Chapter IV: Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman (7)

"A Peruvian Congress met in 1827, after General Bolivar had
returned to Colombia, and elected Don José Lamar, the leader
of the Peruvian infantry at Ayacucho, as President of the
Republic; but his defeat in an attempt to wrest Guayaquil from
Colombia led to his fall, and Agustin Gamarra, an Ynca Indian
of Cuzco, succeeded him in 1829. Although successful soldiers
secured the presidential chair, the administration in the
early days of the Republic contained men of rank, and others
of integrity and talent. … General Gamarra served his regular
term of office, and after a discreditable display of sedition
he was succeeded in 1834 by Don Luis José Orbegoso. Then
followed an attempt to unite Peru and Bolivia in a
confederation. The plan was conceived by Don Andres Santa
Cruz, an Ynca Indian of high descent, who had been President
of Bolivia since 1829. Orbegoso concurred, and the scheme,
which had in it some elements of hopefulness and success, was
carried out, but not without deplorable bloodshed. The
Peru-Bolivian Confederation was divided into three
States—North Peru, South Peru, and Bolivia. During the
ascendancy of Santa Cruz, Peru enjoyed a period of peace and
prosperity. But his power excited the jealousy of Chile, and
that Republic united with Peruvian malcontents, headed by
General Gamarra, to destroy it. A Chilian army landed, and
Santa Cruz was hopelessly defeated in the battle of Yungay,
which was fought in the Callejon de Huaylas, on the banks of
the river Santa, on January 20th, 1839. A Congress assembled
at the little town of Huancayo, in the Sierra, which
acknowledged Gamarra as President of the Republic, and
proclaimed a new Constitution on November 16th, 1839. But the
new state of things was of short duration.
{2526}
On the pretext of danger from the party of Santa Cruz, war was
declared upon Bolivia, which resulted in the defeat of the
Peruvians at the battle of Yngavi, near the banks of Lake
Titicaca, on November 20th, 1841, and the death of Gamarra. A
very discreditable period of anarchy ensued, during which
Gamarra's generals fought with each other for supremacy, which
was ended by the success of another Indian, and on April 19th,
1845, General Don Ramon Castilla was proclaimed Constitutional
President of Peru. … Uneducated and ignorant, his
administrative merits were small, but his firm and vigorous
grasp of power secured for Peru long periods of peace. … At
the end of Castilla's term of office General Echenique
succeeded him; but in 1854 Castilla placed himself at the head
of a revolution, and again found himself in power. A new
Constitution was promulgated in 1856; the tribute of the
Indians and negro slavery were abolished, and a grant of
$1,710,000 was voted as compensation to the owners of slaves.
The mass of the people ceased to be taxed. The revenue was
entirely derived from sales of guano, customs duties,
licences, and stamps. … When Castilla retired from office in
1862, he was succeeded by General San Roman, an old Ynca
Indian of Puno, whose father had fought under Pumacagua. The
Republic had then existed for 40 years, during which time it
had been torn by civil or external wars for nine years and had
enjoyed 81 years of peace and order. Very great advances had
been made in prosperity during the years of peace. … General
San Roman died in 1863, his Vice President, General Pezet, was
replaced [through a revolution] by Colonel Don Mariano Ignacio
Prado, and a war with Spain practically ended with the repulse
of the Spanish fleet from Callao au May 2nd, 1866. The war was
unjust, the pretext being the alleged ill-treatment of some
Spanish immigrants at an estate called Talambo, in the coast
valley of Jequetepeque, which might easily have been arranged
by arbitration. But the success at Callao aroused the
enthusiasm of the people and excited strong patriotic
feelings. Colonel Don Jose Balta was elected President of Peru
on August 2nd, 1868, the present Constitution having been
proclaimed on August 31st, 1867. The Senate is composed of
Deputies of the Provinces, with a property qualification, and
the House of Representatives of members nominated by electoral
colleges of provinces and districts, one member for every
20,000 inhabitants. The district colleges choose deputies to
the provincial colleges, who elect the representatives to
Congress. There are 44 senators and 110 representatives.
Executive power is in the hands of a President and
Vice–President, elected for four years, with a Cabinet of five
Ministers. … The government of Colonel Balta entered upon a
career of wild extravagance, and pushed forward the execution
of railways and other public works with feverish haste,
bringing ruin upon the country. … It is sad that a wretched
military outbreak, in which the President was killed on July
26th, 1872, should have given it a tragic termination. … On
August 2nd, 1872, Don Manuel Pardo became Constitutional
President of Peru. He was the first civilian that had been
elected. … He came to the helm at a period of great financial
difficulty, and he undertook a thankless but patriotic task. …
He was the best President that Peru has ever known. When his
term of office came to an end, he was peacefully succeeded, on
August 2nd, 1876, by General Don Mariano Ignacio Prado."

_C. R. Markham,
Peru,
chapter 8._

PERU: A. D. 1879-1884.
The disastrous war with Chile.

See CHILE: A. D. 1833-1884.

PERU: A. D. 1886-1894.
Slow recovery.

Since the close of the war with Chile, Peru has been slowly
recovering from its destructive effects. General Caceres
became President in 1886, and was succeeded in 1890 by General
Remigio Morales Bermudez, whose term expires in 1894.

----------PERU: End--------

PERUGIA, Early history of.

See PERUSIA.

PERUGIA, Under the domination of the Baglioni.

See BAGLIONI.

PERUS, The Two.

Upper Peru and Lower Peru of the older Spanish viceroyalty are
represented, at the present time, the former by the Republic
of Bolivia, the latter by the Republic of Peru.

PERUSIA, The war of.

In the second year of the triumvirate of Octavius, Antony and
Lepidus, Antony being in the east, his wife Fulvia and his
brother fomented a revolt in Italy against Octavius, which
forced the latter for a time to quit Rome. But his coolness,
with the energy and ability of his friend Agrippa, overcame
the conspiracy. The army of the insurgents was blockaded in
Perusia (modern Perugia) and sustained a siege of several
months, so obstinate that the whole affair came to be called
the war of Perusia. The siege was distinguished by a peculiar
horror; for the slaves of the city were deliberately starved
to death, being denied food and also denied escape, lest the
besiegers should learn of the scarcity within the walls.

_C. Merivale,
History of Rome,
chapter 27._

PERUVIAN BARK, Introduction of.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 17TH CENTURY.

PERUVIAN QUIPU.

See QUIPU.

PES, The.

See FOOT, THE ROMAN.

PESHWA OF THE MAHRATTAS, The.

See INDIA: A. D. 1662-1748; 1798-1805; and 1816-1819.

PESO DE ORO.

See SPANISH COINS.

PESTALOZZI, and educational reform.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS, &c.: A. D. 1798-1827.

PESTH: A. D. 1241.
Destruction by the Mongols.

See MONGOLS: A. D. 1229-1294.

PESTH: A. D. 1872.
Union with Buda.

See BUDAPESTH.

PESTILENCE.

See PLAGUE.

PETALISM.

A vote of banishment which the ancient Syracusans brought into
practice for a time, in imitation of the Ostracism of the
Athenians,—(see OSTRACISM). The name of the citizen to be
banished was written, at Syracuse, on olive-leaves, instead of
on shells, as at Athens. Hence the name, petalism.

_Diodorus,
Historical Library,
book 11, chapter 26._

PETER,
Latin Emperor at Constantinople (Romania), A. D. 1217-1219.
Peter I. (called The Great), Czar of Russia, 1689-1725.

Peter I., King of Aragon and Navarre, 1094-1104.

Peter I., King of Hungary, 1088-1046.

Peter II., Czar of Russia, 1727-1780.

Peter II., King of Aragon, 1196-1213.

{2527}

Peter II., King of Sicily, 1337-1342.

Peter III., Czar of Russia, 1762.

Peter III., King of Aragon, 1276-1285;
King of Sicily, 1283-1285.

Peter IV., King of Aragon, 1336-1387.

Peter the Hermit's Crusade.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1094-1095; and 1096-1099.

Peter.

See, also, PEDRO.

PETERBOROUGH, Earl of, and the siege of Barcelona.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1705.

PETERLOO, Massacre of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1816-1820.

PETER'S PENCE.

King Offa, of the old English kingdom of Mercia, procured, by
a liberal tribute to Rome, a new archbishopric for Lichfield,
thus dividing the province of Canterbury. "This payment … is
probably the origin of the Rom-feoh, or Peter's pence, a tax
of a penny on every hearth, which was collected [in England]
and sent to Rome from the beginning of the tenth century, and
was a subject of frequent legislation. But the archiepiscopate
of Lichfield scarcely survived its founder."

_W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England,
chapter 8, section 86 (volume 1)._

PETERSBURG, Siege and evacuation of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (JUNE: VIRGINIA), (JULY: VIRGINIA),
(AUGUST: VIRGINIA); 1865 (MARCH-APRIL: VIRGINIA).

PETERSHAM, Rout of Shays' rebels at.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1786-1787.

PETERVARDEIN, Battle of (1716).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1600-1718.

PETILIA, Battle at.

See SPARTACUS, RISING OF.

PETIT SERJEANTY.

See FEUDAL TENURES.

PETITION OF RIGHT, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1625–1628; and 1628.

PETITS MAÍTRES, Les.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1650-1651.

PETRA, Arabia.
The rock-city of the Nabatheans.

See NABATHEANS.

PETRA, Illyricum: Cæsar's blockade of Pompeius.

See ROME B. C. 48.

PETRA, Lazica.

See LAZICA.

PETROBRUSIANS. HENRICIANS.

"The heretic who, for above twenty years, attempted a
restoration of a simple religion in Southern France, the
well-known Pierre de Bruys, a native of Gap or Embrun, …
warred against images and all other visible emblems of
worship; he questioned the expediency of infant baptism, the
soundness of the doctrine of transubstantiation, and opposed
prayers for the dead; but he professed poverty for himself,
and would have equally enforced it upon all the ministers of
the altar. He protested against the payment of tithes; and it
was, most probably, owing to this last, the most heinous of
all offences, that he was, towards 1130, burnt with slow fire
by a populace maddened by the priests, at St. Gilles, on the
Rhone. … His followers rallied … and changed their name of
Petrobrusians into that of Henricians, when the mantle of
their first master rested on the shoulders of Henry, supposed
by Mosheim [Eccles. History, volume 2] to have been an Italian
Eremite monk."

_L. Mariotti (A. Gallenga),
Frà Dolcina and his Times,
chapter 1._

PETROCORII, The.

A Gallic tribe established in the ancient Périgord, the modern
French department of the Dordogne.

_Napoleon III.,
History of Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 2, footnote._

PETRONILLA, Queen of Aragon, A. D. 1137-1163.

PETRONIUS MAXIMUS, Roman Emperor (Western), A. D. 455.

PEUCINI, The.

"The Peucini derived their name from the little island Peuce
(Piczino) at the mouth of the Danube. Pliny (iv. 14) speaks of
them as a German people bordering on the Daci. They would thus
stretch through Moldavia from the Carpathian Mountains to the
Black Sea. Under the name Bastarnæ they are mentioned by Livy
(xl. 57, 58) as a powerful people, who helped Philip, king of
Macedonia, in his wars with the Romans. Plutarch ('Life of
Paullus Æmilius,' ch. ix.) says they were the same as the
Galatæ, who dwelt round the Ister (Danube). If so, they were
Gauls, which Livy also implies."

_Church and Brodribb,
Geographical Notes to The Germany of Tacitus._

PEUKETIANS, The.

See ŒNOTRIANS.

PEUTINGERIAN TABLE, The.

This is the name given to the only copy which has survived of
a Roman official road-chart. "Tables of this kind were not
maps in the proper sense of the term, but were rather diagrams
drawn purposely out of proportion, on which the public roads
were projected in a panoramic view. The latitude and longitude
and the positions of rivers and mountains were disregarded so
far as they might interfere with the display of the provinces,
the outlines being flattened out to suit the shape of a roll
of parchment; but the distances between the stations were
inserted in numerals, so that an extract from the record might
be used as a supplement to the table of mileage in the
road-book. The copy now remaining derives its name from Conrad
Peutinger of Augsburg, in whose library it was found on his
death in 1547. It is supposed to have been brought to Europe
from a monastery in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, and to
have been a copy taken by some thirteenth century scribe from
an original assigned to the beginning of the fourth century or
the end of the third.'

_C. Elton,
Origins of English History,
chapter 11 and plate 7._

ALSO IN:
_W. M. Ramsay,
Historical Geography of Asia Minor,
part 1, chapter 6._

PEVENSEY.

The landing-place of William the Conqueror, September 28,
A. D. 1066, when he came to win the crown of England.

See, also, ANDERIDA.

PFALZ. PFALZGRAF.

In German, the term signifying Palatine and Palatine Count.

See PALATINE COUNT.

PHACUSEH.

See JEWS: THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS.

PHÆACIANS, The.

"We are wholly at a loss to explain the reasons that led the
Greeks in early times … to treat the Phæacians [of Homer's
Odyssey] as a historical people, and to identify the Homeric
Scheria with the island of Corcyra [modern Corfu]. … We must …
be content to banish the kindly and hospitable Phæacians, as
well as the barbarous Cyclopes and Læstrygones, to that outer
zone of the Homeric world, in which everything was still
shrouded in a veil of marvel and mystery."

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 3, section 3 volume 1)._

PHALANGITES, The.

The soldiers of the Macedonian phalanx.

{2528}

PHALANX, The Macedonian.

"The main body, the phalanx—or quadruple phalanx, as it was
sometimes called, to mark that it was formed of four
divisions, each bearing the same name—presented a mass of
18,000 men, which was distributed, at least by Alexander, into
six brigades of 3,000 each, formidable in its aspect, and, on
ground suited to its operations, irresistible in its attacks.
The phalangite soldier wore the usual defensive armour of the
Greek heavy infantry, helmet, breast-plate, and greaves; and
almost the whole front of his person was covered with the long
shield called the aspis. His weapons were a sword, long enough
to enable a man in the second rank to reach an enemy who had
come to close quarters with the comrade who stood before him,
and the celebrated spear, known by the Macedonian name
sarissa, four and twenty feet long. The sarissa, when couched,
projected eighteen feet in front of the soldier, and the space
between the ranks was such that those of the second rank were
fifteen, those of the third twelve, those of the fourth nine,
those of the fifth six, and those of the sixth three feet in
advance of the first line; so that the man at the head of the
file was guarded on each side by the points of six spears. The
ordinary depth of the phalanx was of sixteen ranks. The men
who stood too far behind to use their sarissas, and who
therefore kept them raised until they advanced to fill a
vacant place, still added to the pressure of the mass. As the
efficacy of the phalanx depended on its compactness, and this
again on the uniformity of its movements, the greatest care
was taken to select the best soldiers for the foremost and
hindmost ranks—the frames, as it were, of the engine. The bulk
and core of the phalanx consisted of Macedonians; but it was
composed in part of foreign troops."

_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 48._

PHALARIS,
Brazen bull of.
Epistles of.

Phalaris is said to have been a rich man who made himself
tyrant of the Greek city of Agrigentum in Sicily, about 570 B.
C., and who distinguished himself above all others of his kind
by his cruelties. He seems to have been especially infamous in
early times on account of his brazen bull. "This piece of
mechanism was hollow, and sufficiently capacious to contain
one or more victims enclosed within it, to perish in tortures
when the metal was heated: the cries of these suffering
prisoners passed for the roarings of the animal. The artist
was named Perillus, and is said to have been himself the first
person burnt in it by order of the despot."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 43._

At a later time Phalaris was represented as having been a man
of culture and letters, and certain Epistles were ascribed to
him which most scholars now regard as forgeries. The famous
treatise of Bentley is thought to have settled the question.

PHALERUM.

See PIRÆUS.

PHANARIOTS, The.

"The reduction of Constantinople, in 1453, was mainly achieved
by the extraordinary exploit of Mahomet II. in transporting
his galleys from the Bosphorus to the interior of the harbour,
by dragging them over land from Dolma Bactche, and again
launching them opposite to the quarter denominated the Phanar,
from a lantern suspended over the gate which there
communicates with the city. The inhabitants of this district,
either from terror or treachery, are said to have subsequently
thrown open a passage to the conqueror; and Mahomet, as a
remuneration, assigned them for their residence this portion
of Constantinople, which has since continued to be occupied by
the Patriarch and the most distinguished families of the
Greeks. It is only, however, within the last century and a
half that the Phanariots have attained any distinction beyond
that of merchants and bankers, or that their name, from merely
designating their residence, has been used to indicate their
diplomatic employments."

_Sir J. E. Tennent,
History of Modern Greece,
chapter 12 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_E. A. Freeman,
The Ottoman Power in Europe,
chapter 4._

_J. Samuelson,
Roumania, Past and Present,
chapter 13, sections 3-7._

PHARAOH, The title.

The title Pharaoh which was given to the kings of ancient
Egypt, "appears on the monuments as piraa, 'great house,' the
palace in which the king lived being used to denote the king
himself, just as in our own time the 'porte' or gate of the
palace has become synonymous with the Turkish Sultan."

_A. H. Sayee,
Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments,
chapter 2._

PHARAOHITES.

See GYPSIES.

PHARISEES, The.

See CHASIDIM; and SADDUCEES.

PHARSALIA, Battle of.

See ROME: B. C. 48.

PHELPS' AND GORHAM'S PURCHASE.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1786-1799.

PHERÆ.

A town in ancient Thessaly which acquired an evil fame in
Greek history, during the fourth century, B. C., by the power
and the cruelty of the tyrants who ruled it and who extended
their sway for a time over the greater part of Thessaly. Jason
and Alexander were the most notorious of the brood.

PHILADELPHIA, Asia Minor.

The city of Philadelphia, founded by Attalus Philadelphus of
Pergamum, in eastern Lydia, not far from Sardes, was one in
which Christianity flourished at an early day, and which
prospered for several centuries, notwithstanding repeated
calamities of earthquake. It was the last community of Greeks
in Asia Minor which retained its independence of the Turks. It
stood out for two generations in the midst of the Seljouk
Turks, after all around it had succumbed. The brave city was
finally taken by the Ottoman sultan, Bayezid, or Bajazet,
about 1390. The Turks then gave it the name Alashehr.

_G. Finlay,
History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires,
book 4, chapter 2, section 4 (volume 2)._

----------PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: Start--------

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1641.-
The first settlement, by New Haven colonists.

See NEW JERSEY: A. D. 1640-1655.

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1682-1685.
Penn's founding of the city.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1682-1685.

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1686-1692.
Bradford's Press.

See PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 15<15-1709.

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1701.
Chartered as a city.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1701-1718.

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1719-1729.
The first newspapers.
Franklin's advent.

See PRINTING: A. D. 1704-1729.

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1765.
Patriotic self-denials.
Non-importation agreements.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1764-1767.

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1774.
The First Continental Congress.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1774 (SEPTEMBER)
and (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1775.
Reception of the news of Lexington and Concord.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (APRIL-JUNE).

{2529}

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1775.
The Second Continental Congress.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST).

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1777.
The British army in the city.
Removal of Congress to York.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JANUARY-DECEMBER).

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1777-1778.
The gay winter with the British in the city.
The Battle of the Kegs.
The Mischianza.

"The year 1778 found the British at Philadelphia in snug
quarters, unembarrassed by the cares of the field, and, except
for occasional detachments, free from other military duties
than the necessary details of garrison life. The trifling
affairs that occurred during the remainder of the season
served rather as a zest to the pleasures which engaged them
than as a serious occupation. … No sooner were they settled in
their winter-quarters than the English set on foot scenes of
gayety that were long remembered, and often with regret, by
the younger part of the local gentry. … Of all the band, no
one seems to have created such a pleasing impression or to
have been so long admiringly remembered as André. His name in
our own days lingered on the lips of every aged woman whose
youth had seen her a belle in the royal lines. … The military
feats about Philadelphia, in the earlier part of 1778, were
neither numerous or important. Howe aimed at little more than
keeping a passage clear for the country-people, within certain
bounds, to come in with marketing. The incident known as the
Battle of the Kegs was celebrated by Hopkinson in a very
amusing song that, wedded to the air of Maggy Lander, was long
the favorite of the American military vocalists; but it hardly
seems to have been noticed at Philadelphia until the Whig
version came in. The local newspapers say that, in January,
1778, a barrel floating down the Delaware being taken up by
some boys exploded in their hands, and killed or maimed one of
them. A few days after, some of the transports fired a few
guns at several other kegs that appeared on the tide; but no
particular notice of the occurrence was taken. These torpedoes
were sent down in the hope that they would damage the
shipping." When Howe was displaced from the command and
recalled, his officers, among whom he was very popular,
resolved "to commemorate their esteem for him by an
entertainment not less novel than splendid. This was the
famous Mischianza [or Meschianza] of the 18th of May, 1778;
the various nature of which is expressed by its name, while
its conception is evidently taken from Lord Derby's fête
champêtre at The Oaks, June 9th, 1774, on occasion of Lord
Stanley's marriage to the Duke of Hamilton's daughter. … The
regatta, or aquatic procession, in the Mischianza was
suggested by a like pageant on the Thames, June 23rd, 1775. …
A mock tournament—perhaps the first in America—was a part of
the play."

_W. Sargent,
Life of Major John André,
chapter 9._

ALSO IN:
_J. T. Scharf and T. Westcott,
History of Philadelphia,
chapter 17 (volume 1)._

_A. H. Wharton,
Through Colonial Doorways,
chapter 2._

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1778.
Evacuation by the British.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JUNE).

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1780-1784.
Founding of the Pennsylvania Bank
and the Bank of North America.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1780-1784.

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1787.
The sitting of the Federal Constitutional Convention.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787.

PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1876.
The Centennial Exhibition.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1876.

----------PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: End--------

PHILADELPHIA, Tenn., Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: TENNESSEE).

PHILADELPHIA LIBRARY COMPANY.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

PHILIP,
Roman Emperor, A. D. 244-249.

Philip, King of Macedon,
The ascendancy in Greece of.

See GREECE: B. C. 359-358, and 357-336.

Philip, King of the Pokanokets,
and his war with the English.

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D.1674-1675, to 1676-1678.

Philip, King of Sweden, 1112-1118.

Philip (called The Bold), Duke of Burgundy, 1363-1404.

Philip (called The Good), Duke of Burgundy, 1418-1467.

Philip I. King of France, 1060-1108.

Philip II. (called Augustus), King of France, 1180-1223.

Philip II., King of the Two Sicilies, 1554-1598;
Duke of Burgundy, 1555-1598;
King of Spain, 1556-1598;
King of Portugal, 1580-1598.

Philip III. (called The Bold), King of France, 1270-1285.

Philip III., King of Spain, Portugal and the Two Sicilies,
and Duke of Burgundy, 1598-1621.

Philip IV. (called The Fair), King of France, 1285-1314.

Philip IV., King of Spain, 1621-1665;
King of Portugal, 1621-1640.

Philip V., King of France and Navarre, 1316-1322.

Philip V., King of Spain (first of the Spanish-Bourbon line),
1700-1746.

Philip VI., King of France
(the first king of the House of Valois), 1328-1350.

PHILIPHAUGH, Battle of (1645).

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1644-1645.

PHILIPPI, The founding of.

Philip of Macedonia in 356 B. C. took from the Thasians the
rich gold-mining district of Pangæus, on the left bank of the
Strymon on the border of Thrace, and settled a colony there in
what afterwards became the important city of Philippi.

_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 42._

PHILIPPI, Battles of (B. C. 42).

See ROME: B. C. 44-42.

PHILIPPI, West Virginia, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JUNE-JULY: WEST VIRGINIA).

PHILIPPICS OF DEMOSTHENES, The.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336, and 351-348.

PHILIPPICUS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 711-713.

PHILIPPOPOLIS, Capture of, by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 244-251.

----------PHILIPSBURG: Start--------

PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1644.
Taken by the French.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1643-1644.

PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1648.
Right of garrisoning secured to France.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1676.
Taken from France by the Imperialists.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1679.
Given up by France.

See NIMEGUEN, PEACE OF.

PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1734.
Siege and reduction by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1733-1735.

----------PHILIPSBURG: End--------

{2530}

PHILISTINES, The.

"One small nation alone, of all which dwelt on the land
claimed by Israel, permanently refused to amalgamate itself
with the circumcised peoples,—namely the uncircumcised
Philistines. They occupied the lots which ought to have been
conquered by Dan and Simeon, and had five principal cities,
Gaza, Askelon, Ashdod, Gath and Ekron, of which the three
first are on the sea-coast. Ashdod and Gaza were places of
great strength, capable of long resisting the efforts of
Egyptian and Greek warfare. The Philistines cannot have been a
populous nation, but they were far more advanced in the arts
of peace and war than the Hebrews. Their position commanded
the land traffic between Egypt and Canaan, and gave them
access to the sea; hence perhaps their wealth and
comparatively advanced civilization. Some learned men give
credit to an account in Sanchoniathon, that they came from
Crete." They gave their name to Palestine.

_F. W. Newman,
History of the Hebrew Monarchy,
chapter 2._

"Where the Philistines came from, and what they originally
were, is not clear. That they moved up the coast from Egypt is
certain; that they came from Kaphtor is also certain. But it
by no means follows, as some argue, that Kaphtor and Egypt are
the same region. … It appears more safe to identify Kaphtor
with" Crete. "But to have traced the Philistines to Crete is
not to have cleared up their origin, for early Crete was full
of tribes from both east and west. … Take them as a whole, and
the Philistines appear a Semitic people."

_George Adam Smith,
Historical Geography of the Holy Land,
chapter 9._

ALSO IN:
_Dean Stanley,
Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church,
lecture 16._

_H. Ewald,
History of Israel,
book 2, section 3._

See, also,
JEWS: THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN, and after.

PHILOCRATES, The Peace of.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

PHLIUS, Siege of.

Phlius, the chief city of the small mountain state of
Phliasia, in the northeastern corner of Peloponnesus,
adjoining Argos and Arcadia, made an heroic effort, B. C. 380,
to maintain its liberties against Sparta. Under a valiant
leader, Delphion, it endured a siege which lasted more than an
entire year. When forced to surrender, in the end, it was
treated with terrible severity by the Spartan king, Agesilaus.

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 5, chapter 5._

PHOCÆANS, OR PHOKÆANS, The.

"The citizens of Phocæa had been the last on the coast-line of
Ionia [see ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES] to settle down to a
condition of tranquillity. They had no building-ground but a
rocky peninsula, where they found so little space over which
to spread at their ease that this very circumstance made them
a thorough people of sailors. In accordance with their local
situation they had turned to the waters of the Pontus,
established settlements on the Dardanelles and the Black Sea,
and taken part in the trade with Egypt. Here however they were
unable to hold their own by the side of the Milesians, … and
the Phocæans accordingly saw themselves obliged to look
westward and to follow the direction of Chalcidian navigation.
… It was thus that the Ionian Phocæans came into the western
sea. Being forced from the first to accustom themselves to
long and distant voyages, instead of the easy summer trips of
the other maritime cities, they became notably bold and heroic
sailors. They began where the rest left off; they made voyages
of discovery into regions avoided by others; they remained at
sea even when the skies already showed signs of approaching
winter and the observation of the stars became difficult. They
built their ships long and slim, in order to increase their
agility; their merchant vessels were at the same time
men-of-war. … They entered those parts of the Adriatic which
most abound in rocks, and circumnavigated the islands of the
Tyrrhenian sea in spite of the Carthaginian guard–ships; they
sought out the bays of Campania and the mouths of the Tiber
and Arnus; they proceeded farther, past the Alpine ranges,
along the coast as far as the mouth of the Rhodanus, and
finally reached Iberia, with whose rich treasures of precious
metals they had first become acquainted on the coast of Italy.
… During the period when Ionia began to be hard pressed by the
Lydians, the Phocæans, who had hitherto contented themselves
with small commercial settlements, in their turn proceeded to
the foundation of cities in Gaul and Iberia. The month of the
Rhodanus [the Rhone] was of especial importance to them for
the purposes of land and sea trade. … Massalia [modern
Marseilles], from the forty-fifth Olympiad [B. C. 600] became
a fixed seat of Hellenic culture in the land of the Celts,
despite the hostility of the piratical tribes of Liguria and
the Punic fleet. Large fisheries were established on the
shore; and the stony soil in the immediate vicinity of the
city itself was converted into vine and olive plantations. The
roads leading inland were made level, which brought the
products of the country to the mouth of the Rhone; and in the
Celtic towns were set up mercantile establishments, which
collected at Massalia the loads of British tin, of inestimable
value for the manufacture of copper, while wine and oil, as
well as works of art, particularly copper utensils, were
supplied to the interior. A totally new horizon opened for
Hellenic inquiry."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 2, chapter 3._

See, also,
ASIA MINOR: B. C. 724-539.

PHOCAS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 602-610.

PHOCIANS, The.

See PHOKIANS.

PHOCION, Execution of.

See GREECE: B. C. 321-312.

PHOCIS: B. C. 357-346.
Seizure of Delphi.
The Ten Years Sacred War with Thebes.
Intervention of Philip of Macedon.
Heavy punishment by his hand.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

----------PHŒNICIANS: Start--------

PHŒNICIANS:
Origin and early history.
Commerce.
Colonies.

"The traditions of the Phœnicians collected at Tyre itself by
Herodotus …; those of the inhabitants of Southern Arabia
preserved by Strabo; and, finally, those still current in
Babylonia during the first centuries of the Christian era,
when the Syro-Chaldee original of the book of 'Nabathæan
Agriculture' was revised—all agree in stating that the
Canaanites at first lived near the Cushites, their brethren in
race, on the banks of the Erythræan Sea, or Persian Gulf, on
that portion of the coast of Bahrein designated El Katif on
our modern maps of Arabia. Pliny speaks of a land of Canaan in
this neighbourhood, in his time. … According to Tragus
Pompeius, the Canaanites were driven from their first
settlements by earthquakes, and then journeyed towards
Southern Syria.
{2531}
The traditions preserved in 'Nabathæan Agriculture' state, on
the contrary, that they were violently expelled, in
consequence of a quarrel with the Cushite monarchs of Babylon
of the dynasty of Nimrod; and this is also the account given
by the Arabian historians. … The entry of the Canaanites into
Palestine, and their settlement in the entire country situated
between the sea and the valley of Jordan, must … be placed
between the period when the twelfth dynasty governed Egypt and
that when the Elamite king, Chedorlaomer, reigned as suzerain
over all the Tigro-Euphrates basin. This brings us
approximately between 2400 and 2300 B. C. … The Sidonians
formed the first settlement, and always remained at the head
of the Phœnician nation, which, at all periods of its history,
even when joined by other peoples of the same race, called
itself both 'Canaanite' and 'Sidonian.' … The Greek name,
Phœnicians, of unknown origin, must not be applied to the
whole of the nations of the race of Canaan who settled in
Southern Syria; it belongs to the Canaanites of the sea coast
only, who were always widely separated from the others.
Phœnicia, in both classical history and geography, is merely
that very narrow tract of land, hemmed in by mountains and
sea, extending from Aradus on the north to the town of Acco on
the south."

_F. Lenormant,
Manual of Ancient History of the East,
book 6, chapter 1._

"Renan sums up the evidence when he says: 'The greater number
of modern critics admit it as demonstrated, that the primitive
abode of the Phœnicians must be placed on the Lower Euphrates,
in the centre of the great commercial and maritime
establishments of the Persian Gulf, conformably to the
unanimous witness of antiquity.' The date, the causes, and the
circumstances of the migration are involved in equal
obscurity. The motive for it assigned by Justin is absurd,
since no nation ever undertook a long and difficult migration
on account of an earthquake. If we may resort to conjecture we
should b inclined to suggest that the spirit of adventure gave
the first impulse, and that afterwards the unexampled
facilities for trade, which the Mediterranean coast was found
to possess, attracted a continuous flow of immigrants from the
sea of the Rising to that of the Setting Sun."

_G. Rawlinson,
The Story of Phœnicia,
chapter 2._

_G. Rawlinson,
History of Phœnicia,
chapter 3._

"The campaigns which the Pharaohs undertook against Syria and
the land of the Euphrates after the expulsion of the Shepherds
could not leave these cities [Sidon and others] unmoved. If
the Zemar of the inscriptions of Tuthmosis III. is Zemar
(Simyra) near Aradus, and Arathutu is Aradus itself, the
territories of these cities were laid waste by this king in
his sixth campaign (about the year 1580 B. C.); if Arkatu is
Arka, south of Aradus, this place must have been destroyed in
his fifteenth campaign (about the year 1570 B. C.). Sethos I.
(1440-1400 B. C.) subdued the land of Limanon (i. e. the
region of Lebanon). and caused cedars to be felled there. One
of his inscriptions mentions Zor, i. e. Tyre, among the cities
conquered by him. The son and successor of Sethos I., Ramses
II., also forced his way in the first decades of the
fourteenth century as far as the coasts of the Phenicians. At
the mouth of the Nahr el Kelb, between Sidon and Berytus, the
rocks on the coast display the memorial which he caused to be
set up in the second and third year of his reign in honour of
the successes obtained in this region. In the fifth year of
his reign Ramses, with the king of the Cheta, defeats the king
of Arathu in the neighbourhood of Kadeshu on the Orontes, and
Ramses III., about the year 1310 B. C., mentions beside the
Cheta who attack Egypt the people of Arathu, by which name in
the one case as in the other, may be meant the warriors of
Aradus. If Arathu, like Arathutu, is Aradus, it follows, from
the position which Ramses II. and III. give to the princes of
Arathu, that beside the power to which the kingdom of the
Hittites had risen about the middle of the fifteenth century
B. C., and which it maintained to the end of the fourteenth,
the Phenician cities had assumed an independent position. The
successes of the Pharaohs in Syria come to an end in the first
decades of the fourteenth century. Egypt makes peace and
enters into a contract of marriage with the royal house of the
Cheta. … The overthrow of the kingdom of the Hittites, which
succumbed to the attack of the Amorites soon after the year
1300 B. C., must have had a reaction on the cities of the
Phenicians. Expelled Hittites must have been driven to the
coast-land, or have fled thither, and in the middle of the
thirteenth century the successes gained by the Hebrews who
broke in from the East, over the Amorites, the settlement of
the Hebrews on the mountains of the Amorites [see JEWS:
CONQUEST OF CANAAN], must again have thrown the vanquished, i.
e. the fugitives of this nation, towards the coast. With this
retirement of the older strata of the population of Canaan to
the coast is connected the movement which from this period
emanates from the coasts of the Phenicians, and is directed
towards the islands of the Mediterranean and the Ægean. It is
true that on this subject only the most scanty statements and
traces, only the most legendary traditions have come down to
us, so that we can ascertain these advances only in the most
wavering outlines. One hundred miles to the west off the coast
of Phenicia lies the island of Cyprus. … The western writers
state that before the time of the Trojan war Belus had
conquered and subjugated the island of Cyprus, and that Citium
belonged to Belus. The victorious Belus is the Baal of the
Phenicians. The date of the Trojan war is of no importance for
the settlement of the Phenicians in Cyprus, for this statement
is found in Virgil only. More important is the fact that the
settlers brought the Babylonian cuneiform writing to Cyprus. …
The settlement of the Sidonians in Cyprus must therefore have
taken place before the time in which the alphabetic writing,
i. e. the writing specially known as Phenician, was in use in
Syria, and hence at the latest before 1100 B. C. … In the
beginning of the tenth century B. C. the cities of Cyprus
stood under the supremacy of the king of Tyre. The island was
of extraordinary fertility. The forests furnished wood for
ship-building; the mountains concealed rich veins of the metal
which has obtained the name of copper from this island. Hence
it was a very valuable acquisition, an essential strengthening
of the power of Sidon in the older, and Tyre in the later
period. …
{2532}
As early as the fifteenth century B. C., we may regard the
Phenician cities as the central points of a trade branching
east and west, which must have been augmented by the fact that
they conveyed not only products of the Syrian land to the
Euphrates and the Nile, but could also carry the goods which
they obtained in exchange in Egypt to Babylonia, and what they
obtained beyond the Euphrates to Egypt. At the same time the
fabrics of Babylon and Egypt roused them to emulation, and
called forth an industry among the Phenicians which we see
producing woven stuffs, vessels of clay and metal, ornaments
and weapons, and becoming preeminent in the colouring of
stuffs with the liquor of the purple-fish which are found on
the Phenician coasts. This industry required above all things
metals, of which Babylonia and Egypt were no less in need, and
when the purple-fish of their own coasts were no longer
sufficient for their extensive dyeing, colouring-matter had to
be obtained. Large quantities of these fish produced a
proportionately small amount of the dye. Copper-ore was found
in Cyprus, gold in the island of Thasos, and purple-fish on
the coasts of Hellas. When the fall of the kingdom of the
Hittites and the overthrow of the Amorite princes in the south
of Canaan augmented the numbers of the population on the
coast, these cities were no longer content to obtain those
possessions of the islands by merely landing and making
exchanges with the inhabitants. Intercourse with
semi-barbarous tribes must be protected by the sword. Good
harbours were needed. … Thus arose protecting forts on the
distant islands and coasts, which received the ships of the
native land. … In order to obtain the raw material necessary
for their industry no less than to carry off the surplus of
population, the Phenicians were brought to colonise Cyprus,
Rhodes, Crete, Thera, Melos, Oliarus, Samothrace, Imbros,
Lemnos and Thasos. In the bays of Laconia and Argos, in the
straits of Eubœa, purple–fish were found in extraordinary
quantities. … We may conclude that the Phenicians must have
set foot on Cyprus about the year 1250 B. C., and on the
islands and coasts of Hellas about the year 1200 B. C.
Thucydides observes that in ancient times the Phenicians had
occupied the promontories of Sicily and the small islands
lying around Sicily, in order to carry on trade with the
Sicels. Diodorus Siculus tells us that when the Phenicians
extended their trade to the western ocean they settled in the
island of Melite (Malta), owing to its situation in the middle
of the sea and excellent harbours, in order to have a refuge
for their ships. … On Sardinia also, as Diodorus tells us, the
Phenicians planted many colonies. The mountains of Sardinia
contained iron, silver, and lead. … The legend of the Greeks
makes Heracles, i. e. Baal Melkarth, lord of the whole West.
As a fact, the colonies of the Phenicians went beyond Sardinia
in this direction. Their first colonies on the north coast of
Africa appear to have been planted where the shore runs out
nearest Sicily; Hippo was apparently regarded as the oldest
colony. In the legends of the coins mentioned above Hippo is
named beside Tyre and Citium as a daughter of Sidon. … Ityke
(atak, settlement, Utica), on the mouth of the Bagradas
(Medsherda), takes the next place after this Hippo, if indeed
it was not founded before it. Aristotle tells us that the
Phenicians stated that Ityke was built 287 years before
Carthage, and Pliny maintains that Ityke was founded 1,178
years before his time. As Carthage was founded in the year 846
B. C. [see CARTHAGE] Ityke, according to Aristotle's
statement, was built in the year 1133 B. C. With this the
statement of Pliny agrees. He wrote in the years 52-77 A. D.,
and therefore he places the foundation of Ityke in the year
1126 or 1100 B. C. About the same time, i. e. about the year
1100 B. C., the Phenicians had already reached much further to
the west. … When their undertakings succeeded according to
their desire and they had collected great treasures, they
resolved to traverse the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles,
which is called Oceanus. First of all, on their passage
through these pillars, they founded upon a peninsula of Europe
a city which they called Gadeira. … This foundation of Gades,
which on the coins is called Gadir and Agadir, i. e. wall,
fortification, the modern Cadiz, and without doubt the most
ancient city in Europe which has preserved its name, is said
to have taken place in the year 1100 B. C. If Ityke was
founded before 1100 B. C. or about that time, we have no
reason to doubt the founding of Gades soon after that date.
Hence the ships of the Phenicians would have reached the ocean
about the time when Tiglath Pilesar I. left the Tigris with
his army, trod the north of Syria, and looked on the
Mediterranean."

_M. Duncker,
The History of Antiquity,
book 3, chapter 3 (volume 3)._

"The typical Phœnician colony was only a trading station,
inhabited by dealers, who had not ceased to be counted as
citizens of the parent State. … In Phœnicia itself the chief
object of public interest was the maintenance and extension of
foreign trade. The wealth of the country depended on the
profits of the merchants, and it was therefore the interest of
the Government to encourage and protect the adventures of the
citizens. Unlike the treasures or curiosities imported by the
fleets of royal adventurers, Phœnician imports were not
intended to be consumed within the country, but to be
exchanged for the most part for other commodities. The
products of all lands were brought to market there, and the
market people, after supplying all their own wants in kind,
still had commodities to sell at a profit to the rest of the
world. The Government did not seek to retain a monopoly of
this profit; on the contrary, private enterprise seems to have
been more untrammelled than at any time before the present
century. But individuals and the State were agreed in desiring
to retain a monopoly of foreign traffic as against the rest of
the world, hence the invention of 'Phœnician lies' about the
dangers of the sea, and the real dangers which 'Tyrian seas'
came to possess for navigators of any other nation. …
Phœnician traders were everywhere first in the field, and it
was easy for them to persuade their barbarous customers that
foreigners of any other stock were dangerous and should be
treated as enemies. They themselves relied more on stratagem
than on open warfare to keep the seas, which they considered
their own, free from other navigators. … Silver and gold, wool
and purple, couches inlaid with ivory, Babylonish garments and
carpets, unguents of all sorts, female slaves and musicians,
are indicated by the comic poets as forming part of the
typical cargo of a Phœnician merchantman, the value of which
in many cases would reach a far higher figure than a small
ship-owner or captain could command.
{2533}
As a consequence, a good deal of banking or money-lending
business was done by the wealthy members of the great
Corporation of Merchants and Ship-owners. The Phœnicians had
an evil reputation with the other nations of the Mediterranean
for sharp practices, and the custom of lending money at
interest was considered, of course wrongly, a Phœnician
invention, though it is possible that they led the way in the
general substitution of loans at interest for the more
primitive use of antichretic pledges. … To the Greeks the name
Phœnician seems to have called up the same sort of association
as those which still cling to the name of Jew in circles which
make no boast of tolerance; and it is probable enough that the
first, like the second, great race of wandering traders was
less scrupulous in its dealings with aliens than compatriots.
… So far as the Punic race may be supposed to have merited its
evil reputation, one is tempted to account for the fact by the
character of its principal staples. All the products of all
the countries of the world circulated in Phœnician
merchantmen, but the two most considerable, and most
profitable articles of trade in which they dealt were human
beings and the precious metals. The Phœnicians were the
slave-dealers and the money-changers of the Old World. And it
is evident that a branch of trade, which necessarily follows
the methods of piracy, is less favourable to the growth of the
social virtues than the cultivation of the ground, the
domestication of animals, or the arts and manufactures by
which the products of nature are applied to new and varied
uses. Compared with the trade in slaves, that in metals—gold,
silver, copper and tin—must seem innocent and meritorious; yet
the experience of ages seems to show that, somehow or other,
mining is not a moralizing industry. … Sidon was famous in
Homer's time for copper or bronze, and Tyre in Solomon's for
bronze (the 'brass' of the Authorized Version); and the
Phœnicians retailed the work of all other metallurgists as
well as their own, as they retailed the manufactures of Egypt
and Babylonia, and the gums and spices of Arabia. … Two things
are certain with regard to the continental commerce of Europe
before the written history of its northern countries begins.
Tin and umber were conveyed by more than one route from
Cornwall and the North Sea to Mediterranean ports. In the
latter case the traders proceeded up the Rhine and the Aar,
along the Jura to the Rhone, and thence down to Marseilles;
and also across the Alps, by a track forking off, perhaps at
Grenoble, into the valley of the Po, and so to the Adriatic. …
Apart from the Phœnician sea trade, Cornish tin was conveyed
partly by water to Armorica and to Marseilles through the west
of France; but also to the east of England' (partly overland
by the route known later as the Pilgrims' Way), and from the
east of Kent, possibly to the seat of the amber trade, as well
as to a route through the east of France, starting from the
short Dover crossing."

_E. J. Simcox,
Primitive Civilizations,
volume 1, pages 397-402._