennes, Gauthier Huet, and Robert Lescot, who all belonged to some order of knighthood. Bertrand du Guesclin cleared the country of these dangerous and unprincipled men, by leading them into Spain under a pretence of fighting the Moors, when in reality his object was to attack Peter the cruel. See French Hist. de Charles V. liv. 1. page 86.

MALINGERER, (from the French) one who feigns illness to avoid his duty.

MALINGRE, _Fr._ peaking, sickly.

MALL. See MAUL.

MALLET, a wooden hammer, to drive the pegs into the ground, by which a tent is fastened; it is likewise used on various other occasions, especially in fortification and artillery.

MALLEABLE, in the art of founding, a property of metals, whereby they are capable of being extended under the hammer.

MALTA. The strongest place in the Mediterranean, taken by the French troops during the present war, from the knights of that order, and since re-taken by the British. The island of Malta may be considered as a key to the Levant. See MILITARY orders.

MAMMILLIARIA, (_Mammellieres_, _Fr._) a word corrupted from the Latin, signifying a sort of armor, or that part of armor which formerly covered the chest and nipples. _Etienne de la fontaine_, who was silver smith to the French court, mentions among other articles two sets of _Mammillieries_, in an account which was delivered in the year 1352.

MAMALUKES, (_Mammelucs_, _Fr._) Some writers assert that they were Turkish and Circassian slaves, originally purchased from the wandering tartars by Meliesaheh, and amounting in number to one thousand men. They were trained and disciplined to war, and some were raised to the first places of trust in the empire. Other writers say that the mamelukes were generally chosen out of christian slaves, and may be considered in the same light as the Turkish janizaries are; others again assert, that they originally came from Circassia, and attracted public notice by their valor, &c. in 869. See _D’Herbelot_, page 545. The mamelukes have made a considerable figure during the present war, especially in their contest against Bonaparte, for the defence of Egypt. They afterwards joined the French, and formed a considerable part of their cavalry.

MAN, to _man the works_, is to post the soldiers on the lines so as to be ready for their defence, &c. In the plural number it means soldiers, as an army consisting of 12,000 men.

_Flank-front-rank_-MAN. Each soldier upon the right and left extremity of the first line or rank of any given body of troops is so called.

_Flank-rear-rank_-MAN. Each soldier upon the right and left extremity of the last line or rank of any given body of troops.

When a company or battalion is drawn up three deep, the two men who stand at the extremities of the centre line may be called _flank-centre-rank-men_.

MANCELLE, _Fr._ a small chain which is fixed to the collars of carriage or dray horses, and which terminates in a large iron ring, that is attached to the shaft. It likewise means the ring itself.

MANCHE _d’un Bataillon_, _Fr._ literally means the sleeve of a battalion.--This word originally signified any small body consisting of 40 or 60 men, which were drawn out of the main-body of a battalion, and were posted by files upon the corners or angles of the same battalion.

At present the word _manches_ means the wings of a battalion, the centre of which was composed of pikemen, whilst pikes were in use. Thus there were right and left wings, which were again divided into half-wings, quarter-wings, and half-quarter-wings.

Any battalion may defile or break off by wings, half-wings, or by the other proportions.

The term _manche_, or wing, was undoubtedly adopted for the express purpose of distinguishing several small corps, which, though at times connected and standing together, could suddenly detach themselves, and act against the enemy without occasioning the most trifling fluctuation or movement in the main body. The Greeks and Romans must have had a term synonimous to _manche_, in order to shew the several little portions into which the phalanx of the former, and the legion of the latter, were at times divided, when there was occasion for either to manœuvre upon the same principles that we do by wings.

_Gardes de la Manche_, _Fr._ Men belonging to the old French body guards, who on particular occasions, as at the Royal Chapel, &c. stood on each side of the king, dressed in hoquetons, and armed with pertuisanes or lances.

_La_ MANCHE, _Fr._ The channel.

_La_ MANCHE _Britannique_, _Fr._ The British channel.

_La_ MANCHE _de Bristol_, _Fr._ The Bristol channel.

MANCHE _d’outil_, _Fr._ The handle of any utensil.

MANDARIN. A name which the Portuguese originally gave to the Chinese nobility. According to a French author, the Mandarins are divided into nine orders, each having a peculiar mark of distinction to ascertain its rank.

_Civil_ MANDARINS. (_Mandarins lettrés_, _Fr._) These were able and scientific men who had the management of the different branches belonging to civil government.

_Military_ MANDARINS. (_Mandarins militaires_, _Fr._) A certain proportion of the body of mandarins is selected by the emperor of China, to superintend and command the militia of the country, these are called military mandarins.

The mandarins are considered as noblemen, but their rank is not hereditary. Every mandarin undergoes a severe and close examination respecting his natural and acquired talents, before he receives a civil or military appointment; and there are public schools or seminaries to which the natives of the empire may repair to obtain the requisite qualifications for such important and honorable stations.

MANDILION, (_Mandille_, _Fr._) the soldier’s coat is so called by the Italians. It does not, however, bear that meaning either amongst us or among the French; _Mandilion_ and _Mandille_ signifying a footman’s great coat.

MANEGE, in horsemanship, the exercise of riding the great horse, or the ground set apart for that purpose; which is sometimes covered, for continuing the exercise in bad weather; and sometimes open, in order to give more liberty and freedom both to the horseman and horse.

MANGAN, _Fr._ This word is sometimes written MANGON, (See GUN). A warlike machine which was formerly used. The term itself, indeed, was generally adopted to signify any species of warlike machine. But it more particularly meant the largest and most powerful machine that could be used for warlike purposes; whether it was practised to throw enormous stones against besieged places, or to cast javelins, &c. It was likewise called _balista_, from the Greek; _tormentum_ from the Latin _à torquendo_; and sometimes _petraria_, because stones weighing upwards of three hundred and sixty pounds, were thrown from it. This machine answered the double purpose of defending or attacking fortified places, and it was sometimes used at sea. According to a French writer, one of these machines may still be seen at Basle.

MANGANELLE, _Fr._ See MANGONNEAU.

MANGONNEAU, _Fr._ A word originally derived from the Greek, which, according to Potter, seems to signify any engine designed to cast missive weapons. With respect to that particular engine, which the French have called _mangan_, _manganelle_, and _mangonneau_, there is not any specific term for that famous engine, out of which, stones of a size not less than mill-stones, were thrown with such violence, as to dash whole houses in pieces at a blow:--it was called indeed by the Romans, _balista_; but this name though of Grecian original, appears not to have been used in Greece; this engine, however, was known there, and was the same with that used by the Romans, the force of which is thus expressed by Lucan:--

_At faxum quoties ingenti verberis ictu
Excutitur, qualis rupes, quam vertice montis
Abscidit impulsu ventorum adjuta vetustas;
Frangit cunctaruens, nec tantum corpora pressa
Exanimas, totos cum sanguine dissipat artus._

MANIEMENT _des armes_, _Fr._ manual exercise. Although it might be thought superfluous to enter into a minute explanation of the manual as practised by the French, it will not be deemed entirely useless to the military man, to make him master of the different terms. With this view, we shall likewise give the words of command used in the platoon exercise &c. The French manual differed from the English in many points; essentially so in the commencement of it, as, (extreme bad weather excepted) the soldiers in the former service, regularly appeared upon parade with fixed bayonets; so that the first word of command was,

_Presentez vos armes._--Present arms.

_Portez vos armes._--Shoulder arms.

_Reposez sur vos armes._--Order arms.

_Posez vos armes à terre._--Ground arms.

_Relevez vos armes._--Take up arms.

_Portez vos armes._--Shoulder arms.

_L’arme au bras._--Support arms.

_Portez vos armes._--Carry arms.

_Presentez la baïonnette._--Charge bayonet.

_Portez vos armes._--Shoulder arms.

The other words of command which do not belong to the manual, but are occasionally practised, consist of

_Baïonnette au canon._--Fix bayonet.

_Tirez la baguette._--Draw ramrod.

_Baguette dans le canon._--Spring ramrod.

_L’arme à volonté._--Slope arms.

_L’arme au bras gauche._--Secure arms.

_Armes au faisceau._--Pile arms.

_Repos._--Rest.

_Portez les armes comme sergent._--Advance arms.

_Remettez la baguette._--Return ramrod.

_Remettez la baïonnette._--Return or unfix bayonet.

_Ouvrez le bassinet._--Open pan.

_Fermez le bassinet._--Shut pan.

_Port arms_ is not practised among the Trench. When a guard is dismissed, instead of _porting arms_, the soldier receives the following word of command, _haut les armes!_ which is somewhat similar to _recover arms_.

MANIEMENT _des armes_, _Fr._ The platoon exercise is so called in the French service, and is distinguished from their manual by the additional caution of _charge en douze tems_, or prime and load in twelve motions.

_Chargez vos armes._--Prime and load.

_Ouvrez le bassinet._--Open pan.

_Prenez le cartouche._--Handle cartridge.

_Déchirez la cartouche._--Bite cartridge.

_Amorcez._--Prime.

_Fermez le bassinet._--Shut pan.

_L’arme à gauche._--Cast over.

_Cartouche dans le canon._--Load.

_Tirez la baguette._--Draw ramrod.

_Bourez._--Ram down cartridge.

_Remettez la baguette._--Return ramrod.

_Portez vos armes._--Shoulder arms.

FIRING AFTER THE MANUAL.

_Apprétez vos armes._--Make ready.

_Joue._--Aim.

_Feu._--Fire.

_Chargez._--Prime and load.

_Le chien au repos._--Half-cock firelock.

_Portez vos armes._--Carry arms.

_Presentez vos armes._--Present arms.

_Portez vos armes._--Shoulder arms.

_Reposez sur vos armes._--Order arms.

_Repos._--Rest.

INSPECTION D’ARMES.--INSPECTION OF ARMS.

_Baïonnette au canon._--Fix bayonet.

_Baguette dans le canon._--Spring ramrod.

In the British service the ramrod is rammed down the barrel without any further word of command.

_Vos armes à terre._--Ground arms.

_Relevez vos armes._--Take up arms.

_Portez vos armes._--Shoulder arms.

_L’arme au bras._--Support arms.

_L’arme à volonté._--Slope arms.

_L’arme au bras._--Support arms.

_Portez vos armes._--Carry arms.

_L’arme sous le bras gauche._--Secure arms.

_Rortez vos armes._--Shoulder arms.

_Croisez la baïonnette._--Charge bayonet.

_Croiser la baïonnette_ likewise signifies to cross bayonet in such
a manner as to form a sort of cheval de frise to resist the attack
of cavalry from either flank. This has been adopted since the French
revolution, and consists in placing the shoulder of the bayonet of
the second man behind the shoulder of the first man’s bayonet; and so
of every succeeding two from right to left.

_Portez vos armes._--Carry arms.

_Charge précipitée._--Prime and load quick; in four motions.

_Chargez vos armes._--Load.

_Deux._--Two.

_Trois._--Three.

_Quatre._--Four.

_Charge à volonté._--Independent or running fire.

_Chargez vos armes._--Prime and load.

PLATOON FIRING.

_Peloton._--Platoon.

_Armes._--Ready.

_Joue._--Aim.

_Feu._--Fire.

_Charges._--Prime and load.

_Roulement._--Roll.

_Fin de roulement._--Cease to roll.

_Feu à volonté._--Independent firing.

_Peloton._--Platoon.

_Armes._--Ready.

_Commencez le feu._--Commence firing.

_Roulement._--Roll.

It is here necessary to explain to the English reader, that the words of command _Roulement_ and _Fin de Roulement_ are only used in the drill, or when there is not any drum to beat the prescribed roll.

MANIER, _Fr._ to handle. This word is generally used among the French, in a military sense, whenever they speak of portable fire-arms, &c. Hence _maniement des armes_.

MANIER _les armes_, _Fr._ To handle the fire-lock, or handle arms.

MANIER _la hallebarde_, _Fr._ To handle, or salute with the halbert.

MANIER _le sponton_, _Fr._ To handle, or salute with the spontoon.

MANIER _l’épée_, _Fr._ To be a swordsman.

MANIER _le drapeau_, _Fr._ To furl or unfurl the colors.

MANIER _l’épée à deux mains_, _Fr._ To be able to use your sword with either hand.

MANIFESTO (_manifeste_, _Fr._) A public declaration which is made by a prince or state, containing motives and reasons for entering into a war. The formality of a _manifesto_ has been considerably reduced in modern times. Among the ancients, on the contrary, it was particularly attended to. Potter, in his Grecian Antiquities, observes, that invasions without notice were looked upon rather as robberies than lawful wars, as designed rather to despoil and make a prey of persons innocent and unprovided, than to repair any losses, or damages sustained, which for ought the invaders knew, might have been satisfied for in an easier way. It is therefore no wonder, as Polybius (lib. iv.) relates of the Ætolians, that they were held as common outlaws and robbers in Greece, it being their manner to strike without warning, and to make war without any previous and public declaration, whenever they had an opportunity of enriching themselves, with the spoil and booty of their neighbors. Yet there want not instances of wars begun without previous notice, even by nations of better repute for justice and humanity: but this was only done upon provocations so great and exasperating, that no recompence was thought sufficient to atone for them: whence it came to pass, that such wars were of all others the most bloody and pernicious, and fought with excess of rage and fury; the contesting parties being resolved to extirpate each other, if possible, out of the world.

Before the Grecians engaged themselves in war, it was usual to publish a declaration of the injuries they had received, and to demand satisfaction by ambassadors; for however prepared, or excellently skilled, they were in the affairs of war, yet peace, if to be procured upon honorable terms, was thought more eligible: which custom was observed, even in the most early ages, as appears from the story of Tydeus, whom Polynices sent to compose matters with his brother Eteocles king of Thebes, before he proceeded to invest that city, as we are informed by Statius, (Thebaid. lib. ii. v. 368.) and several others. See Potter, page 64 and 65.

The Romans, on the other hand, used abundance of superstition in entering upon any hostility, or closing in any league or confederacy; the public ministers who performed the ceremonial part of both these were the Feciales, or heralds. The ceremonies were of this nature. When any neighboring state had given sufficient reason for the senate to suspect a design of breaking with them; or had offered any violence or injustice to the citizens of Rome, which was enough to give them the repute of enemies; one of the Feciales, chosen out of the college upon this occasion, and habited in the vest belonging to his order, together with his other ensigns, and habiliments, set forward for the enemy’s country. As soon as he reached the confines, he pronounced a formal declaration of the cause of his arrival, calling all the Gods to witness, and imprecating the divine vengeance on himself, and his country if his reasons were not just. When he came to the chief city of the enemy, he again repeated the same declaration, with some addition, and withal desired satisfaction. If they delivered into his power the authors of the injury, or gave hostages for security, he returned satisfied to Rome: if otherwise they desired time to consider; he went away for ten days, and then came again to hear their resolution, and this he did, in some cases, three times: but, if nothing was done towards an accommodation in about thirty days, he declared that the Romans would endeavor to assert their right by their arms. After this the herald was obliged to return, and to make a true report of his embassy before the senate, assuring them of the legality of the war, which they were now consulting to undertake; and was then again dispatched to perform the last part of the ceremony, which was to throw a spear into (or towards the enemy’s country) in token of defiance, and, as a summons to war, pronouncing at the same time a set form of words to the like purpose. Kennett’s Roman Antiquities, book iv. page 229.

The British have within the last century totally changed the usages of war; and appear to court the opprobrium bestowed by history upon the Carthaginians for their perfidiousness and cruelty; and upon the Ætolians for their treachery and rapacity; by making war first, and issuing their manifesto afterwards; as in the attack on Copenhagen in 1806.

MANIGLIONS, the two handles on the back of a piece of ordnance. See CANNON.

MANIPLE. See MANIPULUS.