Chapter D: Caldwell, (48)

NEUTRALITY. The state or condition of one who is neuter, a middle condition between a friend and an enemy. In a military sense, remaining strictly indifferent, whilst other powers are at war, without assisting any party with arms, ammunition, or men. When a country, calling itself neutral, furnishes a quota or contingent to any nation that is at war with another, it cannot be said to observe the strict laws of neutrality. Of all precarious and difficult situations that perhaps is the most so, in which a weak nation is placed when two powerful nations wage war on each side, and the exact laws of neutrality are expected to be observed by the intermediate country. Bayle speaking of neutrality, humorously exclaims, _heureux les pacifiques quant a l’autre monde, mais dans celui-ci, ils sont misérables_: happy are the peaceable with respect to the next world, but they are miserable in this! in trying to derive advantages from the dissensions and broils of others, they insensibly become the victims of both parties. The French writer humorously says, _Ils veulent être marteaux, cela fait que continuellement ils sont enclumes à droite et à gauche_: they would fain be hammers, instead of which they become anvils, and get beaten both right and left. This happened to the Venetians in 1701, who endeavored to remain neutral during the campaigns that took place between the French and the Imperialists. The Danes afford another illustration of the inefficacy of a neutrality without power to resist, the destruction of Copenhagen, and the plunder of their navy, is an atrocity unparalleled. The treatment experienced by the United States, is only inferior to the barbarity exercised against Denmark. Genoa, Florence, Holland, and Switzerland were all forced from their neutrality by England, and fell victims. The observance of a strict neutrality is unquestionably a matter of extreme difficulty, and requires uncommon ability. Few princes possess those qualities of the head and heart that distinguished Hieron king of Syracuse, who so dexterously managed his neutrality in the war between Rome and Carthage. His subjects were considerably benefited by the conduct he observed, whilst his own reputation was not a little increased by the sound policy that dictated it.

_Armed_ NEUTRALITY. The depredations committed by the naval force of Great Britain, during the first years of the American revolution, excited a general indignation among the maritime powers of the north of Europe. A project said to be devised by Dr. Franklin, and suggested to the count de Vergennes, was communicated to the courts of Russia and Prussia, and taken up with the zeal of a patron by the empress Katherine of Russia, the result was, that in the year 1780, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark, had entered into engagements to arm their fleets, in order to support the neutrality of their commerce; Holland was invited, and consented to engage, but was attacked by Great Britain by surprize before she had ratified the agreement; the other neutral nations were brought to engage in it, and Great Britain was under the necessity of recognizing the principles of the armed confederacy. This event, novel in history, was productive of signal advantages to neutral nations; it formed a new epocha in maritime history, and wrested from England the audacious usurpation of the sovereignty of the seas.

The principles of the armed neutrality were again resumed during the French revolution; but the British, by employing corruption in the northern cabinets, procured the assassination of the emperor Paul of Russia, and at the same time brought a large fleet before Copenhagen which they bombarded, in consequence of which Russia was brought into the war, and Denmark obliged to bend to circumstances. Sweden was already a party in the war.

During the progress of the French revolution, instances have occurred in which a wise neutrality might have been made productive of great national good. But, alas! there are few statesmen, who have ability or political virtue enough, to resist the intrigues or views of those cabinets, who being themselves involved in war, leave nothing untried to drag their neighbors into the same troubled state. Montesquieu has observed, with his usual good sense, that nations seldom know how to avail themselves of natural advantages. What becomes a matter of hard necessity in one country, is frequently found to exist in another, from crooked and interested policy, or from ignorance in administration. Some countries are calculated to be neutral; some to avail themselves of insular situations; and to impose by maritime operations; and others, to make up for the natural disadvantages of continental position, by means of standing armies.

It has been remarked, (with what justice we leave politicians to determine) that no power, being or affecting to be neuter, should be allowed to arm itself, because it is impossible to have perfect confidence in a quarter from whence hostilities may commence according to the exigency of circumstances, (so properly called by the French, _la force des circonstances_;) or the alluring prospects of ambition.

It is more than probable, that the armed confederacy of the north sprung originally from a secret understanding with the agents of France, and manifested itself more strongly on the declaration of Russia. Great Britain of course took the alarm; and, as a French writer very justly observes on the subject of armed neutrality, has sent her fleets, to ascertain the point at the gates of Copenhagen.

The second expedition of the British against Copenhagen is one of the most extraordinary in the annals of the world. The pretence set up is best expressed in the language of _Jackson_, the agent of England in this unprecedented outrage--these are his words. “In the present disturbed state of the continent of Europe it was impossible to distinguish any longer between a _neutral and an enemy_, but by her becoming an ally or an open foe. That something therefore was required beyond an ordinary presumption of the real disposition of every state; and that whilst the influence of an implacable enemy predominated over every power within his reach, (France is alluded to) and either checked or converted into immediate hostility every engagement or inclination unfavorable to his interest, it was impossible to consider the _ordinary covenants_ (that is the law of nations and treaties,) _of any neutral nation_ either as a sufficient security for her own independence, or of those who confide in her neutrality. It becomes the duty of England, therefore, to discriminate in these circumstances between rights paramount and invariable, binding upon all states, and rights which might be suffered to relax and yield to that state of expediency in which a certain course of measures might involve the existence of a nation.”

Such was the detestable and odious sophistry which might be as well applied to cover and excuse any other species of atrocity, and which was followed by the bombardment and conflagration of Copenhagen, the murder of its citizens, and the seizure and plunder of its fleet and naval arsenal. _La loi des plus forts_, or the law of the strongest, so often tramples down national rights, that necessity drives those to the adoption of questionable measures, who would otherwise remain strictly neutral; whilst others again, from being contiguous to contending armies, resort to various pretences, in order to remain in an armed condition for the purpose of taking advantage at a critical moment. Of this description was the system of armed neutrality which Pope Leo X. is recorded to have pursued. When Francis I. king of France, was engaged in a war with the Swiss Cantons, respecting the Milanese, his holiness resolved to remain neuter, or at least affected to be so, although he was strongly invited by both parties to take an active and decisive part. He drew his troops towards the frontiers of the Milanese, under a pretext of covering the ecclesiastical states, but in reality for the purpose of being at hand when the two armies should come to a decisive engagement, of unexpectedly falling upon the victorious army at the close of an obstinate and bloody battle, of driving it out of Italy, becoming master of Lombardy, and finally establishing himself as the arbiter of the country. But all these imaginary triumphs of the Pope soon disappeared. His troops, which had already reached the frontiers of the Milanese, no sooner learned, that the Swiss had been totally routed by the French, than they were panic-struck, and dispersed in the greatest disorder, as if they were conscious of being engaged in a crooked and illegal cause.

Ancient history affords us several examples of this species of neutrality. During the civil wars between the adherents of Vespasian and those of Otho and Vitellius, various means of duplicity were resorted to. We likewise read of the same sort of conduct having been observed by the inhabitants of Corcyrus when they went to war with the Corinthians; and modern history is full of similar instances of specious neutrality. For further particulars on this interesting subject, especially on the conduct to be observed by neuters in war, see from Page 531 to 533, of the English Translation of Hugo Grotius.

NICK-NAME, (_Sobriquet_, _Fr._) A surname, which is used in ridicule or good humor, to distinguish an individual. Nicknames among military men are familiarly used in a collective sense. Thus the light infantry are called _Light Bobs_, the grenadiers _Tow Rows_, and the battalion-men _Flat Foots_; and in many instances whole corps have been particularized in this manner. The 28th of foot were familiarly called the _Slashers_; and a general Sir C. Grey, an officer in the British service, used to be nicknamed General _No-Flint_, from a circumstance which occurred during the American war, when he commanded a party which stole into an American camp at night, and instead of fighting like a soldier, assassinated the Americans while asleep. During the campaigns of 1793 and 1794, in Flanders, &c. the 15th regiment of light dragoons were called _Young Eyes_ by the guards, who received or rather gave themselves the nick-name of _Old Eyes_.

NIGHER, _Ind._ any fortified city, measuring at least eight coss, or eight English miles, in length and breadth.

NIQUIBS, _Ind._ men whose military functions among the sepoys, correspond with those of corporals in the king’s service.

NITHING, a coward, or poltroon.

NITRE, See _Salt Petre_, _Gunpowder_.

NIVEAU, _Fr._ A level.

NIVEAU _de la campagne_, _Fr._ the level surface of a country is so called, in contradistinction to the talus or slope of any rising ground.

_De_ NIVEAU, _Fr._ level, even.

NIVEAU _d’eau_, _Fr._ a water level. This instrument is extremely simple, and of great use to engineers in the construction of works.

NIVEAU _de charpentier_, _Fr._ a carpenter’s rule or level.

NIVEAU _de paveur_, _Fr._ a pavior’s level.

NIVELER, _Fr._ to level.

NIVELER _les eaux_, _Fr._ to find the true level for conveying water.

NIVELER _le terrein_, _Fr._ to find the true level of ground, and to ascertain the relative elevations of places.

NIVELEUR _Fr._ a leveller: it is likewise sometimes used to express a trifler; but it does not signify a leveller in the political sense which we apply the English word in these days; nor does it mean a _Leveller_ belonging to a set of people in Oliver Cromwell’s army, who were for having an equal share in the administration of the government between the nobility and the commons.

NIZAM, _Ind._ a title which was bestowed by the great Mogul on one of his principal officers on his being appointed to the command and administration of a province. It became the title of an independent prince who ruled over Golconda about the year 1790; the British now rule over him. The word means, an adjuster, a regulator, an arranger, or manager, &c.

NIZAM _ul Moolc_, _Ind._ the protector of the country.

NIZAMUT, the office of Nizam.

NOBILITY, from the Latin, _Nobilitas_. This word has been variously defined. It is, however, generally understood to signify _illustrious descent_, and _conspicuousness of ancestors_, with a succession of arms conferred on some one (and from him to his family) by the prince, by law, or by custom, as a reward for the good and virtuous actions of him that performed them. The only true purchase of nobility should therefore consist of great and good actions, which in proportion as they dignified and ennobled the original owner, become objects of important trust with every descendant; who either reflected them back by a laudable imitation, or shamefully abused the tenure by dishonorable practices. The futility of hereditary nobility is now universally acknowleged.

NOBILITY likewise means in Europe, a quality that dignifies, or renders a person noble: particularly that raises a person possessed of it above a peasant or a commoner. The quality or degree of a nobleman; also the whole body of noblemen separated from the commons.

Nobility also means name, reputation, renown. N. Bailey in his fourth edition of the New Universal Etymological Dictionary, has the following curious passages on this word:--

NOBILITY. The Italians thus satyrised nobility: the dukes and earls of Germany, (every son of a duke being a duke, and every daughter of a dutchess being a dutchess) the dons of Spain, the monsieurs of France, the bishops of Italy, (every city having a bishop) the nobility of Hungary, the lairds of Scotland, the knights of Naples, and the younger brethren of England, make all together a poor company. He then classes nobility under five specific heads, viz.

_Divine_ NOBILITY, which is also called heavenly, or theological nobility, and relates to the supposed original of the soul.

_Human or worldly_ NOBILITY, which regards blood, and a genealogy of many ancestors. This nobility is purely accidental, and depends upon the birth. This is called political or hereditary, and becomes the right of individuals, be their merit, virtue, or capacity what they may.

_Moral_ NOBILITY, refers only to virtue, is purely personal, and depends on our own free will. It is also called _philosophical_; but is not hereditary, except by the influence of example, which render it the general inheritance of all good men.

_Dative_ NOBILITY, is such as has been acquired by some merits, or deeds, and has been conferred by the prince, &c.

_Native_ NOBILITY, is what passes from father to son, and makes the son noble, because his father was so. Of this species of nobility consists the British house of lords; to which occasional additions are made by purchased peerages. The justly celebrated Thomas Paine has characterised the futility of what is called _nobility_ by a happy pun, calling them _no-ability_.

NOBLES, NOBLEMEN, are the grandees of any kingdom or nation, by whatsoever title they are distinguished. Honorary distinctions have been very ancient. The Greeks distinguished their people into three ranks, viz. _Noblemen_, _land-holders_, or _farmers_, and _tradesmen_. The first were indulged with great privileges, and wore the figure of a grasshopper, as a badge of honor, in their hair. The Romans wore a half moon upon their shoes.

Among the Romans, those persons were called nobles who preserved the statues of their ancestors in their courts or cabinets. The faces of these statues were painted to resemble life. But it was necessary to be descended from the ancient magistrates, called curules, to be entitled to have these statues. They were exhibited to the public on festival days, and when any of the family died, they were carried in solemn procession before the corpse: so that under these circumstances, an individual might be a patrician without being actually of noble blood or extraction.

That person was called noble in France, who first received a letter patent constituting him such, and who thus gave rise to the nobility of his descendants. Those born of him bore the title of _gentilhomme_, or gentleman, _Un ancien gentilhomme_, or gentleman of some standing, was stiled _homme de condition_, or a person of condition. Those gentlemen who were descended from illustrious houses were called, _men of quality_, _gens de qualité_.

In England those only are called nobles or noblemen, who have the title of duke, marquis, earl, viscount, lord or baron; which titles either descend to individuals from family-right, are gratuitously conferred upon them by the prince, (who is called the fountain of honor) or are obtained by the price of gold. The hereditary tenure becomes equally solid in all these instances, though not equally estimable, unless the title be itself ennobled by some great and good actions of the possessor. By those, and those only, can a purchased title be converted into sterling gold from base metal.

NOBLESSE. See NOBILITY.

NOBLESSE _militaire_, _Fr._ Military nobility. Although most of the orders may be considered as appendages which confer a species of military nobility, especially that of the British garter, which was instituted by king Edward III. on the 19th of January, 1344, yet the British cannot be strictly said to have among them, that species of military nobility or distinction that was peculiarly known in France, &c. under the immediate title of _noblesse militaire_. In order to reward military merit, an edict was issued by the French court at Fontainbleau, in November 1750, and enregistered on the 25th of the same month by the parliament of Paris, whereby a _noblesse militaire_, or military nobility, was created; the acquisition of which depended wholly upon martial character, but did not require any letter patent for the purpose of ennobling the individual.

By the first article of this perpetual and irrevocable edict, as it was then stated, it was decreed, that no person, serving in the capacity and quality of officer in any of the king’s troops, should be liable to the land or poll tax, so long as he continued in that situation. 2dly. That by virtue of this edict, and from the date thereof, all general officers, not being otherwise ennobled, but being actually and bonâ fide in the service, should be considered as noble, and remain so, together with their children born, or to be born in lawful wedlock. 3dly. That in future the rank of general officer should of itself be sufficient to confer the full right of nobility upon all those who should arrive at that degree of military promotion; and that their heirs and successors, as well as their children, actually born and lawfully begotten, should be entitled to the same distinction; and that all general officers should enjoy all the rights and privileges of nobility from the date of their commissions. In articles IV. V. VI. and VII. it was specifically provided upon what conditions those officers, who were not noble, and were inferior in rank to that of maréchal de camp, but who had been created chevaliers or knights of the royal and military order of St. Louis, and who should retire from the service after having been in the army during thirty years without intermission, were to be exempted from the payment of the land or poll tax, and how the same privileges was to be transferred to their sons, provided they were in the service. By the eighth article it was enacted, that those officers who had risen to the rank of captain and were chevaliers or knights of the order of St. Louis, but who were disabled by wound, or diseases contracted in the service, should not be obliged to fill up the period of thirty years as prescribed in the recited articles. By article IX. it was provided, that when any officer, not under the rank of captain, died in the actual exercise of the functions, or bearing the commission of captain, the services he had already rendered should be of use to his sons, lawfully begotten, who were either in the service or were intended for it.

It was specified in articles X. and XI. that every officer, born in wedlock, whose father and grandfather had been exempted from the land or poll tax, should be noble, in his own right, provided he got created a chevalier or knight of St. Louis, had served the prescribed period, or was entitled to the exemption mentioned in article VIII. that if he should die in the service, he would be considered as having acquired the rank of nobility, and that the title so obtained should descend, as matter of right, to the children, lawfully begotten, of such officers as had acquired it. It further specified, that even those who should have been born previous to their father’s being ennobled, were entitled to the same privilege.

Article XII. pointed out the method by which proofs of military nobility were to be exhibited in conformity to the then existing edict.

Article XIII. and XIV. provided for those officers, who were actually in the service at the promulgation of the edict, in proportion as the prescribed periods were filled up. This provision related wholly to the personal service of officers; as no proof was acknowleged or received, relative to services done by their fathers or grandfathers, who might have retired from the army, or have died prior to the publication of the edict.

The XVth, or last article, was a sort of register, in which were preserved the different titles that enabled individuals to lay claim to military nobility.

The whole of this edict may be seen, page 206, in the 3d volume, _Des Elémens Militaires_.

The French emperor Bonaparte has instituted an order of nobility called the _legion of honor_, the political influence of which appears to be greater than any order ever established, even than that of the Jesuits. He has also adopted the ancient military title of _duke_; which he has hitherto conferred only on men who have merited renown by their military greatness. The title of _count_ is also established, and all the members of the legion of honor hold a rank corresponding with the knights of feudal institution. Private soldiers and tradesmen, for acts of public virtue, have been created members of the legion of honor.

NOEUD _de l’artificier_, _Fr._ a particular knot which artificers or fireworkers make use of to bind fusees together.

NOEUD _de charrue_, _Fr._ a particular knot or stress, which is used in the artillery when ropes are passed under carriages, for the purpose of raising any piece of ordnance that has been overturned. For the various knots used in military service, see the _Am. Mil. Library_, Art. ARTILLERY.

NOMADES, a tribe of wandering Arabs, so called in Asia.

NOMINAL, by name. Hence

NOMINAL _Call_ which corresponds with the French _appel nominatif_; and, in a military sense, with our _roll call_.

NOURRICE, _Fr._ a nurse. A female who attends the sick. This word is likewise used by the French to express the means of subsistence, &c. which are supplied by the agricultural part of a kingdom. Hence _une province est la nourrice d’une ville_; the town is fed by the country round it. _La Sicile est la nourrice de Rome._ Sicily is the nurse of Rome; meaning thereby that the latter was supplied with corn, &c. by the former.

NOURRIR. To feed. The French say familiarly, _la soupe nourrit le soldat_; broth feeds the soldier.

NOYAU, _Fr._ in English _mandril_, a long piece of iron, which is placed in the middle of a cannon mould, in order that the liquid metal may be poured round it, and the piece obtain an equal thickness on all sides.

NOYAU, _Fr._ likewise means the whole of the vacant space or bore of a cannon, under which are comprehended the diameter of the mouth, the vacant cylinder, the breech, and the vent.

With respect to bombs, grenades, and hollow balls, that which is called _noyau_ consists of a globular piece of earth, upon which the cover of bombs, grenades, and hollow balls, is cast. The metal is poured in between this cover and the _noyau_, after which the _noyau_ or core is broken, and the earth taken out.

NOWARRA, _Ind._ An establishment of boats, which is kept at Dacca, for a defence against the _Decoits_, _Mugs_, and other plunderers.

NUDDEE, _Ind._ The name for a rivulet.

NULLA, _Ind._ This term likewise signifies a rivulet, and means the place which was once the bed of a river.

NUMEROS, _Fr._ round pieces made of brass, or other metal, which were numbered and used in the old French service in the detail of guards. See MARON.

NURSE. A person, generally a female, whose whole business is to attend the sick in the general or regimental hospital. She is under the immediate direction of the surgeon, whose duty will be to prepare the slops and comforts for the sick, and occasionally to assist in administering medicines, cooking the victuals, washing, &c. and for every ten men confined to bed by fever, an additional nurse and orderly-man should be allowed. All the patients, who are able, are every morning and evening to assist in cleaning and airing the hospital, carrying away dirt, &c., and by every means to assist the helpless.

There are also serjeants, orderly-men, and nurses, in regiments of the line.

In every regimental hospital, a room should be appropriated to the accommodation of such convalescents, whose state of health will admit of their being placed on full diet. This hospital to be regularly visited by the surgeon once, twice, or oftener in the day, as circumstances may require.

A non-commissioned officer should be appointed to the particular charge of the convalescent hospital, with an orderly-man, and when the convalescents are numerous, more orderly-men are to be attached to it, to keep it clean.

It is particularly necessary that none of the hospital tables and orders, which are to be hung up in a conspicuous place in every regimental hospital, shall be defaced by any person whatever, nor taken down, but by the surgeon or serjeant, the latter of whom will explain the allowance ordered for those patients who are not themselves in a situation to read the table for the distribution of diet.

O.

O. This letter is generally used in the orderly books to signify orders, viz.

GL. O. General orders.

R. O. Regimental orders,

GN. O. Garrison orders.

B. O. Brigade orders.

OATH, a solemn asseveration made in the presence of a magistrate, and taken on the Bible, whereby an individual binds himself to observe certain conditions, or swears to specific facts which he knows of his own knowlege. Soldiers from time immemorial have been accustomed to take oaths of fidelity. These oaths were, however, observed with greater solemnity among the ancients than they are administered in modern armies, except upon very particular occasions. In the latter, indeed, it seldom or ever happens, that oaths are taken by bodies of soldiers, assembled for the purpose. Oaths are taken by men newly enlisted, but those oaths are individually administered, and separately taken. The military oath, on the contrary, among the Romans, was of a more general and impressive nature. Kennett, in his Roman Antiquities, page 188, gives the following account of it:--“The levies being finished, the tribunes of every legion chose out one whom they thought the fittest person, and gave him a solemn oath at large, the substance of which was, that he should oblige himself to obey the commanders in all things to the utmost of his power, be ready to attend whenever they ordered his appearance, and never to leave the army but by their consent. After he had ended, the whole legion, passing one by one, every man, in short, swore to the same effect, crying, as he went by, _Idem in me_. The same by me.”

OATH _of Allegiance_. See ALLEGIANCE.

OATS, a grain which constitutes a principal food of horses in Europe. The distribution of this article ought to be narrowly watched by every officer commanding a troop; since it is notorious, that government is frequently charged for quantities which are not delivered, by which means, the horse suffers, and the public are imposed upon.

OBEDIENCE, (_Obéissance_, _Fr._) Submission to the orders of a superior. The first principle which ought to be inculcated and impressed upon the mind of every officer and soldier is obedience to all lawful commands. It is the main spring, the soul and essence, of military duty.

_Preter obeissance_, _Fr._ To swear allegiance.

_Remettre dans l’obeissance_, _Fr._ To recall to duty.

OBEDIENCE _to orders_. An unequivocal performance of the several duties which are directed to be discharged by military men. All officers and soldiers are to pay obedience to the lawful orders of their superior officers.

OBEIR, _Fr._ See OBEY.

_To_ OBEY, in a military sense, is without question or hesitation, to conform zealously to all orders and instructions which are legally issued. It sometimes happens, that individuals are called upon (by mistake, or from the exigency of the service) out of what is called the regular roster. In either case they must cheerfully obey, and after they have performed their duty, they may remonstrate.

OBJECT, in a military sense, signifies the same as point, with respect to mere movements and evolutions. Thus in marching forward in line, &c. the leader of a squad, company, or battalion, must take two objects at least upon which he forms his perpendicular movement, and by which the whole body is regulated. In proportion as he advances he takes care to select intermediate and distant objects or points by which his march is governed. See MARCHING IN LINE.

OBLATE, any rotund figure flatted at the poles as a turnip, which is properly an _oblate spheroid_.

OBLIQUATION, OBLIQUITY, a deviation from the parallel or perpendicular line.

OBLIQUE, _or second flank_. The face of a bastion discovered from a part of the curtain, is so called.

OBLIQUE _projection_, is that wherein the direction of the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, which makes an oblique angle with the horizontal line.

OBLIQUE _deployments_. When the component parts of a column that is extending into line, deviate to the right or left, for the purpose of taking up an oblique position, its movements are called oblique deployments. This is thus executed, either by wheeling the line by quarter or half wheels toward the point directed in single files, sections, or platoons; so that the movement may be made perpendicular to the newly wheeled front, and the sections will form echellons; if files, they march by what is called the line of science.

OBLIQUE _fire or defence_, that which is under too great an angle, as is generally the defence of the second flank, which can never be so good as a defence in front. See _Oblique Firing_, at the word FIRINGS. See _Am. Mil. Lib. plates_.

OBLIQUE _percussion_, is that wherein the direction of the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, or is not in line with its centre of gravity.

Oblique _position_. A position taken in an oblique direction from the original line of formation. As described in oblique deployments.

OBLIQUE _radius_, a line extending from the centre to the exterior side of a polygon.

OBLIQUE STEP. This absurd and awkward contortion is deservedly exploded.

_To_ OBLIQUE, in a military sense, is to move forward to the right or left, in either of those directions, from a line.

_Pas_ OBLIQUE, _Fr._ Oblique step.

OBLIQUE _à droite_, _Fr._ Right oblique.

OBLIQUE _à gauche_, _Fr._ Left oblique.

_Feux_ OBLIQUES _à droite et à gauche_, oblique firings to the right and left.

_Marcher_ OBLIQUEMENT, _Fr._ To oblique, or march in an oblique direction.

OBLIVION. See AMNESTY.

OBLONG _Square_. See SQUARE.

OBSEDER, _Fr._ To besiege, to beset, to get possession of.

OBSEQUIES, (_Obséques_, _Fr._) See BURIALS.

OBSERVATION. See ARMY OF OBSERVATION.

_To be under_ OBSERVATION. To be carefully watched and looked after. _Etre vu de prés; etre suivi de prés._

OBSERVATOIRE, _Fr._ See OBSERVATORY.

OBSERVATORY, a building, public or private, which is erected and provided with all sorts of instruments, proper for astronomical observations, &c. The most noted observatories in Europe, are:

1. That of Tycho Brahe, a nobleman of Denmark, at Uraineberg, in the island of Wern, between the coasts of Schonen and Zealand, in the Baltic.

2. The observatory at Paris, which was erected by Louis XIV. This building stands in the Fauxbourg St. Germain, and is so constructed as to answer the four cardinal points of the world, east, west, north and south. The foundation is laid 80 feet below the ground, and the edifice carried as much above it. It contains three stories in height, and has a terrace at top, from whence the whole horizon appears flat. The stair-case of this observatory deserves notice, from the singularity of its construction, being in the form of a screw, and so contrived, that from the bottom there is a full sight of the stars that pass the zenith of this place.

3. The royal observatory at Greenwich, in England, which was founded by Charles the second.

4. The observatory at Pekin in China, which was erected by the late emperor, at the intercession of the Jesuits.

_To_ OBSERVE, to watch closely, &c. Hence, _to observe the motions of an enemy_, is to keep a good look out by means of small corps of armed men, or of intelligent and steady spies or scouts, and to be constantly in possession of his different movements. No man can be said to have the talents of an able general, who neglects to observe his enemy in all directions; for if it be his intention to attack, you may thwart him by previous manœuvres; and if you are liable to be attacked yourself, you may assume the best possible position, and prevent surprise, &c.

OBSESSION. The act of besieging.

OBSIDIONAL, belonging to a siege.

OBSIDIONAL _Crown_, (_couronne obsidionale_, _Fr._) a crown so called among the ancient Romans, which was bestowed upon a governor or general, who by his skill and exertions, either held out, or caused the siege to be raised of any town belonging to the republic. It was made from the grass which grew upon the spot, and was therefore called _gramineus_, from the Latin word _gramen_, signifying grass.

_Monnoie_ OBSIDIONALE, _Fr._ any substitute for coin, which has a value put upon it that is greater than its intrinsic worth; and a currency given, to answer the convenience of the inhabitants of a besieged place. _On a employé le cuir à faire des monnoies obsidionales._ The inhabitants made use of leather as a substitute for coin.

OBSTACLES, in a military sense, are narrow passes, woods, bridges, or any other impediments, which present themselves when a battalion is marching to front or rear. These are passed, by the formation, march, and deployment of the close column. Such parts as are not interrupted still move on in front; such parts as are interrupted, double by divisions, as ordered, behind and adjoining a flank or flanks, and in this manner follow in close column in their natural order. As the ground opens they successively deploy, and again perfect the line. The columns are always behind the line, and march closed up. The formed part of the battalion, whether advancing or retiring, continues to move on at the ordinary pace, and in proportion as the obstacles increase or diminish, will the formed or column parts of the line increase or diminish.

The general attentions directed to be observed on these occasions are, that the columns formed shall be of sub-divisions, if the ground will admit. The first sub-division that is obliged to double, will be directed to which hand by the commander of the battalion, the others, as they successively double, will, in consequence, place themselves behind it, and behind each other, and the hand first doubled to, will be that which presents the opening most favorable to the subsequent march, and formation, and which the commanding officer will always hold in view, and order accordingly. The interrupted body will double to one or both flanks, according to circumstances, and the order it receives. Obstacles that impede a flank will occasion a single column to be formed from the flank towards the centre. Obstacles that impede the centre, or a central part of a wing, will, if considerable, occasion two columns to be formed, from the centre towards the flanks. The columns will follow a flank of such part of the line as is not impeded; and either in doubling into column, or extending into line, the rear divisions will conform to the movements of their then leading one. No part less than the front of the column doubles or moves up, and when half or more of a battalion must be thrown into one column, it will be ordered by companies.

OBSTACLES _whose fronts are parallel to the line_. When such occur, the divisions impeded must all at once double behind such one, or two, other divisions as clear them of the obstacle.

OBSTACLES _whose first points continue to increase as the line advances_. In these cases the doubling is successive, beginning with that division which is first interrupted, and continuing as it becomes necessary, till the column can advance in clear ground.

OBSTACLES _passed, or diminished_. When obstacles are of such a nature as to permit of the complete extension at once into line: the whole column performs it by the commands and deployments of the close column on the front division, which then makes part of the line. But when obstacles diminish by degrees only, then the divisions of the column must come up into line successively as the ground opens, and the remainder of the column must, in diminishing, shift toward the obstacle, in the same manner as it before shifted from it in increasing.

OBSTACLES _that are passed in presence of an enemy_. Under these circumstances if the battalion, in advancing, should be obliged to fire, it halts in the situation it is then in, executes such firings as are ordered, and again advances.

If the battalion, in retiring, is pressed by the enemy, the part in line will _halt! front!_ the part in column will move on till the last division arrives in line, and will then _halt, front_. The firing that is ordered, will be executed; and when it is again proper to retire, the whole will face about, the part in line will _march_, and the columns will also be put in march when the line arrives at their head.

OBSTACLES _whose points of opening are narrow, and continue so, more or less_. In such cases the interrupted division, will be ordered to face either to one or both flanks, and closely to follow in file such parts of the battalion as are not broken: the filing will increase as the obstacles increase, but as they diminish, file after file will successively and quickly move up to their place till the whole are again formed; and during this operation the leading file will always remain attached to the flank of the part in line.--The same rules that direct the doubling in column, direct the doubling by files; when a subdivision files, it will be from the flank only; when a company files, it may be from both flanks; and if a larger front than two companies is interrupted, it then doubles into column. Where the obstacles are of small extent, but frequently occurring, this mode is the readiest that can be applied in advancing; but in retiring it cannot be of use, if the enemy be at hand to press upon the battalion; and therefore the passing by column is to be looked upon as the general method. For further explanations on the important operations of passing obstacles, we refer our military readers to _Am. Mil. Lib._ Article RECONNOITRING.

OBSTINATE, in a military sense, determined, fixed in resolution.--Hence obstinate resistance.

OBSTINATELY. Persevering. The two armies fought so obstinately, that night only could separate the combatants.

OBSTINEMENT, _Fr._ Obstinately. Stubbornly, inflexibly, with unshaken determination.

S’OBSTINER, _Fr._ to persist in any thing.

OBSTRUCTION, any difficulty or impediment, opposing the operations of an army, &c.

OBTUS, _Fr._ Obtuse.

_Angle_ OBTUS, _Fr._ Obtuse angle.

OBTUSANGULAR, having angles larger than right angles.

OBUS, _Fr._ _Hobits._ _Howitzer._ A species of small mortar, resembling a mortar in every thing but the carriage, which is made in the form of that belonging to a gun, only shorter. It has been frequently used at sieges; and is well calculated to sweep the covert way, and to fire ricochet shots. They were usually loaded with cartouches. Belidor writes upon the subject at some length in his _Bombardier Francois_, page 39. See HOWITZER.

OCCASIO, _L._, _Opportunity_, among the Romans, an allegorical divinity, the goddess of time, who presides over the most favorable moment for success in any enterprise. She is represented stark naked, with a long lock of hair upon her forehead, and bald behind. And also standing on a wheel, with wings on her feet, and is said to turn herself very swiftly round; by which is intimated, that we should lay hold of the present opportunity. Among modern nations no people pay greater attention to the instruction which is conveyed by this allegory than the French do. It is common among them to say:--_L’occasion est chauve_. Occasion or opportunity is bald--Alluding to the Roman allegory; and in the same figure, _il faut prendre l’occasion par les cheveux_. You must seize time (by which is meant occasion or opportunity) by the forelock; meaning the forelock of hair alluded to.

OCCASION, _Fr._ has the same signification, in military matters, that affair bears among the French.

_Une_ OCCASION _bien chaude_, _Fr._ a warm contest, battle, or engagement.--It further means, as with us, the source from whence consequences ensue. _Les malheurs du peuple sont arrivés a l’occasion de la guerre_. The misfortunes of the people have been occasioned by the war, or the war has been the occasion of the people’s misfortunes. The French make a nice distinction which may hold good in our language, between cause and occasion, viz. _Il n’en est pas la cause--Il n’en est que l’occasion, l’occasion innocente._--He is not the cause, he is only the occasion, the innocent occasion of it. _Il s’est faché pour une legére occasion_; he took offence, or grew angry on a very slight occasion.

_Se servir de l’_OCCASION, _Fr._ to take advantage, or make a proper use of time and opportunity. A French writer has very properly observed, that to seize with dexterity occasions as they occur, is a certain proof of courage and ability, especially in the general of an army. Opportunity or occasion, according to Tacitus, is the mother of events. _Opportunos magnis conatibus transitas rerum._ One complete and decisive victory leads us to a multiplicity of enterprises and great designs, all of which grow out of the first triumph.

A full and decisive victory, by which the country is left entirely at the mercy of the conqueror, must necessarily throw the inhabitants into confusion, and open fresh avenues to conquest; for one opportunity or occasion well embraced and executed upon, becomes the source of many others. There is not, perhaps, in human contingencies any thing which spreads itself so rapidly, or ought to be so little neglected. An enterprise which grows out of another, though it be in reality more arduous to get through than the one which produced it, becomes more easy in its execution: and yet, how many brave and skilful generals have existed, who could not make a proper use of opportunity? In reading over their gallant exploits, one would be led to believe, that all their knowlege consisted in merely knowing how to fight. We have seen them, with unexampled intrepidity, doing every thing that man dares to do, in the field of battle: we have seen them make a decisive blow, and place victory within their grasp; and when they were in the actual possession of all they fought for, we have seen them suddenly relax, give their enemies time to breathe, and finally lose all the fruits of their victory. The courage and promptitude which they manifested in a decisive battle, were the effects of a transitory impulse which was soon wasted and extinguished.

Hannibal, so much celebrated for his bold enterprise against the Romans, was guilty of this error. After the battle of Cannæ it rested entirely with himself to march to Rome. He had only to follow up his first blow, to take advantage of the consternation of the Romans, and to pursue them to their capitol. By so doing he would have made use of the glorious _occasion_ which fortune had thrown into his hands by the first victory, and would not have been driven to the necessity of endeavoring to obtain the original object of his enterprise, by fighting several battles that proved abortive of it. Adherbal on this account, after having failed in his attempt to persuade Hannibal to pursue his first good fortune, and to march to the gates of Rome, is recorded to have used the following expression: _Vincere scis, Hannibal; sed victoriâ uti nescis_. Hannibal, thou knowest how to conquer, but thou dost not know how to make use of a victory.

Gustavus Adolphus made the same mistake. Had he, after having won the battle of Leipsic, hung upon the rear of the discomfited Imperialists, pushed and harassed them to the gates of Vienna, there is little doubt of the consequences which must have ensued.

The emperor Ferdinand was as weak in effective forces at the capital as the Romans were at Rome, and the same consternation prevailed among the inhabitants. Had Gustavus profited by his first success, and converted the means, which so glorious an occasion offered, into prompt and vigorous pursuit, he would not indeed have reaped additional laurels in the plains of Outzen, where he fell at the head of his victorious Swedes, but he must have reached Vienna, and there have dictated his own terms.

Carthalon, among the ancients, was on the contrary, an instance of how much may be done by acting up to circumstances, and by judiciously making use of fortune as occasions offer. He was not satisfied with having surprised the Roman fleet, taken off a considerable number of ships, and burned others, but he instantly availed himself of his first good fortune, attempted another enterprise, and succeeded.

The British generals who made war in the American revolution, were as unfortunate in their never taking proper advantage of occasion; their retreat from Princeton, and their subsequent stupor, while the American army of only 4000 men lay hutted at Valley Forge; while they held Philadelphia within 20 miles of them, with 17000 men, is a striking instance. An important occasion was also lost by them after the battle of Brandywine; where the American dispositions and subsequent retreat were alike unsuited to the occasion. The campaign was a series of the most extravagant blunders that can be conceived. The campaign that ended with the capitulation at York Town, was as brilliant on the part of the American arms, as on the English side eggregiously injudicious and unsuitable to the occasion.

OCCASIONAL, (_elle_, _Fr._) This adjective is used in a different sense among the French, to what it is with us, viz. _Cause occasionally_; any thing that occasions an event.

OCCIDENT, _Fr._ The west.

OCCUPE, _Fr._ to be taken possession of. _Les environs furent occupés par des troupes légéres_; the neighboring places were taken possession of by some light troops.

_To_ OCCUPY, is to take possession of any work or post.

OCTAEDRE, _Fr._ _Octahedron_, one of the five regular bodies which is terminated by eight equilateral equal triangles.

OCTAGON, (_Octogone_, _Fr._) a figure or polygon that has eight equal sides, which likewise form eight equal angles. The octagon, in fortification, is well calculated in its ground for the construction of large towns, or for such as have the advantage of neighboring rivers, especially if the engineer can so place the bastions, that the entrance and outlet of the rivers may be in some of the curtains. By means of this disposition no person could come in or go out of the garrison without the governor’s or commandant’s permission, as the centinels must have a full view from the flanks of the neighboring Bastions.

OCTAVION, (_one_, _Fr._) any male or female that is born of a quarteron and a white woman, or of a white man and a quarterone.

OCTONS, _Fr._ a mathematical instrument, which contains 45 degrees or the eighth part of a circle.

OCTOEDRICAL, having eight sides.

OCTOSTYLE, the face of a building containing eight columns.

ODA. The different corps or companies into which the janizaries are divided, bear this appellation. The word itself means a room, and the companies are so called from messing separately.

ODEN, ODIN, _or_ WODEN, a deity so called in ancient times among the Swedes, and Goths. He was their god of war in the same manner that they acknowleged _Thor_ to be their _Jupiter_, and _Freya_ their _Venus_.

ODOMETER, (_Odometre_, _Fr._) an instrument by which you may ascertain how much ground you go over on foot, or in conveyance.

OEIL, _Fr._ in architecture, any round aperture, which is made in a building.

OEIL _de dome_, _Fr._ an opening made at the top of an edifice.

OEIL _de bœuf_, _Fr._ a round window or aperture, which is made in a wall or roof. The black spot in the centre of a target is likewise called _œil de bœuf_, or bull’s eye.

OEIL _de pont_, _Fr._ the opening, or vacant space, under the arch of a bridge.

OEUVRE, _Fr._ in architecture this word admits of various significations in the French language, and may be connected with different prepositions, all of which determine the signification, viz.

_Dans_ OEUVRE, _Fr._ Within. _Trente toises de long dans œuvre_; signifies 30 toises in length within doors.

_Hors d’_OEUVRE, _Fr._ Without. _Un escalier hors d’œuvre_; a stair-case without doors.

_Sous_ OEUVRE, _Fr._ From the bottom. _Reprendre un mur sous œuvre_; to build up a wall from the foot or bottom.

_Dans_ OEUVRE _et hors d’_OEUVRE, within and without.

OIN, _or_ OING, _Fr._ Cart-grease, such as is used to the wheels of ordnance carriages, &c.

OFF, an adverb, which is frequently conjoined with verbs; and, in a military sense, is used as follows:

_To march_ OFF, to quit the ground on which you are regularly drawn up, for the purpose of going upon detachment, relieving a guard, or doing any other military duty.

_To tell_ OFF, to count the men composing a battalion or company, so as to have them readily and distinctly thrown into such proportions as suit military movements or evolutions.

OFFENCES. All acts, that are contrary to good order and discipline, omissions of duty, &c. may be called military offences. The principal ones are specified in the Articles of War. No officer or soldier can be tried twice for the same offence; unless in case of an appeal from a regimental to a general court-martial: nor can any officer or soldier be tried for any offence committed more than two years before the date of the warrant for trial; except in cases where the offenders were not amenable to justice in that period, when they may be brought to trial any time within two years after the impediment ceased.

OFFENSIVE _War_. Military acts of aggression constitute what is called an offensive war. Those who assail an opposite or adverse army, or invade the dominions of another power, are said to wage an offensive war.

OFFENSIVE _Weapons_, are such as are fit for the purpose of carrying on offensive war, as cannon, mortars, swords, pistols, musquets, &c.

OFFENSIVE _Fortification_. See APPROACHES, SIEGE, &c.

OFFICE, in a military sense, signifies any place or apartment which is fixed or appointed for officers, clerks, &c. to attend in, for the discharge of their respective employments; as war-office or office of the war department--adjutant and inspector’s office--commander in chief’s office--paymaster general’s office, &c. &c.

Department and board are sometimes synonymous terms. Sometimes the term office is inapplicable to places where military business is transacted, viz. Clothing department, board of general officers, &c. The word _conseil_ is used by the French in the latter sense, the term _bureau_ in almost all others.

OFFICE of the inspector-general.

OFFICE of the commissary-general of stores, &c. to the forces at home.

OFFICE of the military agent.

OFFICE of the superintendant of military stores.

OFFICE of the advocate-general.

OFFICE of the physician-general.

OFFICE of the comptroller. Since the commencement of the coalition wars, the whole system of conducting the extraordinary expences of armies serving abroad has undergone a careful revision in the British service. Among other wise suggestions it has been recommended, 1st. That no military officer should himself have a property, or interest, in any article which his duty obliged him to provide for the public service. The object of this suggestion has in some instances been fulfilled; but it still remains with the commander in chief, and with those persons particularly concerned with army matters, to recommend its adoption in the clothing of the different regiments, regular as well as militia. The property which the colonels manifestly hold in this article, exposes the most honorable character to unmerited imputations, and affords ample means to the base and selfish of growing rich at the expence of public virtue. 2. That no payment should be made by the military officer belonging to any department (such as quarter, or barrack master general, inspector of hospitals, commanding engineers, &c.) but that every expence should be paid by the deputy paymasters general, in pursuance of a warrant from the commander in chief. 3. That all vouchers, proving any payment, should be subject to a careful and speedy examination by persons appointed for the purpose, on the spot where the expence was incurred.