Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

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[Image: Spine]

History For Ready Reference, Volume 4 of 6

From The Best Historians, Biographers, And Specialists

Their Own Words In A Complete System Of History

For All Uses, Extending To All Countries And Subjects, And Representing For Both Readers And Students The Better And Newer Literature Of History In The English Language.

BY J. N. LARNED

With Numerous Historical Maps From Original Studies And Drawings By Alan C. Reiley

In Five Volumes

VOLUME IV—NICÆA TO TUNIS

SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS. THE C. A. NICHOLS COMPANY, PUBLISHERS MDCCCXCV

COPYRIGHT, 1894. BY J. N. LARNED.

The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts., U. S. A. Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company.

LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS.

Two maps of Central Europe, at the abdication of Charles V. (1556), and showing the distribution of Religions about 1618, To follow page 2458

Map of Eastern Europe in 1768, and of Central Europe at the Peace of Campo Formio (1797), To follow page 2554

Map of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent, under Trajan (A. D. 116), To follow page 2712

Map of Europe at the death of Justinian (A. D. 565),
To follow page 2742

Two maps, of Eastern Europe and Central Europe, in 1715,
To follow page 2762

Four development maps of Spain, 9th, 11th, 12th and 13th centuries, To follow page 2976

LOGICAL OUTLINE, IN COLORS. Roman history, To follow page 2656

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. Ninth and Tenth Centuries, To follow page 2746

{2359}

NICÆA OR NICE:
The founding of the city.

Nicæa, or Nice, in Bithynia, was founded by Antigonus, one of
the successors of Alexander the Great, and received originally
the name Antigonea. Lysimachus changed the name to Nicæa, in
honor of his wife.

NICÆA OR NICE:
Capture by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 325.
The First Council.

"Constantine … determined to lay the question of Arianism [see
ARIANISM] before an Œcumenical council. … The council met [A.
D. 325] at Nicæa—the 'City of Victory'—in Bithynia, close to
the Ascanian Lake, and about twenty miles from Nicomedia. … It
was an Eastern council, and, like the Eastern councils, was
held within a measurable distance from the seat of government.
… Of the 318 bishops … who subscribed its decrees, only eight
came from the West, and the language in which the Creed was
composed was Greek, which scarcely admitted of a Latin
rendering. The words of the Creed are even now recited by the
Russian Emperor at his coronation. Its character, then, is
strictly Oriental. … Of the 318 members of the Council, we are
told by Philostorgius, the Arian historian, that 22 espoused
the cause of Arius, though other writers regard the minority
as still less, some fixing it at 17, others at 15, others as
low as 13. But of those 318 the first place in rank, though
not the first in mental power and energy of character, was
accorded to the aged bishop of Alexandria. He was the
representative of the most intellectual diocese in the Eastern
Church. He alone, of all the bishops, was named 'Papa,' or
'Pope.' The 'Pope of Rome' was a phrase which had not yet
emerged in history; but 'Pope of Alexandria' was a well-known
title of dignity."

_R. W. Bush,
St. Athanasius,
chapter 6._

ALSO IN:
_A. P. Stanley,
Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church,
lectures 3-5._

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1080.
Acquired by the Turks.
The capital of the Sultan of Roum.

See TURKS (THE SELJUK): A. D. 1073-1092.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1096-1097.
Defeat and slaughter of the First Crusaders.
Recovery from the Turks.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1096-1099.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1204-1261.
Capital of the Greek Empire.

See GREEK EMPIRE OF NICÆA.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1330.
Capture by the Ottoman Turks.

See TURKS (OTTOMAN): A. D. 1326-1359.

NICÆA OR NICE: A. D. 1402.
Sacked by Timour.

See TIMOUR.

----------NICARAGUA: Start--------

NICARAGUA:
The Name.

Nicaragua was originally the name of a native chief who ruled
in the region on the Lake when it was first penetrated by the
Spaniards, under Gil Gonzalez, in 1522. "Upon the return of
Gil Gonzalez, the name Nicaragua became famous, and besides
being applied to the cacique and his town, was gradually given
to the surrounding country, and to the lake."

_H. H. Bancroft,
History of the Pacific States,
volume 1, page. 489, foot-note._

NICARAGUA: A. D. 1502.
Coasted by Columbus.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505.

NICARAGUA: A. D. 1821-1871.
Independence of Spain.
Brief annexation to Mexico.
Attempted federations and their failure.

See CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.

NICARAGUA: A. D. 1850.
The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.
Joint protectorate of the United States and
Great Britain over the proposed inter-oceanic canal.

"The acquisition of California in May, 1848, by the treaty of
Guadalupe-Hidalgo, and the vast rush of population, which
followed almost immediately on the development of the gold
mines, to that portion of the Pacific coast, made the opening
of interoceanic communication a matter of paramount importance
to the United States. In December, 1846, had been ratified a
treaty with New Granada (which in 1862 assumed the name of
Colombia) by which a right of transit over the isthmus of
Panama was given to the United States, and the free transit
over the isthmus 'from the one to the other sea' guaranteed by
both of the contracting powers. Under the shelter of this
treaty the Panama Railroad Company, composed of citizens of
the United States, and supplied by capital from the United
States, was organized in 1850 and put in operation in 1855. In
1849, before, therefore, this company had taken shape, the
United States entered into a treaty with Nicaragua for the
opening of a ship-canal from Greytown (San Juan), on the
Atlantic coast, to the Pacific coast, by way of the Lake of
Nicaragua. Greytown, however, was then virtually occupied by
British settlers, mostly from Jamaica, and the whole eastern
coast of Nicaragua, so far at least as the eastern terminus of
such a canal was concerned, was held, so it was maintained by
Great Britain, by the Mosquito Indians, over whom Great
Britain claimed to exercise a protectorate. That the Mosquito
Indians had no such settled territorial site; that, if they
had, Great Britain had no such protectorate or sovereignty
over them as authorized her to exercise dominion over their
soil, even if they had any, are positions which … the United
States has repeatedly affirmed. But the fact that the
pretension was set up by Great Britain, and that, though it
were baseless, any attempt to force a canal through the
Mosquito country, might precipitate a war, induced Mr.
Clayton, Secretary of State in the administration of General
Taylor, to ask through Sir H. L. Bulwer, British minister at
Washington, the administration of Lord John Russell (Lord
Palmerston being then foreign secretary) to withdraw the
British pretensions to the coast so as to permit the
construction of the canal under the joint auspices of the
United States and of Nicaragua. This the British Government
declined to do, but agreed to enter into a treaty for a joint
protectorate over the proposed canal." This treaty, which was
signed at Washington April 19, 1850, and of which the
ratifications were exchanged on the 4th of July following, is
commonly referred to as the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Its
language in the first article is that "the Governments of the
United States and of Great Britain hereby declare that neither
the one nor the other will ever obtain or maintain for itself
any exclusive control over the said ship-canal; agreeing that
neither will ever erect or maintain any fortifications
commanding the same, or in the vicinity thereof, or occupy, or
fortify, or colonize, or assume or exercise any dominion over
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito coast, or any part of
Central America; nor will either make use of any protection
which either affords, or may afford, or any alliance which
either has or may have to or with any state or people, for the
purpose of erecting or maintaining any such fortifications, or
of occupying, fortifying, or colonizing Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
the Mosquito coast, or any part of Central America, or of
assuming or exercising dominion over the same;
{2360}
nor will the United States or Great Britain take advantage of
any intimacy, or use any alliance, connection, or influence
that either may possess, with any State or Government through
whose territory the said canal may pass, for the purpose of
acquiring or holding, directly or indirectly, for the citizens
or subjects of the one, any rights or advantages in regard to
commerce or navigation through the said canal which shall not
be offered on the same terms to the citizens or subjects of
the other." Since the execution of this treaty there have been
repeated controversies between the two governments respecting
the interpretation of its principal clauses. Great Britain
having maintained her dominion over the Belize, or British
Honduras, it has been claimed by the United States that the
treaty is void, or, has become voidable at the option of the
United States, on the grounds (in the language of a dispatch
from Mr. Frelinghuysen, Secretary of State, dated July 19,
1884) "first, that the consideration of the treaty having
failed, its object never having been accomplished, the United
States did not receive that for which they covenanted; and,
second, that Great Britain has persistently violated her
agreement not to colonize the Central American coast."

_F. Wharton,
Digest of the International Law of the United States,
chapter 6, section 150 f. (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_Treaties and Conventions between the United States
and other Powers (edition of 1889),
page 440._

NICARAGUA: A. D. 1855-1860.
The invasion of Walker and his Filibusters.

"Its geographical situation gave … importance to Nicaragua. It
contains a great lake, which is approached from the Atlantic
by the river San Juan; and from the west end of the lake there
are only 20 miles to the coast of the Pacific. Ever since the
time of Cortes there have been projects for connecting the two
oceans through the lake of Nicaragua. … Hence Nicaragua has
always been thought of great importance to the United States.
The political struggles of the state, ever since the failure
of the confederation, had sunk into a petty rivalry between
the two towns of Leon and Granada. Leon enjoys the distinction
of being the first important town in Central America to raise
the cry of independence in 1815, and it had always maintained
the liberal character which this disclosed. Castellon, the
leader of the Radical party, of which Leon was the seat,
called in to help him an American named William Walker.
Walker, who was born in 1824, was a young roving American who
had gone during the gold rush of 1850 to California, and
become editor of a newspaper in San Francisco. In those days
it was supposed in the United States that the time for
engulfing the whole of Spanish America had come. Lopez had
already made his descent on Cuba; and Walker, in July, 1853,
had organized a band of filibusters for the conquest of
Sonora, and the peninsula of California, which had been left
to Mexico by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This wild
expedition … was a total failure; but when Walker came back to
his newspapers after an absence of seven months, he found
himself a hero. His fame, as we see, had reached Central
America; and he at once accepted Castellon's offer. In 1855,
having collected a band of 70 adventurers in California, he
landed in the country, captured the town of Granada, and,
aided by the intrigues of the American consul, procured his
own appointment as General-in-Chief of the Nicaraguan army.
Walker was now master of the place: and his own provisional
President, Rivas, having turned against him, he displaced him,
and in 1856 became President himself. He remained master of
Nicaragua for nearly two years, levying arbitrary customs on
the traffic of the lake, and forming plans for a great
military state to be erected on the ruins of Spanish America.
One of Walker's first objects was to seize the famous
gold-mines of Chontales, and the sudden discovery that the
entire sierra of America is a gold-bearing region had a good
deal to do with his extraordinary enterprise. Having assured
himself of the wealth of the country, he now resolved to keep
it for himself, and this proved in the end to be his ruin. The
statesmen of the United States, who had at first supposed that
he would cede them the territory, now withdrew their support
from him: the people of the neighbouring states rose in arms
against him, and Walker was obliged to capitulate, with the
remains of his filibustering party, at Rivas in 1857. Walker,
still claiming to be President of Nicaragua, went to New
Orleans, where he collected a second band of filibusters, at
the head of whom he again landed near the San Juan river
towards the end of the year: this time he was arrested and
sent back home by the American commodore. His third and last
expedition, in 1860, was directed against Honduras, where he
hoped to meet with a good reception at the hands of the
Liberal party. Instead of this he fell into the hands of the
soldiers of Guardiola, by whom he was tried as a pirate and
shot, September 12, 1860."

_E. J. Payne,
History of European Colonies,
chapter 21, section 8._

"Though he never evinced much military or other capacity,
Walker, so long as he acted under color of authority from the
chiefs of the faction he patronized, was generally successful
against the pitiful rabble styled soldiers by whom his
progress was resisted. … But his very successes proved the
ruin of the faction to which he had attached himself, by
exciting the natural jealousy and alarm of the natives who
mainly composed it; and his assumption … of the title of
President of Nicaragua, speedily followed by a decree
reestablishing Slavery in that country, exposed his purpose
and insured his downfall. As if madly bent on ruin, he
proceeded to confiscate the steamboats and other property of
the Nicaragua Transit Company, thereby arresting all American
travel to and from California through that country, and
cutting himself off from all hope of further recruiting his
forces from the throngs of sanguine or of baffled
gold-seekers, who might otherwise have been attracted to his
standard. Yet he maintained the unequal contest for about two
years."

_H. Greeley,
The American Conflict,
volume 1, chapter 19._

ALSO IN:
_H. H. Bancroft,
History of the Pacific States,
volume 3, chapters 16-17._

_J. J. Roche,
The Story of the Filibusters,
chapters 5-18._

----------NICARAGUA: End--------

NICE (NIZZA), Asia Minor.

See NICÆA.

----------NICE, France: Start--------

NICE (NIZZA), France: A. D. 1388.
Acquisition by the House of Savoy.

See SAVOY: 11-15TH CENTURIES.

{2361}

NICE: A. D. 1542.
Siege by French and Turks.
Capture of the town.
Successful resistance of the citadel.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

NICE: A. D. 1792.
Annexation to the French Republic.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

NICE: A. D. 1860.
Cession to France.

See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

----------NICE, France: End--------

NICEPHORUS I.,
Emperor in the East (Byzantine or Greek), A. D. 802-811.

Nicephorus II.,
Emperor in the East (Byzantine or Greek), 963-969.

Nicephorus III.,
Emperor in the East (Byzantine or Greek), 1078-1081.

NICHOLAS, Czar of Russia, A. D. 1825-1855.

Nicholas I., Pope, 858-867.

Nicholas II., Pope, 1058-1061.

Nicholas III., Pope, 1277-1280.

Nicholas IV., Pope, 1288-1292.

Nicholas V., Pope, 1447-1455.

Nicholas Swendson, King of Denmark, 1103-1134.

NICIAS (NIKIAS), and the Siege of Syracuse.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413.

NICIAS (NIKIAS), The Peace of.

See GREECE: B. C. 424-421.

NICOLET, Jean, Explorations of.

See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

----------NICOMEDIA: Start--------

NICOMEDIA: A. D. 258.
Capture by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

NICOMEDIA: A. D. 292-305.
The court of Diocletian.

"To rival the majesty of Rome was the ambition … of
Diocletian, who employed his leisure, and the wealth of the
east, in the embellishment of Nicomedia, a city placed on the
verge of Europe and Asia, almost at an equal distance between
the Danube and the Euphrates. By the taste of the monarch, and
at the expense of the people, Nicomedia acquired, in the space
of a few years, a degree of magnificence which might appear to
have required the labour of ages, and became inferior only to
Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, in extent or populousness. …
Till Diocletian, in the twentieth year of his reign,
celebrated his Roman triumph, it is extremely doubtful whether
he ever visited the ancient capital of the empire."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 13._

See ROME: A. D. 284-305.

NICOMEDIA: A. D. 1326.
Capture by the Turks.

See TURKS (OTTOMAN): A. D. 1326-1359.

----------NICOMEDIA: End--------

NICOPOLIS.

Augustus gave this name to a city which he founded, B. C. 31,
in commemoration of the victory at Actium, on the site of the
camp which his army occupied.

C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 28.

----------NICOPOLIS: Start--------

NICOPOLIS, Armenia, Battle of (B. C. 66).

The decisive battle in which Pompeius defeated Mithridates and
ended the long Mithridatic wars was fought, B. C. 66, in
Lesser Armenia, at a place near which Pompeius founded a city
called Nicopolis, the site of which is uncertain.

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 3, chapter 8._

NICOPOLIS: Battle of (B. C. 48).

See ROME: B. C. 47-46.

----------NICOPOLIS, Armenia: End--------

NICOPOLIS, Bulgaria, Battle of (A. D. 1396).

See TURKS (THE OTTOMAN): A. D. 1389-1403.

NICOSIA:
Taken and sacked by the Turks (1570).

See TURKS: A. D. 1566-1571.

NIEUPORT, Battle of (1600).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1594-1609.

NIGER COMPANY, The Royal.

See AFRICA: A. D. 1884-1891.

NIHILISM. NIHILISTS.

"In Tikomirov's work on Russia seven or eight pages are
devoted to the severe condemnation of the use of the
expressions 'nihilism' and 'nihilist.' Nevertheless … they are
employed universally, and all the world understands what is
meant by them in an approximate and relative way. … It was a
novelist who first baptized the party who called themselves at
that time, 'new men.' It was Ivan Turguenief, who by the mouth
of one of the characters in his celebrated novel, 'Fathers and
Sons,' gave the young generation the name of nihilists. But it
was not of his coinage; Royer-Collard first stamped it; Victor
Hugo had already said that the negation of the infinite led
directly to nihilism, and Joseph Lemaistre had spoken of the
nihilism, more or less sincere, of the contemporary
generations; but it was reserved for the author of 'Virgin
Soil' to bring to light and make famous this word; which after
making a great stir in his own country attracted the attention
of the whole world. The reign of Nicholas I. was an epoch of
hard oppression. When he ascended the throne, the conspiracy
of the Decembrists broke out, and this sudden revelation of
the revolutionary spirit steeled the already inflexible soul
of the Czar. Nicholas, although fond of letters and an
assiduous reader of Homer, was disposed to throttle his
enemies, and would not have hesitated to pluck out the brains
of Russia; he was very near suppressing all the universities
and schools, and inaugurating a voluntary retrocession to
Asiatic barbarism. He did mutilate and reduce the instruction,
he suppressed the chair of European political laws, and after
the events of 1848 in France he seriously considered the idea
of closing his frontiers with a cordon of troops to beat back
foreign liberalism like the cholera or the plague. … However,
it was under his sceptre, under his systematic oppression,
that, by confession of the great revolutionary statesman
Herzen, Russian thought developed as never before; that the
emancipation of the intelligence, which this very statesman
calls a tragic event, was accomplished, and a national
literature was brought to light and began to flourish. When
Alexander II. succeeded to the throne, when the bonds of
despotism were loosened and the blockade with which Nicholas
vainly tried to isolate his empire was raised, the field was
ready for the intellectual and political strife. … Before
explaining how nihilism is the outcome of intelligence, we
must understand what is meant by intelligence in Russia. It
means a class composed of all those, of whatever profession or
estate, who have at heart the advancement of intellectual
life, and contribute in every way toward it. It may be said,
indeed, that such a class is to be found in every country; but
there is this difference,—in other countries the class is not
a unit; there are factions, or a large number of its members
shun political and social discussion in order to enjoy the
serene atmosphere of the world of art, while in Russia the
intelligence means a common cause, a homogeneous spirit,
subversive and revolutionary withal. … Whence came the
revolutionary element in Russia?
{2362}
From the Occident, from France, from the negative,
materialist, sensualist philosophy of the Encyclopædia,
imported into Russia by Catherine II.; and later from Germany,
from Kantism and Hegelianism, imbibed by Russian youth at the
German universities, and which they diffused throughout their
own country with characteristic Sclav impetuosity. By 'Pure
Reason' and transcendental idealism, Herzen and Bakunine, the
first apostles of nihilism, were inspired. But the ideas
brought from Europe to Russia soon allied themselves with an
indigenous or possibly an Oriental element; namely, a sort of
quietist fatalism, which leads to the darkest and most
despairing pessimism. On the whole, nihilism is rather a
philosophical conception of the sum of life than a purely
democratic and revolutionary movement. … Nihilism had no
political color about it at the beginning. During the decade
between 1860 and 1870 the youth of Russia was seized with a
sort of fever for negation, a fierce antipathy toward
everything that was,—authorities, institutions, customary
ideas, and old-fashioned dogmas. In Turguenief's novel,
'Fathers and Sons,' we meet with Bazarof, a froward,
ill-mannered, intolerable fellow, who represents this type.
After 1871 the echo of the Paris Commune and emissaries of the
Internationals crossed the frontier, and the nihilists began
to bestir themselves, to meet together clandestinely, and to
send out propaganda. Seven years later they organized an era
of terror, assassination, and explosions. Thus three phases
have followed upon one another,—thought, word, and deed,—along
that road which is never so long as it looks, the road that
leads from the word to the act, from Utopia to crime. And yet
nihilism never became a political party as we understand the
term. It has no defined creed or official programme. The
fulness of its despair embraces all negatives and all acute
revolutionary forms. Anarchists, federalists, cantonalists,
covenanters, terrorists, all who are unanimous in a desire to
sweep away the present order, are grouped under the ensign of
nihil."

_E. P. Bazan,
Russia, its People and its Literature,
book 2, chapters 1-2._

"Out of Russia, an already extended list of revolutionary
spirits in this land has attracted the attention and kept
curiosity on the alert. We call them Nihilists,—of which the
Russian pronunciation is neegilist, which, however, is now
obsolete. Confined to the terrorist group in Europe, the
number of these persons is certainly very small. Perhaps, as
is thought in Russia, there are 500 in all, who busy
themselves, even if reluctantly, with thoughts of resorting to
bombs and murderous weapons to inspire terror. But it is not
exactly this group that is meant when we speak of that
nihilistic force in society which extends everywhere, into all
circles, and finds support and strongholds at widely spread
points. It is indeed not very different from what elsewhere in
Europe is regarded as culture, advanced culture: the profound
scepticism in regard to our existing institutions in their
present form, what we call royal prerogative, church,
marriage, property."

_Georg Brandes,
Impressions of Russia,
chapter 4._

"The genuine Nihilism was a philosophical and literary
movement, which flourished in the first decade after the
Emancipation of the Serfs, that is to say, between 1860 and
1870. It is now (1883] absolutely extinct, and only a few
traces are left of it, which are rapidly disappearing. …
Nihilism was a struggle for the emancipation of intelligence
from every kind of dependence, and it advanced side by side
with that for the emancipation of the labouring classes from
serfdom. The fundamental principle of Nihilism, properly
so-called, was absolute individualism. It was the negation, in
the name of individual liberty of all the obligations imposed
upon the individual by society, by family life, and by
religion. Nihilism was a passionate and powerful reaction, not
against political despotism, but against the moral despotism
that weighs upon the private and inner life of the individual.
But it must be confessed that our predecessors, at least in
the earlier days, introduced into this highly pacific struggle
the same spirit of rebellion and almost the same fanaticism
that characterises the present movement."

_Stepniak,
Underground Russia,
introduction._

ALSO IN:
_Stepniak,
The Russian Storm-Cloud._

_L. Tikhomirov,
Russia, Political and Social,
books 6-7 (volume 2)._

_E. Noble,
The Russian Revolt._

_A. Leroy-Beaulieu,
The Empire of the Tsars,
part 1, book 3, chapter 4._

See, also, RUSSIA: A. D. 1879-1881;
and ANARCHISTS.

NIKA SEDITION, The.

See CIRCUS, FACTIONS OF THE ROMAN.

NIKIAS.

See NICIAS.

NILE, Naval Battle of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798 (MAY-AUGUST).

NIMEGUEN:
Origin.

See BATAVIANS.

NIMEGUEN: A. D. 1591.
Siege and capture by Prince Maurice.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1588-1593.

NIMEGUEN, The Peace of (1678-1679).

The war which Louis XIV. began in 1672 by attacking Holland,
with the co-operation of his English pensioner, Charles II.,
and which roused against him a defensive coalition of Spain,
Germany and Denmark with the Dutch (see NETHERLANDS: A. D.
1672-1674, and 1674-1678), was ended by a series of treaties
negotiated at Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679. The first of these
treaties, signed August 10, 1678, was between France and
Holland. "France and Holland kept what was in their
possession, except Maestricht and its dependencies which were
restored to Holland. France therefore kept her conquests in
Senegal and Guiana. This was all the territory lost by Holland
in the terrible war which had almost annihilated her. The
United Provinces pledged themselves to neutrality in the war
which might continue between France and the other powers, and
guaranteed the neutrality of Spain, after the latter should
have signed the peace. France included Sweden in the treaty;
Holland included in it Spain and the other allies who should
make peace within six weeks after the exchange of
ratifications. To the treaty of peace was annexed a treaty of
commerce, concluded for twenty-five years."

_H. Martin,
History of France: Age of Louis XIV.,
(translated by M. L. Booth),
volume 1, chapter 6._

The peace between France and Spain was signed September 17.
France gave back, in the Spanish Netherlands and elsewhere,
"Charleroi, Binch, Ath, Oudenarde, and Courtrai, which she had
gained by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; the town and duchy of
Limburg, all the country beyond the Meuse, Ghent, Rodenhus,
and the district of the Waes, Leuze, and St. Ghislain, with
Puycerda in Catalonia, these having been taken since that
peace.
{2363}
But she retained Franche Comté, with the towns of
Valenciènnes, Bouchain, Condé, Cambrai and the Cambresis,
Aire, St. Omer, Ypres, Werwick, Warneton, Poperinge, Bailleul,
Cassel, Bavai, and Maubeuge. … On February 2, 1679, peace was
declared between Louis, the Emperor, and the Empire. Louis
gave back Philippsburg, retaining Freiburg with the desired
liberty of passage across the Rhine to Breisach; in all other
respects the Treaty of Munster, of October 24, 1648, was
reestablished. … The treaty then dealt with the Duke of
Lorraine. To his restitution Louis annexed conditions which
rendered Lorraine little more than a French province. Not only
was Nancy to become French, but, in conformity with the treaty
of 1661, Louis was to have possession of four large roads
traversing the country, with half a league's breadth of
territory throughout their length, and the places contained
therein. … To these conditions the Duke refused to subscribe,
preferring continual exile until the Peace of Ryswick in 1697,
when at length his son regained the ancestral estates."
Treaties between the Emperor and Sweden, between Brandenburg
and France and Sweden, between Denmark and the same, and
between Sweden, Spain and Holland, were successively concluded
during the year 1679. "The effect of the Peace of Nimwegen
was, … speaking generally, to reaffirm the Peace of
Westphalia. But … it did not, like the Peace of Westphalia,
close for any length of time the sources of strife."

_O. Airy,
The English Restoration and Louis XIV.,
chapter 22._

ALSO IN:
_Sir W. Temple,
Memoirs,
part 2 (Works, volume 2)._

NINE WAYS, The.

See AMPHIPOLIS;
also, ATHENS: B. C. 466-454.

NINETY-FIVE THESES OF LUTHER, The.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1517.

NINETY-TWO, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1767-1768.

NINEVEH.

"In or about the year before Christ 606, Nineveh, the great
city, was destroyed. For many hundred years had she stood in
arrogant splendor, her palaces towering above the Tigris and
mirrored in its swift waters; army after army had gone forth
from her gates and returned laden with the spoils of conquered
countries; her monarchs had ridden to the high place of
sacrifice in chariots drawn by captive kings. But her time
came at last. The nations assembled and encompassed her around
[the Medes and the Babylonians, with their lesser allies].
Popular tradition tells how over two years lasted the siege;
how the very river rose and battered her walls; till one day a
vast flame rose up to heaven; how the last of a mighty line of
kings, too proud to surrender, thus saved himself, his
treasures and his, capital from the shame of bondage. Never
was city to rise again where Nineveh had been." The very
knowledge of the existence of Nineveh was lost so soon that,
two centuries later, when Xenophon passed the ruins, with his
Ten Thousand retreating Greeks, he reported them to be the
ruins of a deserted city of the Medes and called it Larissa.
Twenty-four centuries went by, and the winds and the rains, in
their slow fashion, covered the bricks and stones of the
desolated Assyrian capital with a shapeless mound of earth.
Then came the searching modern scholar and explorer, and began
to excavate the mound, to see what lay beneath it. First the
French Consul, Botta, in 1842; then the Englishman Layard, in
1845; then the later English scholar, George Smith, and
others; until buried Nineveh has been in great part brought to
light. Not only the imperishable monuments of its splendid art
have been exposed, but a veritable library of its literature,
written on tablets and cylinders of clay, has been found and
read. The discoveries of the past half-century, on the site of
Nineveh, under the mound called Koyunjik, and elsewhere in
other similarly-buried cities of ancient Babylonia and
Assyria, may reasonably be called the most extraordinary
additions to human knowledge which our age has acquired.

_Z. A. Ragozin,
Story of Chaldea,
introduction, chapters 1-4._

ALSO IN:
_A. H. Layard,
Nineveh and its Remains;
and Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon._

_G. Smith,
Assyrian Discoveries_

See, also, ASSYRIA;
and LIBRARIES, ANCIENT.

NINEVEH, Battle of (A.D. 627).

See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

NINFEO, Treaty of.

See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299.

NINIQUIQUILAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

NIPAL NEPAUL: English war with the Ghorkas.

See INDIA: A. D. 1805-1816.

NIPMUCKS, NIPNETS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1674-1675, 1675,
and 1676-1678 KING PHILIP'S WAR.

NISÆAN PLAINS, The.

The famous horse-pastures of the ancient Medes. "Most probably
they are to be identified with the modern plains of Khawah and
Alishtar, between Behistun and Khorramabad, which are even now
considered to afford the best summer pasturage in Persia. …
The proper Nisæa is the district of Nishapur in Khorasan,
whence it is probable that the famous breed of horses was
originally brought."

_G. Rawlinson,
Five Great Monarchies: Media,
chapter 1, with foot-note._

NISCHANDYIS.

See SUBLIME PORTE.

NISHAPOOR:
Destruction by the Mongols (1221).

See KHORASSAN: A. D. 1220-1221.

NISIB, Battle of (1839).

See TURKS: A. D. 1831-1840.

NISIBIS, Sieges of (A. D. 338-350).

See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

NISIBIS, Theological School of.

See NESTORIANS.

----------NISMES: Start--------

NISMES:
Origin.

See VOLCÆ.

NISMES: A. D. 752-759.
Recovery from the Moslems.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 752-759.

----------NISMES: End--------

NISSA, Siege and battle (1689-1690).

See HUNGARY; A. D. 1683-1699.

NITIOBRIGES, The.

These were a tribe in ancient Gaul whose capital city was
Aginnum, the modern town of Agen on the Garonne.

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 17._

NIVELLE, Battle of the (1813).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812-1814.

NIVÔSE, The month.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER)
THE NEW REPUBLICAN CALENDAR.

NIZAM.
Nizam's dominions.

See INDIA: A. D. 1662-1748.

NIZZA.

See NICE.

NO. NO AMON.

See THEBES, EGYPT.

NO MAN'S LAND, Africa.

See GRIQUAS.

{2364}

NO MAN'S LAND, England.

In the open or common field system which prevailed in early
England, the fields were divided into long, narrow strips,
wherever practicable. In some cases, "little odds and ends of
unused land remained, which from time immemorial were called
'no man's land,' or 'anyone's land,' or 'Jack's land,' as the
case might be."

_F. Seebohm,
English Village Community,
chapter 1._

NO POPERY RIOTS, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1778-1780.

NOBLES, Roman:
Origin of the term.

"When Livy in his first six books writes of the disputes
between the Patres or Patricians and the Plebs about the
Public Land, he sometimes designates the Patricians by the
name Nobiles, which we have in the form Nobles. A Nobilis is a
man who is known. A man who is not known is Ignobilis, a
nobody. In the later Republic a Plebeian who attained to a
curule office elevated his family to a rank of honour, to a
nobility, not acknowledged by any law, but by usage. … The
Patricians were a nobility of ancient date. … The Patrician
nobility was therefore independent of all office, but the new
Nobility and their Jus Imaginum originated in some Plebeian
who first of his family attained a curule office. … The true
conclusion is that Livy in his first six books uses the word
Nobiles improperly, for there is no evidence that this name
was given to the Patres before the consulship of L. Sextius."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 1, chapter 11._

See, also, ROME: B. C. 146.

NOËTIANS AND SABELLIANS.

"At the head of those in this century [the 3d] who explained
the scriptural doctrine of the Father, Son, and holy Spirit,
by the precepts of reason, stands Noëtus of Smyrna; a man
little known, but who is reported by the ancients to have been
cast out of the church by presbyters (of whom no account is
given), to have opened a school, and to have formed a sect. It
is stated that, being wholly unable to comprehend how that
God, who is so often in Scripture declared to be one and
undivided, can, at the same time, be manifold, Noëtus
concluded that the undivided Father of all things united
himself, with the man Christ, was born in him, and in him
suffered and died. On account of this doctrine his followers
were called Patripassians. … After the middle of this century,
Sabellius, an African bishop, or presbyter, of Ptolemais, the
capital of the Pentapolitan province of Libya Cyrenaica,
attempted to reconcile, in a manner somewhat different from
that of Noëtus, the scriptural doctrine of Father, Son, and
holy Spirit, with the doctrine of the unity of the divine
nature." Sabellius assumed "that only an energy or virtue,
emitted from the Father of all, or, if you choose, a particle
of the person or nature of the Father, became united with the
man Christ. And such a virtue or particle of the Father, he
also supposed, constituted the holy Spirit."

_J. L. von Mosheim,
Historical Commentaries, 3d Century,
sections 32-33._

NÖFELS, NAEFELS, Battle of (1388).

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1386-1388.

Battle of (1799).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

NOLA, Battle of (B. C. 88).

See ROME: B. C. 90-88.

NOMBRE DE DIOS:
Surprised and plundered by Drake (1572).

See AMERICA: A. D. 1572-1580.

NOMEN, COGNOMEN, PRÆNOMEN.

See GENS.

NOMES.

A name given by the Greeks to the districts into which Egypt
was divided from very ancient times.

NOMOPHYLAKES.

In ancient Athens, under the constitution introduced by
Pericles, seven magistrates called Nomophylakes, or
"Law-Guardians," "sat alongside of the Proedri, or presidents,
both in the senate and in the public assembly, and were
charged with the duty of interposing whenever any step was
taken or any proposition made contrary to the existing laws.
They were also empowered to constrain the magistrates to act
according to law."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 46._

NOMOTHETÆ, The.

A legislative commission, elected and deputed by the general
assembly of the people, in ancient Athens, to amend existing
laws or enact new ones.

_G. F. Schömann,
Antiquity of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapter 3._

NONCONFORMISTS,
DISSENTERS, English:
First bodies organized.
Persecutions under Charles II. and Anne.-
Removal of Disabilities.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1559-1566; 1662-1665; 1672-1673;
1711-1714; 1827-1828.

NONES.

See CALENDAR, JULIAN.

NONINTERCOURSE LAW OF 1809, The American.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1809.

NONJURORS, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (APRIL-AUGUST).

NOOTKAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: WAKASHAN FAMILY.

NOPH.

See MEMPHIS.

NÖRDLINGEN,
Siege and Battle (1634).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

Second Battle, or Battle of Allerheim (1645).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1640-1645.

NORE, Mutiny at the.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1797.

NOREMBEGA.

See NORUMBEGA.

----------NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: Start--------

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1776.
Bombardment and destruction.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1775-1776.

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1779.
Pillaged by British marauders.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1778-1779 WASHINGTON GUARDING THE HUDSON.

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1861 (April).
Abandoned by the United States commandant.
Destruction of ships and property.
Possession taken by the Rebels.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (APRIL).

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1862 (February).
Threatened by the Federal capture of Roanoke Island.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-APRIL: NORTH CAROLINA).

NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: A. D. 1862 (May).
Evacuated by the Confederates.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (MAY: VIRGINIA) EVACUATION OF NORFOLK.

----------NORFOLK, VIRGINIA: End--------

NORFOLK ISLAND PENAL COLONY.

See AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1601-1800.

NORICUM.

See PANNONIA;
also, RHÆTIANS.

----------NORMANDY: Start--------

NORMANDY: A. D. 876-911.
Rollo's conquest and occupation.

See NORMANS.
NORTHMEN: A. D. 876-911.

{2365}

NORMANDY: A. D. 911-1000.
The solidifying of Rollo's duchy.
The Normans become French.

The first century which passed after the settlement of the
Northmen along the Seine saw "the steady growth of the duchy
in extent and power. Much of this was due to the ability of
its rulers, to the vigour and wisdom with which Hrolf forced
order and justice on the new community, as well as to the
political tact with which both Hrolf and William Longsword
[son and successor of Duke Rollo or Hrolf, A. D. 927-943]
clung to the Karolings in their strife with the dukes of
Paris. But still more was owing to the steadiness with which
both these rulers remained faithful to the Christianity which
had been imposed on the northmen as a condition of their
settlement, and to the firm resolve with which they trampled
down the temper and traditions which their people had brought
from their Scandinavian homeland, and welcomed the language
and civilization which came in the wake of their neighbours'
religion. The difficulties that met the dukes were indeed
enormous. … They were girt in by hostile states, they were
threatened at sea by England, under Æthelstan a network of
alliances menaced them with ruin. Once a French army occupied
Rouen, and a French king held the pirates' land at his will;
once the German lances were seen from the walls of their
capital. Nor were their difficulties within less than those
without. The subject population which had been trodden under
foot by the northern settlers were seething with discontent.
The policy of Christianization and civilization broke the
Normans themselves into two parties. … The very conquests of
Hrolf and his successor, the Bessin, the Cotentin, had to be
settled and held by the new comers, who made them strongholds
of heathendom. … But amidst difficulties from within and from
without the dukes held firm to their course, and their
stubborn will had its reward. … By the end of William
Longsword's days all Normandy, save the newly settled
districts of the west, was Christian, and spoke French. … The
work of the statesman at last completed the work of the sword.
As the connexion of the dukes with the Karoling kings had
given them the land, and helped them for fifty years to hold
it against the House of Paris, so in the downfall of the
Karolings the sudden and adroit change of front which bound
the Norman rulers to the House of Paris in its successful
struggle for the Crown secured the land for ever to the
northmen. The close connexion which France was forced to
maintain with the state whose support held the new royal line
on its throne told both on kingdom and duchy. The French dread
of the 'pirates' died gradually away, while French influence
spread yet more rapidly over a people which clung so closely
to the French crown."

_J. R. Green,
The Conquest of England,
chapter 8._

NORMANDY: A. D. 1035-1063.
Duke William establishes his authority.

Duke Robert, of Normandy, who died in 1035, was succeeded by
his young son William, who bore in youth the opprobrious name
of "the Bastard," but who extinguished it in later life under
the proud appellation of "the Conqueror." By reason of his
bastardy he was not an acceptable successor, and, being yet a
boy, it seemed little likely that he would maintain himself on
the ducal throne. Normandy, for a dozen years, was given up to
lawless strife among its nobles. In 1047 a large part of the
duchy rose in revolt, against its objectionable young lord.
"It will be remembered that the western part of Normandy, the
lands of Bayeux and Coutances, were won by the Norman dukes
after the eastern part, the lands of Rouen and Evreux. And it
will be remembered that these western lands, won more lately,
and fed by new colonies from the North, were still heathen and
Danish some while after eastern Normandy had become Christian
and French-speaking. Now we may be sure that, long before
William's day, all Normandy was Christian, but it is quite
possible that the old tongue may have lingered on in the
western lands. At any rate there was a wide difference in
spirit and feeling between the more French and the more Danish
districts, to say nothing of Bayeux, where, before the Normans
came, there had been a Saxon settlement. One part of the duchy
in short was altogether Romance in speech and manners, while
more or less of Teutonic character still clave to the other.
So now Teutonic Normandy rose against Duke William, and
Romance Normandy was faithful to him. The nobles of the Bessin
and Cotentin made league with William's cousin Guy of
Burgundy, meaning, as far as one can see, to make Guy Duke of
Rouen and Evreux, and to have no lord at all for themselves. …
When the rebellion broke out, William was among them at
Valognes, and they tried to seize him. But his fool warned him
in the night; he rode for his life, and got safe to his own
Falaise. All eastern Normandy was loyal; but William doubted
whether he could by himself overcome so strong an array of
rebels. So he went to Poissy, between Rouen and Paris, and
asked his lord King Henry [of France] to help him. So King
Henry came with a French army; and the French and those whom
we may call the French Normans met the Teutonic Normans in
battle at Val-ès-dunes, not far from Caen. It was William's
first pitched battle," and he won a decisive victory. "He was
now fully master of his own duchy; and the battle of
Val-ès-dunes finally fixed that Normandy should take its
character from Romance Rouen and not from Teutonic Bayeux.
William had in short overcome Saxons and Danes in Gaul before
he came to overcome them in Britain. He had to conquer his own
Normandy before he could conquer England. … But before long
King Henry got jealous of William's power, and he was now
always ready to give help to any Norman rebels. … And the
other neighbouring princes were jealous of him as well as the
King. His neighbours in Britanny, Anjou, Chartres, and
Ponthieu, were all against him. But the great Duke was able to
hold his own against them all, and before long to make a great
addition to his dominions." Between 1053 and 1058 the French
King invaded Normandy three times and suffered defeat on every
occasion. In 1063 Duke William invaded the county of Maine,
and reduced it to entire submission. "From this time he ruled
over Maine as well as over Normandy," although its people were
often in revolt. "The conquest of Maine raised William's power
and fame to a higher pitch than it reached at any other time
before his conquest of England."

_E. A. Freeman,
Short History of the Norman Conquest,
chapter 4._

ALSO IN:
_E. A. Freeman,
History of the Norman Conquest,
chapter 8._

_Sir F. Palgrave,
History of Normandy and England,
book 2, chapter 4._

{2366}

NORMANDY: A. D. 1066.
Duke William becomes King of England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1042-1066; 1066; and 1066-1071.

NORMANDY: . D. 1087-1135.
Under Duke Robert and Henry Beauclerc.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1087-1135.

NORMANDY: A. D. 1096.
The Crusade of Duke Robert.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1096-1099.

NORMANDY: A. D. 1203-1205.
Wrested from England and restored to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1180-1224;
and ENGLAND: A. D. 1205.

NORMANDY: A. D. 1419.
Conquest by Henry V. of England.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1417-1422.

NORMANDY: A. D. 1449.
Recovery from the English.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1431-1453.

NORMANDY: 16th Century.
Spread of the Reformation.
Strength of Protestantism.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1559-1561.

----------NORMANS: Start--------

NORMANS. NORTH MEN: Name and Origin.

"The northern pirates, variously called Danes or Normans,
according as they came from the islands of the Baltic Sea or
the coast of Norway, … descended from the same primitive race
with the Anglo-Saxons and the Franks; their language had roots
identical with the idioms of these two nations: but this token
of an ancient fraternity did not preserve from their hostile
incursions either Saxon Britain or Frankish Gaul, nor even the
territory beyond the Rhine, then exclusively inhabited by
Germanic tribes. The conversion of the southern Teutons to the
Christian faith had broken all bond of fraternity between them
and the Teutons of the north. In the 9th century the man of
the north still gloried in the title of son of Odin, and
treated as bastards and apostates the Germans who had become
children of the church. … A sort of religious and patriotic
fanaticism was thus combined in the Scandinavian with the
fiery impulsiveness of their character, and an insatiable
thirst for gain. They shed with joy the blood of the priests,
were especially delighted at pillaging the churches, and
stabled their horses in the chapels of the palaces. … In three
days, with an east wind, the fleets of Denmark and Norway,
two-sailed vessels, reached the south of Britain. The soldiers
of each fleet obeyed in general one chief, whose vessel was
distinguished from the rest by some particular ornament. … All
equal under such a chief, bearing lightly their voluntary
submission and the weight of their mailed armour, which they
promised themselves soon to exchange for an equal weight of
gold, the Danish pirates pursued the 'road of the swans,' as
their ancient national poetry expressed it. Sometimes they
coasted along the shore, and laid wait for the enemy in the
straits, the bays, and smaller anchorages, which procured them
the surname of Vikings, or 'children of the creeks'; sometimes
they dashed in pursuit of their prey across the ocean."

_A. Thierry,
Conquest of England by the Normans,
book 2 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_T. Carlyle,
The Early Kings of Norway._

NORMANS: 8-9th Centuries.
The Vikings and what sent them to sea.

"No race of the ancient or modern world have ever taken to the
sea with such heartiness as the Northmen. The great cause
which filled the waters of Western Europe with their barks was
that consolidation and centralization of the kingly power all
over Europe which followed after the days of Charlemagne, and
which put a stop to those great invasions and migrations by
land which had lasted for centuries. Before that time the
north and east of Europe, pressed from behind by other
nationalities, and growing straitened within their own bounds,
threw off from time to time bands of emigrants which gathered
force as they slowly marched along, until they appeared in the
west as a fresh wave of the barbarian flood. As soon as the
west, recruited from the very source whence the invaders came,
had gained strength enough to set them at defiance, which
happened in the time of Charlemagne, these invasions by land
ceased after a series of bloody defeats, and the north had to
look for another outlet for the force which it was unable to
support at home. Nor was the north itself slow to follow
Charlemagne's example. Harold Fairhair, no inapt disciple of
the great emperor, subdued the petty kings in Norway one after
another, and made himself supreme king. At the same time he
invaded the rights of the old freeman, and by taxes and tolls
laid on his allodial holding drove him into exile. We have
thus the old outlet cut off and a new cause for emigration
added. No doubt the Northmen even then had long been used to
struggle with the sea, and sea-roving was the calling of the
brave, but the two causes we have named gave it a great
impulse just at the beginning of the tenth century, and many a
freeman who would have joined the host of some famous leader
by land, or have lived on a little king at home, now sought
the waves as a birthright of which no king could rob him.
Either alone, or as the follower of some sea-king, whose realm
was the sea's wide wastes, he went out year after year, and
thus won fame and wealth. The name given to this pursuit was
Viking, a word which is in no way akin to king. It is derived
from 'Vik,' a bay or creek, because these sea-rovers lay
moored in bays and creeks on the look-out for merchant ships;
the 'ing' is a well known ending, meaning, in this case,
occupation or calling. Such a sea-rover was called 'Vikingr,'
and at one time or another in his life almost every man of
note in the North had taken to the sea and lived a Viking
life."

_G. W. Dasent,
Story of Burnt Njal,
volume 2, appendix._

"Western viking expeditions have hitherto been ascribed to
Danes and Norwegians exclusively. Renewed investigations
reveal, however, that Swedes shared widely in these
achievements, notably in the acquisition of England, and that,
among other famous conquerors, Rolf, the founder of the
Anglo-Norman dynasty, issued from their country. … Norwegians,
like Swedes, were, in truth, merged in the terms Northmen and
Danes, both of which were general to all Scandinavians abroad.
… The curlier conversion of the Danes to Christianity and
their more immediate contact with Germany account for the
frequent application of their name to all Scandinavians."

_W. Roos,
The Swedish Part in the Viking Expeditions
(English History Review, April, 1892)._