Chapter LVII: Section 7 (14)

911. Death of the Emperor Louis the Child, extinguishing
the Carolingian dynasty in Germany, and election of
Conrad the Franconian.
Defeat of the Northmen at Chartres in France;
cession of Normandy to Rollo.

912. Baptism of the Norman Duke Rollo.

914. Elevation of John X. to the papal throne by the courtesan,
Theodora. [Uncertain date.]

916. Imperial coronation in Italy of Berengar.

919. Election of the Saxon Duke, Henry the Fowler,
to the kingship of Germany.
Establishment of the Danish kingdom of Dublin.

923. The crown of France disputed with Charles the Simple
by Rudolph, of Burgundy.

924. Devastation of Germany by the Hungarians;
truce agreed upon for nine years.
Lapse of the imperial title on the death of Berengar.
Commendation of Scotland to the West Saxon King.

925. Death of the English king, Edward the Elder,
and accession of his son Ethelstan.

928. Overthrow and imprisonment of Pope John X.
by the courtesan Marozia. [Uncertain date.]

929. Death of Charles the Simple in France.

931. John XI., son of the courtesan Marozia,
made Pope. [Uncertain date.]

932. Domination of Rome by the Pope's brother, Alberic.

936. Election of Otho, called the Great,
to the throne of Germany.
Death of Rudolph of Burgundy and restoration of
the Carolingians to the French throne.

937. Ethelstan's defeat of Danes, Britons and Scots
at the battle of Brunnaburgh.
Invasion of France by the Hungarians.

940. Death of the English king, Ethelstan,
and accession of his brother Edmund.

946. Death of the English king, Edmund,
and accession of his brother Edred.

951. First expedition of Otho the Great into Italy;
founding of the Holy Roman Empire (afterwards so called).

954. Death of Alberic, tyrant of Rome, his son, Octavian,
succeeding him.
Death of the Carolingian king of France, Louis IV.,
called "d'Outremer";
accession of Lothaire.

955. Germany invaded by the Hungarians;
their decisive defeat on the Lech.
Death of the English king, Edred,
and accession of his nephew, Edwig.

956. Assumption of the Papal throne by Octavian, as John XII.

957. Revolt against the English king Edwig;
division of the kingdom with his brother Edgar.
[Uncertain date.]

959. Death of Edwig and accession of Edgar;
Abbot Dunstan made Archbishop of Canterbury.

961. The crown of Italy taken by Otho the Great, of Germany.

962. Imperial coronation of Otho the Great at Rome;
revival of the Western Empire.

963. Expulsion and deposition of Pope John XII.;
election of Leo VIII.

964. Expulsion of Pope Leo VIII.;
return and death of John XII.;
siege and capture of Rome by the Emperor.

965. Death of Pope Leo VIII.;
election, expulsion, and forcible restoration of John XIII.

967. Conquest of Egypt by the Fatimite caliph. [Uncertain date.]

969. Murder of the Eastern Emperor Nicephorus Phocas
by John Zimisces, his successor.

972. Marriage of Otho, the Western Emperor's son,
to the Byzantine princess, Theophano.
Death of Pope John XIII., and election of Pope Benedict VI.

973. Death of the Emperor Otho the Great;
accession of Otho II.

974. Murder of Pope Benedict VI.

975. Election of Pope Benedict VII.
Death of the English king Edgar;
accession of his son Edward the Martyr.

979. Death of Edward the Martyr;
accession of Ethelred the Unready. [Uncertain date.]

983. Death of the Emperor Otho II.;
accession of Otho III. to the German throne, under the
regency of his mother, Theophano.
First visit of Erik the Red to Greenland.

984. Election of Pope John XIV.

985. Murder of Pope John XIV.;
election of Pope John XV.

986. Death of Lothaire, king of France;
accession of his son Louis V.

987. Death of Louis V., the last of the Carolingian kings;
election of Hugh Capet.

988. Death of Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury.
Cherson acquired by the Romans.

991. Invasion of England by Vikings from Norway;
battle of Maldon.

996. Death of Hugh Capet, king of France;
accession of his son, Robert II.
Death of Pope John XV.;
election of Gregory V.
Imperial coronation of Otho III.

997. Insurrection of peasants in Normandy.
Rebellion of Crescentius in Rome;
expulsion of the Pope.

998. Overthrow of Crescentius at Rome.
Excommunication of King Robert of France.

999. Gerbert raised by the Emperor to the Papal chair,
as Sylvester II.

1000. Expectations of the end of the world.
Pilgrimages of the Emperor Otho.
Royal title conferred on Duke Stephen of Hungary,
by the Pope.
Christianity formally adopted in Iceland.

{2747}

ROME: A. D. 1077-1102.
Donation of the Countess Matilda to the Holy See.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1077-1102.

ROME: A. D. 1081-1084.
Surrender to Henry IV.
Terrible Norman visitation.

Four years after his humiliation of himself before the pope at
Canossa (see CANOSSA), Henry IV. ("King of the Romans" and
claiming the imperial coronation, which the pope refused him),
entered Italy with an army to enforce his demands. He had
recovered his authority in Germany; the rival set up against
him was slain; northern Italy was strong in his support. For
three successive years Henry marched his army to the walls of
Rome and made attempts to enter, by force, or intrigue, or by
stress of blockade, and every year, when the heats of summer
came, he found himself compelled to withdraw. At last, the
Romans, who had stood firm by Gregory VII., tired of the
siege, or the gold which purchased their fidelity (some say)
gave out, and they opened their gates. Pope Gregory took
refuge in his impregnable Castle of St. Angelo, and Henry,
bringing with him the anti-pope whom his partisans had set up,
was crowned by the latter in the Church of St. Peter. But the
coveted imperial crown was little more than settled upon his
head when news came of the rapid approach of Robert Guiscard,
the Norman conqueror of southern Italy, with a large army, to
defend the legitimate pope. Henry withdrew from Rome in haste
and three days afterwards Robert Guiscard's army was under its
walls. The Romans feared to admit these terrible champions of
their pope; but the vigilance and valor of the Normans
surprised a gate, and the great city was in their power. They
made haste to conduct Gregory to his Lateran Palace and to
receive his blessing; then they "spread through the city,
treating it with an the cruelty of a captured town, pillaging,
violating, murdering, wherever they met with opposition. The
Romans had been surprised, not subdued. For two days and
nights they brooded over their vengeance; on the third day
they broke out in general insurrection. … The Romans fought at
advantage, from their possession of the houses and their
knowledge of the ground. They were gaining the superiority;
the Normans saw their peril. The remorseless Guiscard gave the
word to fire the houses. … The distracted inhabitants dashed
wildly into the streets, no longer endeavouring to defend
themselves, but to save their families. They were hewn down by
hundreds. … Nuns were defiled, matrons forced, the rings cut
from their living fingers. Gregory exerted himself, not
without success, in saving the principal churches. It is
probable, however, that neither Goth nor Vandal, neither Greek
nor German, brought such desolation on the city as this
capture by the Normans. From this period dates the desertion
of the older part of the city, and its gradual extension over
the site of the modern city, the Campus Martius. … Many
thousand Romans were sold publicly as slaves; many carried
into the remotest parts of Calabria." When Guiscard withdrew
his destroying army from the ruins of Rome, Gregory went with
him and never returned. He died not long after at Salerno.

_H. H. Milman,
History of Latin Christianity,
book 7, chapter 3._

ALSO IN:
_A. F. Villemain,
Life of Gregory VII.,
book 9._

See, also,
GERMANY: A. D. 973-1122,
and PAPACY: A. D. 1056-1122.

ROME: A. D. 1122-1250.
Conflict of the Popes with the Hohenstaufen Emperors.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1122-1250;
and GERMANY: A. D. 1138-1268.

ROME: A. D. 1145-1155.
The Republic of Arnold of Brescia.

Arnold of Brescia—so-called from his native city in
Lombardy—was a disciple of Abelard, and not so much a
religious as a political reformer. "On all the high mysterious
doctrines of the Church, the orthodoxy of Arnold was
unimpeachable; his personal life was that of the sternest
monk; he had the most earnest sympathy with the popular
religion. … He would reduce the clergy to their primitive and
apostolic poverty; confiscate all their wealth, escheat all
their temporal power. … His Utopia was a great Christian
republic, exactly the reverse of that of Gregory VII." In
1145, Arnold was at Rome, where his doctrines had gone before
him, and where the citizens had already risen in rebellion
against the rule of the pope. "His eloquence brought over the
larger part of the nobles to the popular side; even some of
the clergy were infected by his doctrines. The re~public,
under his influence, affected to resume the constitution of
elder Rome. … The Capitol was rebuilt and fortified; even the
church of St. Peter was sacrilegiously turned into a castle.
The Patrician took possession of the Vatican, imposed taxes,
and exacted tribute by violence from the pilgrims. Rome began
again to speak of her sovereignty of the world." The republic
maintained itself until 1155, when a bolder pope —the
Englishman, Adrian or Hadrian IV.—had mounted the chair of St.
Peter, and confronted Arnold with unflinching hostility. The
death of one of his Cardinals, killed in a street tumult, gave
the pope an opportunity to place the whole city under an
interdict. "Religion triumphed over liberty. The clergy and
the people compelled the senate to yield. Hadrian would admit
of no lower terms than the abrogation of the republican
institutions; the banishment of Arnold and his adherents. The
republic was at an end, Arnold an exile; the Pope again master
in Rome." A few months later, Arnold of Brescia, a prisoner in
the hands of Frederick Barbarossa, then coming to Rome for the
imperial crown, was given up to the Pope and was executed in
some summary way, the particulars of which are in considerable
dispute.

_H. H. Milman,
History of Latin Christianity,
book 8. chapters 6-7._

ALSO IN:
_J. Miley,
History of the Papal States,
book 6._

ROME: A. D. 1155.
Tumult at the coronation of Frederick Barbarossa.

See ITALY: A. D. 1154-1162.

ROME: A. D. 1167.
The taking of the city by Frederick Barbarossa.

See ITALY: A. D. 1166-1167.

ROME: A. D. 1198-1216.
The establishing of Papal Sovereignty
in the States of the Church.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1198-1216.

ROME: A. D. 1215.
The beginning in Italy of the strife of
the Guelphs and Ghibellines.

See ITALY: A. D. 1215.

{2748}

ROME: 13-14th Centuries.
The turbulence of the Roman nobles.
The strife of the Colonna and the Ursini.

"In the beginning of the 11th century Italy was exposed to the
feudal tyranny, alike oppressive to the sovereign and the
people. The rights of human nature were vindicated by her
numerous republics, who soon extended their liberty and
dominion from the city to the adjacent country. The sword of
the nobles was broken; their slaves were enfranchised; their
castles were demolished; they assumed the habits of society
and obedience. … But the feeble and disorderly government of
Rome was unequal to the task of curbing her rebellious sons,
who scorned the authority of the magistrate within and without
the walls. It was no longer a civil contention between the
nobles and plebeians for the government of the state. The
barons asserted in arms their personal independence; their
palaces and castles were fortified against a siege; and their
private quarrels were maintained by the numbers of their
vassals and retainers. In origin and affection they were
aliens to their country; and a genuine Roman, could such have
been produced, might have renounced these haughty strangers,
who disdained the appellation of citizens, and proudly styled
themselves the princes of Rome. After a dark series of
revolutions, all records of pedigree were lost; the
distinction of surnames was abolished; the blood of the
nations was mingled in a thousand channels; and the Goths and
Lombards, the Greeks and Franks, the Germans and Normans, had
obtained the fairest possessions by royal bounty or the
prerogative of valour. … It is not my design to enumerate the
Roman families which have failed at different periods, or
those which are continued in different degrees of splendour to
the present time. The old consular line of the Frangipani
discover their name in the generous act of breaking or
dividing bread in a time of famine; and such benevolence is
more truly glorious than to have enclosed, with their allies
the Corsi, a spacious quarter of the city in the chains of
their fortifications. The Savelli, as it should seem a Sabine
race, have maintained their original dignity; the obsolete
surname of the Capizucchi is inscribed on the coins of the
first senators; the Conti preserve the honour, without the
estate, of the counts of Signia; and the Annibaldi must have
been very ignorant, or very modest, if they had not descended
from the Carthaginian hero. But among, perhaps above, the
peers and princes of the city, I distinguish the rival houses
of Colonna and Ursini [or Orsini]. … About the end of the
thirteenth century the most powerful branch [of the Colonna]
was composed of an uncle and six brothers, all conspicuous in
arms or in the honours of the Church. Of these Peter was
elected senator of Rome, introduced to the Capitol in a
triumphant car, and hailed in some vain acclamations with the
title of Cæsar; while John and Stephen were declared Marquis
of Ancona and Count of Romagna by Nicholas IV., a patron so
partial to their family that he has been delineated in
satirical portraits, imprisoned, as it were, in a hollow
pillar. After his decease their haughty behaviour provoked the
displeasure of the most implacable of mankind. The two
cardinals, the uncle and the nephew, denied the election of
Boniface VIII.; and the Colonna were oppressed for a moment by
his temporal and spiritual arms. He proclaimed a crusade
against his personal enemies; their estates were confiscated;
their fortresses on either side of the Tiber were besieged by
the troops of St. Peter and those of the rival nobles; and
after the ruin of Palestrina, or Præneste, their principal
seat, the ground was marked with a ploughshare, the emblem of
perpetual desolation. …

See PAPACY: A. D. 1294-1348].

Some estimate may be formed of their wealth by their losses,
of their losses by the damages of 100,000 gold florins which
were granted them against the accomplices and heirs of the
deceased pope. All the spiritual censures and
disqualifications were abolished by his prudent successors;
and the fortune of the house was more firmly established by
this transient hurricane. … But the first of the family in
fame and merit was the elder Stephen, whom Petrarch loved and
esteemed as a hero superior to his own times and not unworthy
of ancient Rome. … Till the ruin of his declining age, the
ancestors, the character, and the children of Stephen Colonna
exalted his dignity in the Roman republic and at the Court of
Avignon. The Ursini migrated from Spoleto; the sons of Ursus,
as they are styled in the twelfth century, from some eminent
person who is only known as the father of their race. But they
were soon distinguished among the nobles of Rome by the number
and bravery of their kinsmen, the strength of their towers,
the honours of the senate and sacred college, and the
elevation of two popes, Celestin III. and Nicholas III., of
their name and lineage. … The Colonna embraced the name of
Ghibellines and the party of the empire; the Ursini espoused
the title of Guelphs and the cause of the Church. The eagle
and the keys were displayed in their adverse banners; and the
two factions of Italy most furiously raged when the origin and
nature of the dispute were long since forgotten. After the
retreat of the popes to Avignon they disputed in arms the
vacant republic; and the mischiefs of discord were perpetuated
by the wretched compromise of electing each year two rival
senators. By their private hostilities the city and country
were desolated."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 69._

"Had things been left to take their natural course, one of
these families, the Colonna, for instance, or the Orsini,
would probably have ended by overcoming its rivals, and have
established, as was the case in the republics of Romagna and
Tuscany, a 'signoria,' or local tyranny, like those which had
once prevailed in the cities of Greece. But the presence of
the sacerdotal power, as it had hindered the growth of
feudalism, so also it stood in the way of such a development
as this, and in so far aggravated the confusion of the city."

_J. Bryce,
The Holy Roman Empire,
chapter 16._

ROME: A. D. 1300.
The Jubilee.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1294-1348.

ROME: A. D. 1305-1377.
Withdrawal of the Papal court from Rome
and settlement at Avignon.
The "Babylonish Captivity."

See PAPACY: A. D. 1294-1348, to 1352-1378.

ROME: A. D. 1312.
Resistance to the entry and coronation of Henry VII.

See ITALY: A. D. 1310-1313.

ROME: A. D. 1328.
Imperial coronation of Louis IV. of Bavaria.

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

{2749}

ROME: A. D. 1347-1354.
The revolution of Rienzi, the last Tribune.

"The Holy City had no government. She was no longer the
Imperial Rome, nor the Pontifical Rome. The Teutonic Cæsars
had abandoned her. The Popes had also fled from the sacred
hill of the Vatican to the slimy Gallic city, Avignon. … The
real masters of the city were the princes or barons, who dwelt
in their fortified castles in the environs, or their strong
palaces within. The principal among them were masters of
different parts of the city. The celebrated old family of the
Colonnas reigned, it may be said, over the north of the city,
towards the Quirinal. … The new family of the Orsini extended
their sway along the Tiber from the Campo-di-Fiore, to the
Church of St. Peter, comprising the castle of St. Angelo. The
Savelli, less powerful, possessed a part of the Aventine, with
the theatre of Marcellus, and the Conti, the huge tower which
bears their name, on Cæsar's Forum. Other members of the
nobility, in the country, were possessors of small fortified
cities, or castles. … Rome, subjected to such a domination,
had become almost deserted. The population of the seven-hilled
city had come down to about 30,000 souls. When the barons were
at peace with each other, which, however, was a rare
occurrence, they combined to exercise their tyranny over the
citizens and the serfs, to rob and plunder the farmers,
travellers, and pilgrims. Petrarch wrote to the Pope at this
period, that Rome had become the abode of demons, the
receptacle of all crimes, a hell for the living. … Rienzi was
then 28 years old. … His function of notary (assessore) to the
Roman tribunals, would seem to infer that he was considered a
peaceful, rational citizen. It appears, however, that he
brought in the exercise of his official duties, the excited
imagination and generosity of heart which characterized his
nature. He gloried in being surnamed the Consul of orphans, of
widows, and of the poor. His love for the humble soon became
blended with an intense hatred for the great: one of his
brothers was killed accidentally by a Roman baron, without his
being able to obtain any satisfaction. … Rienzi had always
been noted for his literary and poetical taste; he was
considered as deeply versed in the knowledge of antiquity, and
as the most skilful in deciphering and explaining the numerous
inscriptions with which Rome abounded. … The least remains of
antiquity became for him a theme of declamatory addresses to
the people, on the present state of Rome, on the iniquities
that surrounded him. Followed by groups that augmented daily,
and which listened to him with breathless interest, he led
them from ruin to ruin, to the Forum, to the tombs of the
Christian martyrs, thus associating every glory, and made the
hearts of the people throb by his mystical eloquence. … No
remedy being brought to the popular grievances, an
insurrection broke out. The senator was expelled; thirteen
good men (buoni uomini) were installed in the Capitol and
invested with dictatorial powers. It was a Guelfic movement;
Rienzi was mixed with it; but without any preeminent
participation. This new government resolved to send an embassy
to the Pope, at Avignon, and Rienzi formed part of it. Such
was the first real public act in the life of Cola di Rienzi.
The embassy was joined by Petrarch. … The Pope would not hear
of leaving his new splendid palace, and the gentle population
of Avignon, for the heap of ruins and the human turbulence of
Rome." But "Cardinal Aymeric was named to represent the Pope
at Rome, as Legate, and a Colonna and an Orsini invested with
the senatorial dignity, in order to restore order in the
Eternal City, in the name of the Pontiff. Rienzi indulged in
the most extravagant exultation. He wrote a highly
enthusiastic address to the Roman people. But his illusion was
not of long duration. The new Legate only attended to the
filling of the Papal Treasury. The nobility, protected by the
new senators, continued their course of tyranny. Rienzi
protested warmly against such a course of iniquities, in the
council. One day he spoke with a still greater vehemence of
indignation, when one of the members of the council struck him
in the face, others hissed out at him sneeringly, calling him
the Consul of orphans and widows. From that day he never
appeared at any of its meetings; his hatred had swollen, and
must explode. … He went straight to the people (popolo
minuto), and prepared a revolution. To render his exhortations
to the people more impressive, he made use of large
allegorical pictures, hastily drawn, and which form a curious
testimony of his mystical imagination, as well as of his
forensic eloquence. … Finally, he convoked the people at the
Capitol for the 20th of May, 1347, the day of Pentecost,
namely, under the invocation of the Holy Ghost. Rienzi had
heard, with fervour, thirty masses during the preceding night.
On that day he came out at 12 o'clock armed, with his head
uncovered, followed by 25 partisans; three unfurled standards
were carried before him, bearing allegorical pictures. This
time his address was very brief—merely stating, that from his
love for the Pope and the salvation of the people, he was
ready to encounter any danger. He then read the laws which
were to insure the happiness of Rome. They were, properly
speaking, a summary of reforms, destined to relieve the people
from their sufferings, and intended to realize, what he
proclaimed, must become the good state [or Good Estate], il
buono stato. … By this outline of a new constitution, the
people were invested, with the property and government of the
city as well as of its environs; the Pontifical See, bereft of
the power it had exercised during several centuries; and the
nobility deprived of what they considered as their property,
to assist the public poverty. The revolution could not be more
complete; and it is needless to add, that Rienzi was
clamorously applauded, and immediately invested with full
powers to realize and organize the buono stato, of which he
had given the programme. He declined the title of Rector, and
preferred the more popular name of Tribune. Nothing was fixed
as to the duration of this extraordinary popular magistracy.
The new government was installed at the Capitol, the Senators
expelled, and the whole revolution executed with such
rapidity, that the new Tribune might well be strengthened in
his belief that he was acting under the protection of the Holy
Ghost. He was careful, nevertheless, not to estrange the
Pontifical authority, and requested that the apostolical vicar
should be offered to be adjoined to him, which the prelate
accepted, however uncertain and perilous the honour appeared
to be.
{2750}
During the popular enthusiasm, old Stephen Colonna, with the
more formidable of the barons, who had been away, returned to
Rome in haste; he expressed publicly his scorn, and when the
order came from Rienzi for him to quit the city, he replied
that he would soon come and throw that madman out of one of
the windows of the Capitol. Rienzi ordered the bells to be
rung, the people instantly assembled in arms, and that
proudest of the barons was obliged to fly to Palestrina. The
next day it was proclaimed that all the nobles were to come,
to swear fealty to the Roman people, and afterwards withdraw
to their castles, and protect the public roads. John, the son
of old Colonna, was the first who presented himself at the
Capitol, but it was with the intention of braving and
insulting the Tribune. When he beheld the popular masses in
close array, he felt awed, and took the oath to protect the
people—protect the roads—succour the widows and orphans, and
obey the summons of the Tribune. The Orsini, Savelli, Gaetani,
and many others, came after him and followed his example.
Rienzi, now sole master, without opponents, gave a free course
to the allurements of authority. … The tolls, taxes, and
imposts which pressed upon the people were abolished by
Rienzi, in the first instance, and afterwards, the taxes on
the bridges, wine, and bread; but he endeavoured to compensate
such an enormous deficit by augmenting the tax on salt, which
was not yet unpopular, besides an impost on funded property.
He was thus making hasty, serious, even dangerous engagements
with the people, which it might not be in his power to keep. …
For the present, calmness and security were reigning in the
city. … The Tribune received the congratulations of all the
ambassadors; the changes he had effected appeared miraculous.
… He believed implicitly that he was the founder of a new era.
The homage profusely lavished upon him by all the Italian
Republics, and even by despotic sovereigns confirmed him in
his conviction. … One nobleman alone, the Prefect of Vico,
secretly supported by the agent of the Pontifical patrimony,
refused to submit and to surrender the three or four little
cities in his jurisdiction. Rienzi led rapidly against him an
army of 8,000 men, and attacked the rebellious Prefect so
suddenly and skilfully, that the latter surrendered
unconditionally. This success inflamed the head and
imagination of Rienzi, and with it commenced the mystical
extravagances and follies which could not fail to cause his
ruin."

_Prof. De Vericour,
Rienzi, the last of the Tribunes
Dublin University Magazine, 1860._

_Eclectic Magazine,
September, 1860._

"Rienzi's head was turned by his success. He assumed the pomp
of a sovereign. He distributed titles, surrounded himself with
ceremonies, and multiplied feasts and processions. … He
desired to be ennobled, and to have the title of Knight, as
well as Tribune. To celebrate his installation as Knight, a
splendid series of ceremonies was arranged," at the end of
which he "made an address, in which he cited the Pope, and
Lewis of Bavaria, and Charles of Bohemia, to give reasons for
any claims they had on Rome; and pointing his sword to three
points of the compass, he exclaimed, 'This is mine, and this
is mine, and this is mine.' … Folly had quite got the better
of him now, and his vanity was leading him swiftly to ruin. …
Shortly afterwards he issued a proclamation that he had
discovered a conspiracy against the people and himself, and
declared that he would cut off the heads of all those
concerned in it. The conspirators were seized and brought
forward, and among them were seen the chief of the princely
families of Rome. Solemn preparations were made for their
execution, when Rienzi, suddenly and without reason, not only
pardoned them all, but conferred upon them some of the most
important charges and offices of the state. No sooner were
these nobles and princes free out of Rome than they began
seriously to conspire to overthrow Rienzi and his government.
They assembled their soldiers, and, after devastating the
country, threatened to march upon Rome itself. The Tribune,
who was no soldier, attempted to intimidate his enemies by
threats; but finding that the people grew clamorous for
action, he at last took up arms, and made a show of advancing
against them. But after a few days, during which he did
nothing except to destroy still more of the Campagna, he
returned to Rome, clothed himself in the Imperial robes,. and
received a legate from the Pope. … His power soon began to
crumble away under him; and when, shortly afterwards, he
endeavoured to prevail upon the people to rise and drive out
the Count of Minorbino, who had set his authority at defiance,
he found that his day was past. … He then ordered the trumpets
of silver to sound, and, clothed in all his pomp, he marched
through Rome, accompanied by his small band of soldiers, and
on the 15th October, 1347, intrenched himself in the Castle
St. Angelo. Still the influence of his name and his power was
so great, that it was not till three days after that the
nobles ventured to return to Rome, and then they found that
Cola's power had vanished. It faded away like a carnival
pageant, as that gay procession entered the Castle St. Angelo.
There he remained until the beginning of March, and then fled,
and found his way to Civita Vecchia, where he stayed with a
nephew of his for a short time. But his nephew having been
arrested, he again returned to Rome secretly, and was
concealed in Castle St. Angelo by one of the Orsini who was
friendly to him and his party. … Cola soon after fled to
Naples, fearing lest he should be betrayed into the hands of
the Cardinals. Rome now fell into a state of anarchy and
confusion even worse than when he assumed the reins of power.
Revolutions occurred. Brigandage was renewed. … In 1353 Rienzi
returned with Cardinal Albornos, the legate of the Pope. He
was received with enthusiasm, and again installed in power.
But he was embarrassed in all his actions by the Cardinal, who
sought only to make use of him, while he himself exercised all
the power. The title of Senator of Rome was conferred on him,
and the people forgave him. … But Rienzi had lost the secret
of his power in losing his enthusiasm. … At last, in October
1353, a sedition broke out, and the mob rushed to the Capitol
with cries of 'Death to the traitor Rienzi!' … He appeared on
the balcony clothed in his armour as Knight, and, with the
standard of the people in his hand, demanded to be heard. But
the populace refused to listen to him. … At last he decided to
fly. Tearing off his robes, he put on the miserable dress of
the porter, rushed down the flaming stairs and through the
burning chambers, … and at last reached the third floor. … At
this very moment his arm was seized, and a voice said, 'Where
are you going?' He saw that all was lost.
{2751}
But, at bay, he did nothing mean. Again there was a flash of
heroic courage, not unworthy of him. He threw off his
disguise, and disdaining all subterfuges, said, 'I am the
Tribune!' He was then led out through the door … to the base
of the basalt lions, where he had made his first great call
upon the people. Standing there, undaunted by its tumultuous
cries, he stood for an hour with folded arms, and looked
around upon the raging crowd. At last, profiting by a lull of
silence, he lifted his voice to address them, when suddenly an
artisan at his side, fearing perhaps the result of his
eloquence, and perhaps prompted by revenge, plunged his pike
in his breast, and he fell. The wild mob rushed upon his
corpse."

_W. W. Story,
Castle St. Angelo,
chapter 4._

ALSO IN:
_H. H. Milman,
History of Latin Christianity,
book 12, chapters 10-11 (volume 5)._

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 70._

ROME: A. D. 1367-1369.
Temporary return of Urban V. from Avignon.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1352-1378.

ROME: A. D. 1377-1379.
Return of the Papal court.
Election of Urban VI. and the Great Schism.
Battles in the city.
Siege and partial destruction of Castle St. Angelo.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1377-1417.

ROME: A. D. 1405-1414.
Rising in the city and flight of Pope Innocent VII.
Sacking of the Vatican.
Surrender of the city to Ladislas, king of Naples.
Expulsion of the Neapolitans and their return.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1386-1414.

ROME: A. D. 1447-1455.
The pontificate of Nicolas V.
Building of the Vatican Palace and
founding of the Vatican Library.
The Porcaro revolt.

See ITALY: A. D. 1447-1480.

ROME: A. D. 1492-1503.
Under the Borgias.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1471-1513.

ROME: A. D. 1494.
Charles VIII. and the French army in the city.

See ITALY: A. D. 1494-1496.

ROME: A. D. 1526.
The city taken and the Vatican plundered
by the Colonnas and the Spaniards.

See ITALY: A. D. 1523-1527.

ROME: A. D. 1527.
The capture and the sacking of the city
by the army of Constable Bourbon.
Captivity of the Pope.

See ITALY: A. D. 1523-1527; 1527; and 1527-1529.

ROME: A. D. 1537-1563.
Inclinations towards the Reformation.
Catholic reaction.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1537-1563.

ROME: A. D. 1600-1656.
The great families and the Roman population.

"A numerous, powerful, and wealthy aristocracy surrounded the
papal throne; the families already established imposed
restraints ou those that were but newly rising; from the
self-reliance and authoritative boldness of monarchy, the
ecclesiastical sovereignty was passing to the deliberation,
sobriety, and measured calmness of aristocratic government. …
There still flourished those old and long-renowned Roman
races, the Savelli, Conti, Orsini, Colonna, and Gaetani. … The
Colonna and Orsini made it their boast, that for centuries no
peace had been concluded between the princes of Christendom,
in which they had not been included by name. But however
powerful these houses may have been in earlier times, they
certainly owed their importance in those now before us to
their connection with the Curia and the popes. … Under
Innocent X., there existed for a considerable time, as it
were, two great factions, or associations of families. The
Orsini, Cesarini, Borghesi, Aldobrandini, Ludovisi, and
Giustiniani were with the Pamfili; while opposed to them, was
the house of Colonna and the Barberini. … In the middle of the
seventeenth century there were computed to be fifty noble
families in Rome of three hundred years standing, thirty-five
of two hundred, and sixteen of one hundred years. None were
permitted to claim a more ancient descent, or were generally
traced to an obscure, or even a low origin. … But by the side
of the old families there rose up various new ones. All the
cardinals and prelates of the Curia proceeded according to the
pope's example, and each in proportion to his means employed
the surplus of his ecclesiastical revenue for the
aggrandizement of his kindred, the foundation of a new family.
There were others which had attained to eminence by judicial
appointments, and many were indebted for their elevation to
being employed as bankers in the affairs of the Dataria.
Fifteen families of Florence, eleven from Genoa, nine
Portuguese, and four French, are enumerated as having risen to
more or less consideration by these means, according to their
good fortune or talents; some of them, whose reputation no
longer depended on the affairs of the day, became monarchs of
gold; as for example, the Guicciardini and Doni, who connected
themselves, under Urban VIII., with the Giustiniani, Primi,
and Pallavicini. But even, without affairs of this kind,
families of consideration were constantly repairing to Rome,
not only from Urbino, Rieti, and Bologna, but also from Parma
and Florence. … Returns of the Roman population are still
extant, and by a comparison of the different years, we find a
most remarkable result exhibited, as regards the manner in
which that population was formed. Not that its increase was
upon the whole particularly rapid, this we are not authorized
to assert. In the year 1600 the inhabitants were about
110,000; fifty-six years afterwards they were somewhat above
120,000, an advance by no means extraordinary; but another
circumstance here presents itself which deserves attention. At
an earlier period, the population of Rome had been constantly
fluctuating. Under Paul IV. it had decreased from 80,000 to
50,000; in a score or two of years it had again advanced to
more than 100,000. And this resulted from the fact that the
court was then formed principally of unmarried men, who had no
permanent abode there. But, at the time we are considering,
the population became fixed into settled families. This began
to be the case towards the end of the sixteenth century, but
took place more particularly during the first half of the
seventeenth. … After the return of the popes from Avignon, and
on the close of the schism, the city, which had seemed on the
point of sinking into a mere village, extended itself around
the Curia. But it was not until the papal families had risen
to power and riches—until neither internal discords nor
external enemies were any longer to be feared, and the incomes
drawn from the revenues of the church or state secured a life
of enjoyment without the necessity for labour, that a numerous
permanent population arose in the city."

_L. Ranke.
History of the Popes,
book 8, section 7 (volume 2)._

ROME: A. D. 1797-1798.
French intrigues and occupation of the city.
Formation of the Roman Republic.
Expulsion of the Pope.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1797-1798 (DECEMBER-MAY).

{2752}

ROME: A. D. 1798 (November).
Brief expulsion of the French by the Neapolitans.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

ROME: A. D. 1799.
Overthrow of the Roman Republic.
Expulsion of the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

ROME: A. D. 1800.
The Papal government re-established by Napoleon.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800-1801 (JUNE-FEBRUARY).

ROME: A. D. 1808-1809.
Napoleon's quarrel with the Pope.
Captivity of Pius VII.
French occupation.
Declared to be a free and imperial city.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1808-1814.

ROME: A. D. 1810.
The title of King of Rome given to Napoleon's son.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1808-1814.

ROME: A. D. 1813.
Papal Concordat with Napoleon.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1808-1814.

ROME: A. D. 1814.
Occupation by Murat for the Allies.
Return of the Pope.

See ITALY: A. D. 1814:
and PAPACY: A. D. 1808-1814.

ROME: A. D. 1815.
Restoration of the works of art taken by Napoleon.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JULY-NOVEMBER).

ROME: A. D. 1831-1832.
Revolt of the Papal States, suppressed by Austrian troops.

See ITALY: A. D. 1830-1832.

ROME: A. D. 1846-1849.
Liberal reforms of Pope Pius IX.
His breach with the extremists.
Revolution, and flight of the Pope.
Intervention of France.
Garibaldi's defense of the city.
Its capture and occupation by the French.
Overthrow of the Roman Republic.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

ROME: A. D. 1859-1861.
First consequences of the Austro-Italian war.
Absorption of the Papal States in the new kingdom of Italy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

ROME: A. D. 1867-1870.
Garibaldi's attempt.
His defeat at Mentana.
Italian troops in the city.
The king of Italy takes possession of his capital.

See ITALY: A. D. 1867-1870.

ROME: A. D. 1869-1870.
The (Ecumenical Council of the Vatican.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.

ROME: A. D. 1870-1871.
End of Papal Sovereignty.
Occupation of the city as the capital of the kingdom of Italy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1867-1870;
and PAPACY: A. D. 1870.

----------ROME: End--------

ROMERS-WAALE, Naval battle of (1574).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1573-1574.

ROMMANY.

See GYPSIES.

ROMULUS, Legendary founder of Rome.

See ROME: B. C. 753-510.

ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS,
The last Roman Emperor of the old line,
in the West, A. D. 475-476.

RONCAGLIA, The Diets of.

See ITALY: A. D. 961-1039.

RONCESVALLES, The ambuscade of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 778.

ROOD, Holy (or Black Rood) of Scotland.

See HOLY ROOD OF SCOTLAND.

ROOF OF THE WORLD.

The Pamir high plateau, which is a continuation of the Bolor
range, is called by the natives "Bamiduniya," or the Roof of
the World.

_T. E. Gordon,
The Roof of the World,
chapter 9._

ROOSEBECK OR ROSEBECQUE, Battle of (1382).

See FLANDERS: A. D. 1382.

ROOT AND BRANCH BILL, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1641 (MARCH-MAY).

RORKE'S DRIFT, Defense of (1879).

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1877-1879.

ROSAS, OR ROSES: A. D. 1645-1652.
Siege and capture by the French.
Recovery by the Spaniards.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1644-1646; and 1648-1652.

ROSAS, OR ROSES: A. D. 1808.
Siege and capture by the French.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808-1809 (DECEMBER-MARCH).

ROSBACH, OR ROSSBACH, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1757 (JULY-DECEMBER).

ROSECRANS, General W. S.:
Command in West Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JULY-NOVEMBER);
and 1861 (AUGUST-DECEMBER: WEST VIRGINIA).

Command of the Army of the Mississippi.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JUNE-OCTOBER: TENNESSEE-KENTUCKY).

Battle of Stone River.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862-1863 (DECEMBER-JANUARY: TENNESSEE).

The Tullahoma campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (JUNE-JULY: TENNESSEE).

Chickamauga.
Chattanooga campaign.
Displacement.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: TENNESSEE)
ROSECRANS'S ADVANCE;
and (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE)

Command in Missouri.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MARCH-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

ROSES, Wars of the.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

ROSETTA STONE.

"The Rosetta Stone is a fragment of a stela discovered in the
year 1799 by M. Boussard, a French artillery officer, while
digging entrenchments round the town of that name. It contains
a copy of a decree made by the priests of Egypt, assembled at
Memphis, in honour of Ptolemy Epiphanes. This decree is
engraved on the stone in three languages, or rather in three
different writings. The first is the hieroglyphic, the grand
old writing of the monuments; the second is the demotic
character as used by the people; and the third is the Greek.
But the text in Greek character is the translation of the two
former. Up to this time, hieroglyphs had remained an
impenetrable mystery even for science. But a corner of the
veil was about to be lifted: in proceeding from the known to
the unknown, the sense at all events was at length to be
arrived at of that mysterious writing which had so long defied
all the efforts of science. Many erudite scholars tried to
solve the mystery, and Young, among others, very nearly
brought his researches to a satisfactory issue. But it was
Champollion's happy lot to succeed in entirely tearing a way
the veil. Such is the Rosetta Stone, which thus became the
instrument of one of the greatest discoveries which do honour
to the nineteenth century."

_A. Mariette-Bey,
Monuments of Upper Egypt (Itinéraire)
page 29._

See, also, HIEROGLYPHICS.

ROSICRUCIANS. ILLUMINATI.

"About the year 1610, there appeared anonymously a little
book, which excited great sensation throughout Germany. It was
entitled, The Discovery of the Brotherhood of the Honourable
Order of the Rosy Cross, and dedicated to all the scholars and
magnates of Europe. It commenced with an imaginary dialogue
between the Seven Sages of Greece, and other worthies of
antiquity, on the best method of accomplishing a general
reform in those evil times.
{2753}
The suggestion of Seneca is adopted, as most feasible, namely
a secret confederacy of wise philanthropists, who shall labour
everywhere in unison for this desirable end. The book then
announces the actual existence of such an association. One
Christian Rosen Kreuz, whose travels in the East had enriched
him with the highest treasures of occult lore, is said to have
communicated his wisdom, under a vow of secrecy, to eight
disciples, for whom he erected a mysterious dwelling-place
called The Temple of the Holy Ghost. It is stated further,
that this long-hidden edifice had been at last discovered, and
within it the body of Rosen Kreuz, untouched by corruption,
though, since his death, 120 years had passed away. The
surviving disciples of the institute call on the learned and
devout, who desire to co-operate in their projects of reform,
to advertise their names. They themselves indicate neither
name nor place of rendezvous. They describe themselves as true
Protestants. They expressly assert that they contemplate no
political movement in hostility to the reigning powers. Their
sole aim is the diminution of the fearful sum of human
suffering, the spread of education, the advancement of
learning, science, universal enlightenment, and love.
Traditions and manuscripts in their possession have given them
the power of gold-making, with other potent secrets; but by
their wealth they set little store. They have arcana, in
comparison with which the secret of the alchemist is a trifle.
But all is subordinate, with them, to their one high purpose
of benefiting their fellows both in body and soul. … I could
give you conclusive reasons, if it would not tire you to hear
them, for the belief that this far-famed book was written by a
young Lutheran divine named Valentine Andreä. He was one of
the very few who understood the age, and had the heart to try
and mend it. … This Andreä writes the Discovery of the
Rosicrucian Brotherhood, a jeu-d'esprit with a serious
purpose, just as an experiment to see whether something cannot
be done by combined effort to remedy the defect and
abuses—social, educational, and religious, so lamented by all
good men. He thought there were many Andreäs scattered
throughout Europe—how powerful would be their united
systematic action! … Many a laugh, you may be sure, he enjoyed
in his parsonage with his few friends who were in the secret,
when they found their fable everywhere swallowed greedily as
unquestionable fact. On all sides they heard of search
instituted to discover the Temple of the Holy Ghost. Printed
letters appeared continually, addressed to the imaginary
brotherhood, giving generally the initials of the candidate,
where the invisibles might hear of him, stating his motives
and qualifications for entrance into their number, and
sometimes furnishing samples of his cabbalistic acquirements.
Still, no answer. Not a trace of the Temple. Profound darkness
and silence, after the brilliant flash which had awakened so
many hopes. Soon the mirth grew serious. Andreä saw with
concern that shrewd heads of the wrong sort began to scent his
artifice, while quacks reaped a rogue's harvest from it. … A
swarm of impostors pretended to belong to the Fraternity, and
found a readier sale than ever for their nostrums. Andreä
dared not reveal himself. All he could do was to write book
after book to expose the folly of those whom his handiwork had
so befooled, and still to labour on, by pen and speech, in
earnest aid of that reform which his unhappy stratagem had
less helped than hindered. … Confederacies of pretenders
appear to have been organized in various places; but Descartes
says he sought in vain for a Rosicrucian lodge in Germany. The
name Rosicrucian became by degrees a generic term, embracing
every species of occult pretension,—arcana, elixirs, the
philosopher's stone, theurgic ritual, symbols, initiations. In
general usage the term is associated more especially with that
branch of the secret art which has to do with the creatures of
the elements. … And from this deposit of current mystical
tradition sprang, in great measure, the Freemasonry and
Rosicrucianism of the 18th century,—that golden age of secret
societies. Then flourished associations of every imaginable
kind, suited to every taste. … Some lodges belonged to
Protestant societies, others were the implements of the
Jesuits. Some were aristocratic, like the Strict Observance;
others democratic, seeking in vain to escape an Argus-eyed
police. Some—like the Illuminati under Weishaupt Knigge, and
Von Zwackh, numbering (among many knaves) not a few names of
rank, probity, and learning—were the professed enemies of
mysticism and superstition. Others existed only for the
profitable juggle of incantations and fortune-telling. … The
best perished at the hands of the Jesuits, the worst at the
hands of the police."

_R. A. Vaughan,
Hours with the Mystics,
book 8, chapter 9 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_F. C. Schlosser,
History of the 18th Century,
volume 4, pages 483-504._

_T. Frost,
The Secret Societies of the European Revolution,
volume 1, chapter 1._

_A. P. Marras,
Secret Fraternities of the Middle Ages,
chapter 8._

ROSLIN, Battle of.

One of the minor battles fought in the Scottish "war of
independence," with success to the Scots, A. D. 1302.

ROSSBACH, ROSBACH, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1757 (JULY-DECEMBER).

ROSSBRUNN, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

ROSTOCK:
The founding of the city.

See HANSA TOWNS.

ROSY CROSS, The Honourable Order of the.

See ROSICRUCIANS.

ROTENNU, RUTENNU, RETENNU, The.

"The Syrian populations, who, to the north of the Canaanites
[17th century B. C.], occupied the provinces called in the
Bible by the general name of Aram, as far as the river
Euphrates, belonged to the confederation of the Rotennu, or
Retennu, extending beyond the river and embracing all
Mesopotamia ( Naharaina). … The Rotennu had no well-defined
territory, nor even a decided unity of race. They already
possessed powerful cities, such as Nineveh and Babylon, but
there were still many nomadic tribes within the ill-defined
limits of the confederacy. Their name was taken from the city
of Resen, apparently the most ancient, and originally the most
important, city of Assyria. The germ of the Rotennu
confederation was formed by the Semitic Assyro-Chaldæan
people, who were not yet welded into a compact monarchy."

_F. Lenormant,
Manual of the Ancient History of the East,
book 3, chapter 3._

ROTHIERE, Battle of La.

See FRANCE A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

{2754}

ROTOMAGUS.
Modern Rouen.

See BELGÆ.

RÖTTELN: Capture by Duke Bernhard (1638).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

ROTTEN BOROUGHS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1830; and 1830-1832.

ROTTWEIL: Siege and capture by the French (1643).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1643-1644.

----------ROUEN: Start--------

ROUEN:
Origin of the city and name.

See BELGÆ.

ROUEN: A. D. 841.
First destructive visit of the Northmen.

See NORMANS: A. D. 841.

ROUEN: A. D. 845.
Second capture by the Northmen.

See PARIS: A. D.845.

ROUEN: A. D. 876-91 I.
Rollo's settlement.

See NORMANS: A. D. 876-911.

ROUEN: A. D. 1418-1419.
Siege and capture by Henry V. of England.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1417-1422.

ROUEN: A. D. 1431.
The burning of the Maid of Orleans.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1429-1431.

ROUEN: A. D. 1449.
Recovery from the English.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1431-1453.

ROUEN: A. D. 1562.
Occupied by the Huguenots and retaken by the Catholics.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1560-1563.

ROUEN: A. D. 1591-1592.
Siege by Henry IV., raised by the Duke of Parma.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1591-1593.

ROUEN: A. D. 1870.
Taken by the Germans.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.

----------ROUEN: End--------

ROUM, ICONIUM, NICÆA, The Sultans of.

See TURKS (THE SELJUKS): A. D. 1073-1092.

ROUMANI, ROMÚNI, The.

See DACCA: A. D. 102-106.

ROUMANIA.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14-18TH CENTURIES.

ROUMELIA, Eastern.

See TURKS: A. D. 1878,
TREATIES OF SAN STEFANO AND MADRID;
and BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: A. D. 1878, to 1878-1886.

ROUND TABLE, Knights of the.

See ARTHUR, KING.

ROUND TOWERS OF IRELAND.

"At various periods between the sixth and twelfth centuries
(some of them still later, but the greater number, perhaps, in
the ninth and tenth centuries), were erected those singular
buildings, the round towers, which have been so enveloped in
mystery by the arguments and conjectures of modern
antiquaries. … The real uses of the Irish round towers, both
as belfries and as ecclesiastical keeps or castles, have been
satisfactorily established by Dr. Petrie, in his important and
erudite work on the ecclesiastical architecture of Ireland. …
These buildings were well contrived to supply the clergy with
a place of safety for themselves, the sacred vessels, and
other objects of value, during the incursions of the Danes,
and other foes; and the upper stories, in which there were
four windows, were perfectly well adapted for the ringing of
the largest bells then used in Ireland."

_M. Haverty,
History of Ireland,
page 115._

ALSO IN:
_S. Bryant,
Celtic Ireland,
chapter 7._

ROUNDHEADS.

The Parliamentary or popular party in the great English civil
war were called Roundheads because they generally wore their
hair cut short, while the Cavaliers of the king's party held
to the fashion of flowing locks. According to the
Parliamentary clerk Rushworth, the first person who applied
the name was one David Hyde, who threatened a mob of citizens
which surrounded the Houses of Parliament on the 27th of
December, 1641, crying "No Bishops," that he would "cut the
throats of these round-headed dogs."

_D. Masson,
Life of John Milton,
volume 2, book 2, chapter 6._

ALSO IN:
_Mrs. Hutchinson,
Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson (1642)._

See, also, ENGLAND: A. D. 1641 (OCTOBER).

ROUSSEAU, and educational reform.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS, &c.: A. D. 1762.

ROUSSILLON: A. D. 1639.
Situation of the county.
Invasion by the French.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1037-1640.

ROUSSILLON: A. D. 1642.
French conquest.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1640-1642.

ROUSSILLON: A. D. 1659.
Ceded to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

ROUTIERS The.

See WHITE HOODS OF FRANCE.

ROXOLANI, The.