Chapter LXXVIII: Act 8: Parliament 1. repeated in Act 99. Parliament 7 (4)

"After a reign of fifty-five years, Chammurabi [or Hammurabi]
bequeathed the crown of Babylon and the united kingdoms of
Babylonia to his son Samsu-iluna (B. C. 2209-2180). This
ruler, reigning in the spirit of his father, developed still
further the national system of canalization. … Five kings
after Chammurabi, till 2098 B. C., complete the list of the
eleven kings of this first dynasty, who reigned in all 304
years. The epoch made memorable by the deeds and enterprise of
Chammurabi is followed by a period of 368 years, of the
occurrences of which absolutely nothing is known, except the
names and regnal years of another list of eleven kings
reigning in the city of Babylon. … The foreign non-Semitic
race, which for nearly six centuries (c. 1730-1153), from this
time onward, held a controlling place in the affairs of
Babylonia, are referred to in the inscriptions by the name
Kassē. These Kasshites came from the border country between
Northern Elam and Media, and were in all probability of the
same race as the Elamites. The references to them make them
out to be both mountaineers and tent-dwellers. … The political
sway of the foreign masters was undisputed, but the genius of
the government and the national type of culture and forms of
activity were essentially unchanged. … Through century after
century, and millennium after millennium, the dominant genius
of Babylonia remained the same. It conquered all its
conquerors, and moulded them to its own likeness by the force
of its manifold culture, by the appliances as well as the
prestige of the arts of peace. … The Babylonians were not able
to maintain perpetually their political autonomy or integrity,
not because they were not brave or patriotic," but because
"they were not, first and foremost, a military people. Their
energies were mainly spent in trade and manufacture, in
science and art. … The time which the native historiographers
allow to the new [Kasshite] dynasty is 577 years. … This
Kasshite conquest of Babylonia … prevented the consolidation
of the eastern branch of the Semites, by alienating from
Babylonia the Assyrian colonists. … Henceforth there was
almost perpetual rivalry and strife between Assyria and the
parent country. Henceforth, also, it is Assyria that becomes
the leading power in the West."

_J. F. McCurdy,
History, Prophecy and the Monuments,
book 2, chapter 3,
and book 4, chapter 1 (volume 1)._

"The Kassites gave a dynasty to Babylonia which lasted for 576
years (B. C. 1806-1230). The fact that the rulers of the
country were Kassites by race, and that their army largely
consisted of Kassite troops, caused the neighbouring
populations to identify the Babylonians with their conquerors
and lords. Hence it is that in the tablets of Tel el-Amarna,
the Canaanite writers invariably term the Babylonians the
'Kasi.' The 'Kasi' or Cush, we are told, had overrun Palestine
in former years and were again threatening the Egyptian
province. In calling Nimrod, therefore, a son of Cush the Book
of Genesis merely means that he was a Babylonian. But the
designation takes us back to the age of the Tel el-Amarna
tablets. It was not a designation which could have belonged to
that later age, when the Babylonians were known to the
Israelites as the 'Kasdim' only. Indeed there is a passage in
the Book of Micah (chapter 5) which proves plainly that in
that later age 'the land of Nimrod' was synonymous not with
Babylonia but with Assyria. The Nimrod of Genesis must have
come down to us from the time when the Kassite dynasty still
reigned over Babylonia. …
{2891}
Nimrod was not satisfied with his Babylonian dominions. 'Out
of that land he went forth into Assyria, and builded Nineveh,
and Rehoboth 'Ir (the city boulevards), and Calah and Resen.'
… The city of Asshur had been long in existence when Nimrod
led his Kassite followers to it, and so made its
'high-priests' tributary to Babylon. It stood on the high-road
to the west, and it is not surprising, therefore, that the
Kassite kings, after making themselves masters of the future
kingdom of Assyria, should have continued their victorious
career as far as the shores of the Mediterranean. We may
conjecture that Nimrod was the first of them who planted his
power so firmly in Palestine as to be remembered in the
proverbial lore of the country, and to have introduced that
Babylonian culture of which the Tel el-Amarna tablets have
given us such abundant evidence."

_A. H. Sayce,
The Higher Criticism, and the Verdict of the Monuments,
chapter 3._

It was during the Kasshite domination in Babylonia that Ahmes,
founder of the eighteenth dynasty in Egypt, expelled the
Hyksos intruders from that country; and "his successors,
returning upon Asia the attack which they had thence received,
subjugating, or rather putting to ransom, all the Canaanites
of Judea, Phœnicia, and Syria, crossed the Euphrates and the
Tigris.

See EGYPT: ABOUT B. C. 1700-1400.

Nineveh twice fell into their power, and the whole Semitic
world became vassal to the Pharaohs. The influence of Egypt
was real though temporary, but in the reciprocal dealings
which were the result of the conquests of the Tutnes [or
Thothmes] and the Amenhoteps, the share of the Semites was on
the whole the larger. Marriages with the daughters of kings or
vassal governors brought into Egypt and established Asiatic
types, ideas, and customs on the Theban throne. Amenhotep IV.
was purely Semitic; he endeavoured to replace the religion of
Ammon by the sun-worship of Syria. In 1887 were discovered the
fragments of a correspondence exchanged between the kings of
Syria, Armenia, and Babylonia, and the Pharaohs Amenhotep III.
and IV.

See EGYPT: ABOUT B. C. 1500-1400.

All these letters are written in cuneiform character and in
Semitic or other dialects; it is probable that the answers
were drawn up in the same character and in the same languages.
For the rest, the subjugated nations had soon recovered.
Saryoukm I. had reconstituted the Chaldean empire; the
Assyrians, ever at war on their eastern and western frontiers,
had more than once crossed the Upper Euphrates and penetrated
Asia Minor as far as Troad, where the name Assaracus seems to
be a relic of an Assyrian dynasty. The Hittites or Khetas
occupied the north of Syria; and when Ramses II., Sesostris,
desired in the 15th century to renew the exploits of his
ancestors, he was checked at Kadech by the Hittites and forced
to retreat after an undecided battle. The great expansion of
Egypt was stopped, at least towards the north. The Semitic
peoples, on the contrary, were everywhere in the ascendant."

_A. Lefèvre,
Race and Language,
pages 205-206._

SEMITES:
The Assyrian Empire.

"According to all appearance it was the Egyptian conquest
about sixteen centuries B. C., that led to the partition of
Mesopotamia. Vassals of Thothmes and Rameses, called by
Berosus the 'Arab kings,' sat upon the throne of Babylon. The
tribes of Upper Mesopotamia were farther from Egypt, and their
chiefs found it easier to preserve their independence. At
first each city had its own prince, but in time one of these
petty kingdoms absorbed the rest, and Nineveh became the
capital of an united Assyria. As the years passed away the
frontiers of the nation thus constituted were pushed gradually
southwards until all Mesopotamia was brought under one
sceptre. This consummation appears to have been complete by
the end of the fourteenth century, at which period Egypt,
enfeebled and rolled back upon herself, ceased to make her
influence felt upon the Euphrates. Even then Babylon kept her
own kings, but they had sunk to be little more than hereditary
satraps receiving investiture from Nineveh. Over and over
again Babylon attempted to shake off the yoke of her
neighbour; but down to the seventh century her revolts were
always suppressed, and the Assyrian supremacy re-established
after more or less desperate conflicts. During nearly half a
century, from about 1060 to 1020 B. C., Babylon seems to have
recovered the upper hand. The victories of her princes put an
end to what is called the First Assyrian Empire. But after one
or two generations a new family mounted the northern throne,
and, toiling energetically for a century or so to establish
the grandeur of the monarchy, founded the Second Assyrian
Empire. The upper country regained its ascendency by the help
of military institutions whose details now escape us, although
their results may be traced throughout the later history of
Assyria. From the tenth century onwards the effects of these
institutions become visible in expeditions made by the armies
of Assyria, now to the shores of the Persian Gulf or the
Caspian, and now through the mountains of Armenia into the
plains of Cappadocia, or across the Syrian desert to the
Lebanon and the coast cities of Phœnicia. The first princes
whose figured monuments—in contradistinction to mere
inscriptions—have come down to us, belonged to those days. The
oldest of all was Assurnazirpal, whose residence was at Calach
(Nimroud). The bas-reliefs with which his palace was decorated
are now in the Louvre and the British Museum, most of them in
the latter. … To Assurnazirpal's son Shalmaneser III. belongs
the obelisk of basalt which also stands in the British Museum.
… Shalmaneser was an intrepid man of war. The inscriptions on
his obelisk recall the events of thirty-one campaigns waged
against the neighbouring peoples under the leadership of the
king himself. … Under the immediate successors of Shalmaneser
the Assyrian prestige was maintained at a high level by dint
of the same lavish bloodshed and truculent energy; but towards
the eighth century it began to decline. There was then a
period of languor and decadence, some echo of which, and of
its accompanying disasters, seems to have been embodied by the
Greeks in the romantic tale of Sardanapalus. No shadow of
confirmation for the story of a first destruction of Nineveh
is to be found in the inscriptions, and, in the middle of the
same century, we again find the Assyrian arms triumphant under
the leadership of Tiglath Pileser II., a king modelled after
the great warriors of the earlier days. This prince seems to
have carried his victorious arms as far east as the Indus, and
west as the frontiers of Egypt.
{2892}
And yet it was only under his second successor, Saryoukin, or,
to give him his popular name, Sargon, the founder of a new
dynasty, that Syria, with the exception of Tyre, was brought
into complete submission after a great victory over the
Egyptians (721-704). … His son Sennacherib equalled him both
as a soldier and as a builder. He began by crushing the rebels
of Elam and Chaldæa with unflinching severity; in his anger he
almost exterminated the inhabitants of Babylon, the perennial
seat of revolt; but, on the other hand, he repaired and
restored Nineveh. Most of his predecessors had been absentees
from the capital, and had neglected its buildings. … He chose
a site well within the city for the magnificent palace which
Mr. Layard has been the means of restoring to the world. This
building is now known as Kouyoundjik, from the name of the
village perched upon the mound within which the buildings of
Sennacherib were hidden. Sennacherib rebuilt the walls, the
towers, and the quays of Nineveh at the same time, so that the
capital, which had never ceased to be the strongest and most
populous city of the empire, again became the residence of the
king—a distinction which it was to preserve until the fast
approaching date of its final destruction. The son of
Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and his grandson, Assurbanipal [long
identified with the Sardanapalus of the Greeks; but Prof.
Sayce now finds the Sardanapalus of Greek romance in a rebel
king, Assur-dain-pal, who reigned B. C. 827-820, and whose
name and history fit the tale], pushed the adventures and
conquests of the Assyrian arms still farther. They subdued the
whole north of Arabia, and invaded Egypt more than once. …
There was a moment when the great Semitic Empire founded by
the Sargonides touched even the Ægæan, for Cyges, king of
Lydia, finding himself menaced by the Cimmerians, did homage
to Assurbanipal, and sued for help against those foes to all
civilization."

_G. Perrot and C. Chipiez,
A History of Art in Chaldæa and Assyria,
chapter 1, section 5 (volume 1)._

"The power of Assurbanipal was equal to the task of holding
under control the subjects of Assyria at all points. He boasts
of having compelled the king of Tyre to drink sea-water to
quench his thirst. The greatest opposition he met with was in
Elam, but this too he was able to suppress. … Assurbanipal
says that he increased the tributes, but that his action was
opposed by his own brother, whom he had formerly maintained by
force of arms in Babylon, This brother now seduced a great
number of other nations and princes from their allegiance. …
The king of Babylon placed himself, so to speak, at their
head. … The danger was immensely increased when the king set
up by Assurbanipal in Elam joined the movement. It was
necessary to put an end to this revolt, and this was effected
for once without much difficulty. … Thereupon the rebellious
brother in Babylon has to give way. The gods who go before
Assurbanipal have, as he says, thrust the king of Babylon into
a consuming fire and put an end to his life. His adherents …
are horribly punished. … The provinces which joined them are
subjected to the laws of the Assyrian gods. Even the Arabs,
who have sided with the rebels, bow before the king, whilst of
his power in Egypt it is said that it extended to the sources
of the Nile. His dominion reached even to Asia Minor. …
Assyria is the first conquering power which we encounter in
the history of the world. The most effective means which she
brought to bear in consolidating her conquests consisted in
the transportation of the principal inhabitants from the
subjugated districts to Assyria, and the settlement of
Assyrians in the newly acquired provinces. … The most
important result of the action of Assyria upon the world was
perhaps that she limited or broke up the petty sovereignties
and the local religions of Western Asia. … It was … an event
which convulsed the world when this power, in the full current
of its life and progress, suddenly ceased to exist. Since the
10th century every event of importance had originated in
Assyria; in the middle of the 7th she suddenly collapsed. … Of
the manner in which the ruin of Nineveh was brought about we
have nowhere any authentic record. … Apart from their
miraculous accessories, the one circumstance in which … [most
of the accounts given] agree, is that Assyria was overthrown
by the combination of the Medes and Babylonians. Everything
else that is said on the subject verges on the fabulous; and
even the fact of the alliance is doubtful, since Herodotus,
who lived nearest to the period we are treating of, knows
nothing of it, and ascribes the conquest simply to the Medes."

_L. von Ranke,
Universal History: The Oldest Historical Group of Nations,
chapter 3._

SEMITES:
The last Babylonian Empire and its overthrow.

The story, briefly told, of the alliance by which the Assyrian
monarchy is said to have been overthrown, is as follows: About
626 or 625, B. C., a new revolt broke out in Babylonia, and
the Assyrian king sent a general named Nabu-pal-usur or
Nabopolassar to quell it. Nabu-pal-usur succeeded in his
undertaking, and seems to have been rewarded by being made
governor of Babylon. But his ambition aimed higher, and he
mounted the ancient Babylonian throne, casting off his
allegiance to Assyria and joining her enemies. "He was wise
enough to see that Assyria could not be completely crushed by
one nation, and he therefore made a league with Pharaoh Necho,
of Egypt, and asked the Median king, Cyaxares, to give his
daughter, Amytes, to Nebuchadnezzar, his son, to wife. Thus a
league was made, and about B. C. 609 the kings marched against
Assyria. They suffered various defeats, but eventually the
Assyrian army was defeated, and Shalman, the brother of the
king of Assyria, [was] slain. The united kings then besieged
Nineveh. During the siege the river Tigris rose and carried
away the greater part of the city wall. The Assyrian king
gathered together his wives and property in the palace, and
setting fire to it, all perished in the flames. The enemies
went into the city and utterly destroyed all they could lay
their hands upon. With the fall of Nineveh, Assyria as a power
practically ceased to exist." About 608 B. C. Nebuchadnezzar
succeeded his father on the throne. "When he had become
established in the kingdom he set his various captives, Jews,
Phœnicians, Syrians, and Egyptians, at work to make Babylon
the greatest city in the world. And as a builder he remains
almost unsurpassed."

_E. A. Wallis Budge,
Babylonian Life and History,
chapter 5._

{2893}

"The Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar occupied a square of which each
side was nearly fifteen miles in length, and was bisected by
the Euphrates diagonally from northwest to southeast. This
square was enclosed by a deep moat, flooded from the river.
The clay excavated in digging the moat, moulded into bricks
and laid in bitumen, formed the walls of the city. These
walls, more than 300 feet high and more than 70 thick, and
protected by parapets, afforded a commodious driveway along
their top of nearly 60 miles, needing only aerial bridges over
the Euphrates river. The waters of the river were forced to
flow through the city between quays of masonry which equaled
the walls in thickness and height. The walls were pierced at
equal intervals for a hundred gates, and each gateway closed
with double leaves of ponderous metal, swinging upon bronze
posts built into the wall. Fifty broad avenues, crossing each
other at right angles, joined the opposite gates of the city,
and divided it into a checkerboard of gigantic squares. The
river quays were pierced by 25 gates like those in the outer
walls. One of the streets was carried across the river upon an
arched bridge, another ran in a tunnel beneath the river bed,
and ferries plied continually across the water where the other
streets abutted. The great squares of the city were not all
occupied by buildings. Many of them were used as gardens and
even farms, and the great fertility of the soil, caused by
irrigation, producing two and even three crops a year,
supplied food sufficient for the inhabitants in case of siege.
Babylon was a vast fortified province rather than a city. …
There is a curious fact which I do not remember to have seen
noticed, and of which I will not here venture to suggest the
explanation. Babylon stands in the Book of Revelation as the
emblem of all the abominations which are to be destroyed by
the power of Christ. But Babylon is the one city known to
history which could have served as a model for John's
description of the New Jerusalem: 'the city lying four
square,' 'the walls great and high,' the river which flowed
through the city, 'and in the midst of the street of it, and
on either side of the river the tree of life, bearing twelve
manner of fruits;' 'the foundations of the wall of the city
garnished with all manner of precious stones,' as the base of
the walls inclosing the great palace were faced with glazed
and enameled bricks of brilliant colors, and a broad space
left that they might be seen,—these characteristics, and they
are all unique, have been combined in no other city."

_W. B. Wright,
Ancient Cities,
pages 41-44._

"Undoubtedly, one of the important results already obtained
from the study of the native chronicles of Babylon is the
establishment, on grounds apart from the question of the
authenticity of the Book of Daniel, of the historical
character of Belshazzar. The name of this prince had always
been a puzzle to commentators and historians. The only native
authority on Babylonian history—Berosus—did not appear to
have mentioned such a person. … According to the extracts from
the work of Berosus preserved for us in the writings of these
authors, the following is the history of the last King of
Babylon. His name was Nabonidus, or Nabonedus, and he first
appears as the leader of a band of conspirators who determined
to bring about a change in the government. The throne was then
occupied by the youthful Laborosoarchod (for this is the
corrupt Greek form of the Babylonian Lâbâshi-Marduk), who was
the son of Neriglissar, and therefore, through his mother, the
grandson of the great Nebuchadnezzar; but, in spite of his
tender age, the new sovereign who had only succeeded his
father two months before, had already given proof of a bad
disposition. … When the designs of the conspirators had been
carried out, they appointed Nabonidus king in the room of the
youthful son of Neriglissar. … We next hear that in the
seventeenth year of Nabonidus, Cyrus, who had already
conquered the rest of Asia, marched upon Babylon, B. C. 538.

See PERSIA B. C. 549-521.

The native forces met the Persians in battle, but were put to
flight, with their king at their head, and took refuge behind
the ramparts of Borsippa. Cyrus thereupon entered Babylon, we
are told, and threw down her walls. … Herodotus states that
the last king of Babylon was the son of the great
Nebuchadnezzar—to give that monarch his true name—for in so
doing he bears out, so far as his testimony is of any value,
the words of the Book of Daniel, which not only calls
Belshazzar son of Nebuchadnezzar, but also introduces the wife
of the latter monarch as being the mother of the ill-fated
prince who closed the long line of native rulers. Such being
the only testimony of secular writers, there was no
alternative but to identify Belshazzar with Nabonidus. … Yet
the name Nabonidus stood in no sort of relation to that of
Belshazzar; and the identification of the two personages was,
undoubtedly, both arbitrary and difficult. The cuneiform
inscriptions brought to Europe from the site of Babylon and
other ancient cities of Chaldæa soon changed the aspect of the
problem. … Nabonidus, or, in the native form, Nabu naïd, that
is to say, 'Nebo exalts,' is the name given to the last native
king of Babylon in the contemporary records inscribed on clay.
This monarch, however, was found to speak of his eldest son as
bearing the very name preserved in the Book of Daniel, and
hitherto known to us from that source alone. … 'Set the fear
of thy great godhead in the heart of. Belshazzar, my firstborn
son, my own offspring; and let him not commit sin, in order
that he may enjoy the fulness of life.' … 'Belshazzar, my
firstborn son, … lengthen his days; let him not commit sin. …'
These passages provide us, in an unexpected manner, with the
name which had hitherto been known from the Book of Daniel,
and from that document alone; but we were still in the dark as
to the reason which could have induced the author to represent
Belshazzar as king of Babylon. … In 1882 a cuneiform
inscription was for the first time interpreted and published
by Mr. Pinches; it had been disinterred among the ruins of
Babylon by Mr. Hormuzd Russam. This document proved to contain
the annals of the king whose fate we have just been
discussing—namely, Nabonidus. Though mutilated in parts, it
allowed us to learn some portions of his history, both before
and during the invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus; and one of the
most remarkable facts that it added to our knowledge was that
of the regency—if that term may be used—of the king's son
during the absence of the sovereign from the Court and army.
Here, surely, the explanation of the Book of Daniel was found:
Belshazzar was, at the time of the irruption of the Persians,
acting as his father's representative; he was commanding the
Babylonian army and presiding over the Babylonian Court. When
Cyrus entered Babylon, doubtless the only resistance he met
with was in the royal palace, and there it was probably
slight. In the same night Belshazzar was taken and slain."

_B. T. A. Evetts,
New Light on the Bible and the Holy Land,
chapter 11, part 2._

{2894}

Cyrus the Great, in whose vast empire the Babylonian kingdom
was finally swallowed up, was originally "king of Anzan in
Elam, not of Persia. Anzan had been first occupied, it would
appear, by his great-grandfather Teispes the Achaemenian. The
conquest of Astyages and of his capital Ekbatana took place in
B. C. 549, and a year or two later Cyrus obtained possession
of Persia." Then, B. C. 538, came the conquest of Babylonia,
invited by a party in the country hostile to its king,
Nabonidos. Cyrus "assumed the title of 'King of Babylon,' thus
claiming to be the legitimate descendant of the ancient
Babylonian kings. He announced himself as the devoted
worshipper of Bel and Nebo, who by the command of Merodach had
overthrown the sacrilegious usurper Nabonidos, and he and his
son accordingly offered sacrifices to ten times the usual
amount in the Babylonian temples, and restored the images of
the gods to their ancient shrines. At the same time he allowed
the foreign populations who had been deported to Babylonia to
return to their homes along with the statues of their gods.
Among these foreign populations, as we know from the Old
Testament, were the Jews."

_A. H. Sayce,
Primer of Assyriology,
pages 74-78._

SEMITES:
Hebraic branch.

See JEWS, AMMONITES; MOABITES; and EDOMITES.

SEMITES:
Canaanitic branch.

See JEWS: EARLY HISTORY; and PHŒNICIANS.

SEMITES:
Southern branches.

See ARABIA; ETHIOPIA; and ABYSSINIA.

----------SEMITES: End--------

SEMITIC LANGUAGES.

"There is no stronger or more unchanging unity among any group
of languages than that which exists in the Semitic group. The
dead and living languages which compose it hardly differ from
each other so much as the various Romance or Sclavonic
dialects. Not only are the elements of the common vocabulary
unchanged, but the structure of the word and of the phrase has
remained the same. … The Semitic languages form two great
branches, each subdivided into two groups. The northern branch
comprehends the Aramaic-Assyrian group and the Canaanitish
group; the southern … includes the Arabic group, properly so
called, and the Himyarite group. The name Aramaic is given to
two dialects which are very nearly allied—Chaldean and Syriac.
… The Aramaic which was spoken at the time of Christ was
divided into two sub-dialects: that of Galilee, which
resembled the Syriac pronunciation, and that of Jerusalem, of
which the pronunciation was more marked and nearer to
Chaldean. Jesus and his disciples evidently spoke the dialect
of their country. … Syriac, in its primitive state, is unknown
to us, as also Syro-Chaldean. … Assyrian is a discovery of
this century. … To the Canaanitish group belong Phœnician,
Samaritan, the languages of the left bank of the Jordan,
notably Moabite. … and lastly, Hebrew. The first and the last
of these dialects are almost exactly alike. … Arabic, being
the language of Islam, has deeply penetrated all the Mussulman
nations, Turkish, Persian, and Hindustani. … Himyarite reigned
to the south of Arabic; it was the language of the Queen of
Sheba, and is now well known through a great number of
inscriptions, and is perhaps still spoken under the name of
Ekhili in the district of Marah. … It is in Abyssinia that we
must seek for the last vestiges of Himyarite. Several
centuries before our era, the African coast of the Red Sea had
received Semitic colonies, and a language known as Ghez or
Ethiopian."

_A. Lefèvre,
Race and Language,
pages 213-223._

SEMNONES, The.

"The Semnones were the chief Suevic clan. Their settlements
seem to have been between the Elbe and Oder, coinciding as
nearly as possible with Brandenburg, and reaching possibly
into Prussian Poland."-

_Church and Brodribb,
Geographical Notes to The Germany of Tacitus._

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 213.

SEMPACH, Battle of (1386).

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1386-1388.

SEMPRONIAN LAWS.

The laws proposed and carried at Rome by the Gracchi, who were
of the Sempronian gens, are often so referred to.

See ROME: B. C. 133-121.

SENA, The Druidic oracle of.

A little island called Sena—modern Sein—off the extreme
western coast of Brittany, is mentioned by Pomponius Mela as
the site of a celebrated oracle, consulted by Gaulish
navigators and served by nine virgin priestesses.

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 23, section 2 (volume 2)._

SENATE, Canadian.

See CANADA: A. D. 1867.

SENATE, French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).

SENATE, Roman.

"In prehistoric times, the clans which subsequently united to
form cantons had each possessed a monarchical constitution of
its own. When the clan governments were merged in that of the
canton, the monarchs ('reges') of these clans became senators,
or elders, in the new community. In the case of Rome the
number of senators was three hundred, because in the
beginning, as tradition said, there were three hundred clans.
In regal times the king appointed the senators. Probably, at
first, he chose one from each clan, honoring in this way some
man whose age had given him experience and whose ability made
his opinion entitled to consideration. Afterward, when the
rigidity of the arrangement by clans was lost, the senators
were selected from the whole body of the people, without any
attempt at preserving the clan representation. Primarily the
senate was not a legislative body. When the king died without
having nominated his successor, the senators served
successively as 'interreges' ('kings for an interval'), for
periods of five days each, until a 'rex' was chosen. … This
general duty was the first of the senate's original functions.
Again, when the citizens had passed a law at the suggestion of
the king, the senate had a right ('patrum auctoritas') to veto
it, if it seemed contrary to the spirit of the city's
institutions. Finally, as the senate was composed of men of
experience and ability, the king used to consult it in times
of personal doubt or national danger."

_A. Tighe,
Development of the Roman Constitution,
chapter 3._

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Of the Roman Senate as it became in the great days of the
Republic—at the close of the Punic Wars and after—the
following is an account: "All the acts of the Roman Republic
ran in the name of the Senate and People, as if the Senate
were half the state, though its number seems still to have
been limited to Three Hundred members. The Senate of Rome was
perhaps the most remarkable assembly that the world has ever
seen. Its members held their seats for life; once Senators
always Senators, unless they were degraded for some
dishonourable cause. But the Senatorial Peerage was not
hereditary. No father could transmit the honour to his son.
Each man must win it for himself. The manner in which seats in
the Senate were obtained is tolerably well ascertained. Many
persons will be surprised to learn that the members of this
august body, all —or nearly all—owed their places to the votes
of the people. In theory, indeed, the Censors still possessed
the power really exercised by the Kings and early Consuls, of
choosing the Senators at their own will and pleasure. But
official powers, however arbitrary, are always limited in
practice; and the Censors followed rules established by
ancient precedent. … The Senate was recruited from the lists
of official persons. … It was not by a mere figure of speech
that the minister of Pyrrhus called the Roman Senate 'an
Assembly of Kings.' Many of its members had exercised
Sovereign power; many were preparing to exercise it. The power
of the Senate was equal to its dignity. … In regard to
legislation, they [it] exercised an absolute control over the
Centuriate Assembly, because no law could be submitted to its
votes which had not originated in the Senate. … In respect to
foreign affairs, the power of the Senate was absolute, except
in declaring War or concluding treaties of Peace,—matters
which were submitted to the votes of the People. They assigned
to the Consuls and Prætors their respective provinces of
administration and command; they fixed the amount of troops to
be levied every year from the list of Roman citizens, and of
the contingents to be furnished by the Italian allies. They
prolonged the command of a general or superseded him at
pleasure. … In the administration of home affairs, all the
regulation of religious matters was in their hands. … All the
financial arrangements of the State were left to their
discretion. … They might resolve themselves into a High Court
of Justice for the trial of extraordinary offences."

_H. G. Liddell,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 35 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 6, chapter 2._

See, also, ROME: B. C. 146; and CONSCRIPT FATHERS.

SENATE, United States.

"The Senate is composed of two Senators from each State, and
these Senators are chosen by the State Legislatures. The
representation is then equal, each State having two Senators
and each Senator having one vote; and no difference is made
among the States on account of size, population, or wealth.
The Senate is not, strictly speaking, a popular body, and the
higher qualifications demanded of its members, and the longer
period of service, make it the more important body of the two.
The Senate is presumedly more conservative in its action, and
acts as a safeguard against the precipitate and changing
legislation that is more characteristic of the House of
Representatives, which, being chosen directly by the people,
and at frequent intervals, is more easily affected by and
reflects the prevailing temper of the times. The Senate is
more intimately connected with the Executive than is the lower
body. The President must submit to the Senate for its approval
the treaties he has contracted with foreign powers; he must
ask the advice and consent of the Senate in the appointment of
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the
Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States
whose appointments have not been otherwise provided for. … The
Senate has sole power to try all impeachments, but it cannot
originate proceedings of impeachment. … In case a vacancy
occurs when the State Legislature is not in session, the
governor may make a temporary appointment; but at the next
meeting of the Legislature the vacancy must be filled in the
usual way. The presiding officer of the Senate is the
Vice-President of the United States. He is elected in the same
manner as the President, for were he chosen from the Senate
itself, the equality of representation would be broken. He has
no vote save when the Senate is equally divided, and his
powers are very limited."

_W. C. Ford,
The American Citizen's Manual,
part 1, chapter 1._

ALSO IN:
_The Federalist,
Numbers 62-66._

_J. Story,
Commentaries on the Constitution,
chapter 10 (volume 2)._

_J. Bryce,
The American Commonwealth,
chapters 10-12 (volume 1)._

See, also, CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.

SENATUS-CONSULTUM. SENATUS-DECRETUM.

"A proposition sanctioned by a majority of the [Roman] Senate,
and not vetoed by one of the Tribunes of the Plebs, who might
interrupt the proceedings at any stage, was called
Senatus-Consultum or Senatus-Decretum, the only distinction
between the terms being that the former was more
comprehensive, since Senatus-Consultum might include several
orders or Decreta."

_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 6._

SENCHUS MOR, The.

One of the books of the ancient Irish laws, known as the
Brehon Laws.

SENECAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SENECAS.

SENEFFE, Battle of (1674).

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

SENLAC OR HASTINGS, Battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1066 (OCTOBER).

SENNACHIES.

One of the names given to the Bards, or Ollamhs, of the
ancient Irish.

SENONES, The.

A strong tribe in ancient Gaul whose territory was between the
Loire and the Marne. Their chief town was Agedincum—modern
Sens.

_Napoleon III.,
History of Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 2, foot-note._

The Senones were also prominent among the Gauls which crossed
the Alps, settled Cisalpine Gaul and contested northern Italy
with the Romans.

See ROME: B. C. 390-347, and 295-191.

SENS, Origin of.

See SENONES.

SENTINUM, Battle of (B. C. 295).

See ROME: B. C. 343-290, and B. C. 295-191.

SEPARATISTS.

See INDEPENDENTS.

SEPHARDIM, The.

Jews descended from those who were expelled from Spain in 1492
are called the Sephardim.

See JEWS: 8-15TH CENTURIES.

SEPHARVAIM.

See BABYLONIA: THE EARLY (CHALDEAN) MONARCHY.

SEPHER YETZIRA, The.

See CABALA.

SEPOY: The name.

See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702.

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SEPOY MUTINY,
of 1763, The.

See INDIA: A. D. 1757-1772.

Of 1806.

See INDIA: A. D. 1805-1816.

Of 1857-1858.

See INDIA: A. D. 1857, to 1857-1858 (JULY-JUNE).

SEPT, OR CLAN.

See CLANS.

SEPTA.

See CAMPUS MARTIUS.

SEPTEMBER LAWS, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1830-1840.

SEPTEMBER MASSACRES AT PARIS.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

SEPTENNATE IN FRANCE, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1871-1876.

SEPTENNIAL ACT, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1716.

SEPTIMANIA:
Under the Goths.

See GOTHIA, IN GAUL;
also GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 410-419; and 419-451.

SEPTIMANIA: A. D. 715-718.
Occupation by the Moslems.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-732.

SEPTIMANIA: A. D. 752-759.
Recovery from the Moslems.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 752-759.

SEPTIMANIA: 10th Century.
The dukes and their successors.

See TOULOUSE: 10-11TH CENTURIES.

SEPTUAGINT, The.

"We have in the Septuagint, a Greek version of the Hebrew Old
Testament, the first great essay in translation into Greek, a
solitary specimen of the ordinary language spoken and
understood in those days [at Alexandria 3d century B. C.].
There is a famous legend of the origin of the work by order of
the Egyptian king, and of the perfect agreement of all the
versions produced by the learned men who had been sent at his
request from Judæa. Laying aside these fables, it appears that
the books were gradually rendered for the benefit of the many
Jews settled in Egypt, who seem to have been actually
forgetting their old language. Perhaps Philadelphus gave an
impulse to the thing by requiring a copy for his library,
which seems to have admitted none but Greek books."

_J. P. Mahaffy,
Story of Alexander's Empire,
chapter 14._

ALSO IN:
_W. Robertson Smith,
The Old Testament in the Jewish Church,
lecture 4._

_F. W. Farrar,
History of Interpretation (
Bampton Lectures, 1885), lecture 3._

SEQUANA, The.
The ancient name of the river Seine.

SEQUANI, The.

See GAULS.

SERAI.

See MONGOLS: A. D. 1238-1391.

SERAPEUM, at Alexandria.

See ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 282-246, and A. D. 389;
also LIBRARIES, ANCIENT: ALEXANDRIA.

SERAPEUM, at Memphis.

"The Serapeum is one of the edifices of Memphis [Egypt]
rendered famous by a frequently quoted passage of Strabo, and
by the constant mention made of it on the Greek papyri. It had
long been sought for, and we had the good fortune to discover
it in 1851. Apis, the living image of Osiris revisiting the
earth, was a bull who, while he lived, had his temple at
Memphis (Mitrahenny), and, when dead, had his tomb at
Sakkarah. The palace which the bull inhabited in his lifetime
was called the Apieum; the Serapeum was the name given to his
tomb."

_A. Mariette,
Monuments of Upper Egypt,
page 88._

SERAPHIM, OR "BLUE RIBBON," The order of the.

"There is no doubt whatever of the antiquity of this Order,
yet it is very difficult to arrive at the exact date of the
foundation. General opinion, though without positive proof,
ascribes its origin, about the year 1280, to King Magnus I.
[of Sweden], who is said to have instituted it at the
persuasion of the Maltese Knights. Another account ascribes
the foundation to Magnus's grandson, Magnus Erichson. … King
Frederick I. revived the Order, as also those of the Sword and
North Star, on the 28th April, 1748."

_Sir B. Burke,
The Book of Orders of Knighthood,
page 329._

SERBONIAN BOG.

"There is a lake between Cœlo-Syria and Egypt, very narrow,
but exceeding deep, even to a wonder, two hundred furlongs in
length, called Serbon: if any through ignorance approach it
they are lost irrecoverably; for the channel being very
narrow, like a swaddling-band, and compassed round with vast
heaps of sand, great quantities of it are cast into the lake,
by the continued southern winds, which so cover the surface of
the water, and make it to the view so like unto dry land, that
it cannot possibly be distinguished; and therefore many,
unacquainted with the nature of the place, by missing their
way, have been there swallowed up, together with whole armies.
For the sand being trod upon, sinks down and gives way by
degrees, and like a malicious cheat, deludes and decoys them
that come upon it, till too late, when they see the mischief
they are likely to fall into, they begin to support and help
one another, but without any possibility either of returning
back or escaping certain ruin."

_Diodorus
(Booth's translation)
book 1, chapter 3._

According to Dr. Brugsch, the lake Serbon, or Sirbonis, so
graphically described by Diodorus, but owing its modern
celebrity to Milton's allusion (_Paradise Lost, ii.
502-4_), is in our days almost entirely dried up. He
describes it as having been really a lagoon, on the
northeastern coast of Egypt, "divided from the Mediterranean
by a long tongue of land which, in ancient times, formed the
only road from Egypt to Palestine." It is Dr. Brugsch's theory
that the exodus of the Israelites was by this route and that
the host of Pharaoh perished in the Serbonian quicksands.

_H. Brugsch,
History of Egypt,
volume 2, appendix._

SERBS, The.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES,
7TH CENTURY (SERVIA, CROATIA, ETC.).

SERES.

See CHINA: THE NAMES OF THE COUNTRY.

SERFDOM. SERFS.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL AND MODERN.

SERGIUS I.,
Pope, A. D. 687-701.

Sergius II., Pope, 844-847.

Sergius III., Pope, 904-911.

Sergius IV., Pope, 1009-1012.

SERINGAPATAM: A. D. 1792.
Siege by the English.

See INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793.

SERINGAPATAM: A. D. 1799.
Final capture by the English.
Death of Sultan Tippoo.

See INDIA: A. D. 1798-1805.

SERJEANTS-AT-LAW.

See TEMPLARS: THE ORDER IN ENGLAND.

SERPUL, Treaty of (1868).

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1850-1876.

SERRANO, Ministry and Regency of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1866-1873.

SERTORIUS, in Spain.

See SPAIN: B. C. 83-72.

{2897}

SERVI.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL AND MODERN: ENGLAND; also, CATTANI.

SERVIA.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.

SERVIAN CONSTITUTION.

The first important modification of the primitive Roman
constitution, ascribed to King Servius Tullius.

See COMITIA CENTURIATA.

SERVIAN WALL OF ROME, The.

See SEVEN HILLS OF ROME.

SERVILES, The.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

SERVITES, The.

The order of the "Religious Servants of the Holy Virgin,"
better known as Servites, was founded in 1233 by seven
Florentine merchants. It spread rapidly in its early years,
and has a considerable number of houses still existing.

SESQUIPES.

See FOOT, THE ROMAN.

SESTERTIUS, The.

See AS.

SESTOS, OR SESTUS, Siege and capture of.

See ATHENS: B. C. 479-478.

SESTUNTII, The.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

SETTE POZZI, OR MALVASIA, Battle of (1263).

See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299.

SETTLEMENT, Act of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1701, and IRELAND: A. D. 1660-1665.

SEVASTOS.

The Greek form, in the Byzantine Empire, of the title of
"Augustus." "It was divided into four gradations, sevastos,
protosevastos, panhypersevastos, and sevastokrator."

_G. Finlay,
History Byzantine and Greek Empires, 716-1453,
book 3, chapter 2, section 1._

SEVEN BISHOPS, The: Sent to the Tower.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1687-1688.

SEVEN BOROUGHS, The.

See FIVE BOROUGHS. THE.

SEVEN CHAMPIONS OF CHRISTENDOM, The.
St. George, for England,
St. Denis, for France,
St. James, for Spain,
St. Anthony, for Italy,
St. Andrew, for Scotland,
St. Patrick, for Ireland, and
St. David, for Wales,
were called, in mediæval times, the Seven Champions of
Christendom.

SEVEN CITIES, The Isle of the.

See ANTILLES.

SEVEN CITIES OF CIBOLA.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUEBLOS.

SEVEN DAYS RETREAT, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JUNE-JULY: VIRGINIA).

SEVEN GATES OF THEBES, The.

See THEBES, GREECE: THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY.

SEVEN HILLS OF ROME, The.

"The seven hills were not occupied all at once, but one after
the other, as they were required. The Palatine held the 'arx'
of the primitive inhabitants, and was the original nucleus of
the town, round which a wall or earthern rampart was raised by
Romulus. The hill of Saturn, afterwards the Capitoline, is
said to have been united, after the death of Titus Tatius, by
Romulus; who drew a second wall or earthern rampart round the
two hills. The Aventine, which was chiefly used as a pasture
ground, was added by Ancus Martius, who settled the population
of the conquered towns of Politorium, Tellena, and Ficana upon
it. According to Livy, the Cælian Hill was added to the city
by Tullus Hostilius. The population increasing, it seemed
necessary to further enlarge the city. Servius Tullius, Livy
tells us, added two hills, the Quirinal and the Viminal,
afterwards extending it further to the Esquiline, where, he
says, to give dignity to the place, he dwelt himself. The city
having reached such an extent, a vast undertaking was planned
by the king, Servius, to protect it. A line of wall [the
Servian Wall] was built to encircle the seven hills over which
the city had extended."

_H. M. Westropp,
Early and Imperial Rome,
pages 56-57._

SEVEN ISLANDS, The Republic of the.

See IONIAN ISLANDS: To 1814.

SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS, The.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: SCHOLASTICISM.

SEVEN MOUNTS, The.

See PALATINE HILL; and QUIRINAL.

SEVEN PINES, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (MAY: VIRGINIA).

SEVEN PROVINCES, The Union of the.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1577-1581.

SEVEN REDUCTIONS, The War of the.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.

SEVEN RIVERS, The Land of the.

See INDIA: THE IMMIGRATION AND CONQUESTS OF THE ARYAS.

SEVEN WEEKS WAR, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE.

"The name and poetry of Solon, and the short maxims, or
sayings, of Phokylidês, conduct us to the mention of the Seven
Wise Men of Greece. Solon was himself one of the seven, and
most if, not all of them were poets, or composers in verse. To
most of them is ascribed also an abundance of pithy repartees,
together with one short saying, or maxim, peculiar to each,
serving as a sort of distinctive motto. … Respecting this
constellation of Wise Men—who, in the next century of Grecian
history, when philosophy came to be a matter of discussion and
argumentation, were spoken of with great eulogy—all the
statements are confused, in part even contradictory. Neither
the number nor the names are given by all authors alike.
Dikæarchus numbered ten, Hermippus seventeen: the names of
Solon the Athenian, Thalês the Milesian, Pittakus the
Mitylenean, and Bias the Prienean, were comprised in all the
lists —and the remaining names as given by Plato were
Kleobulus of Lindus in Rhodes, Myson of Chênæ, and Cheilon of
Sparta. We cannot certainly distribute among them the sayings,
or mottoes, upon which in later days the Amphiktyons conferred
the honour of inscription in the Delphian temple:
'Know thyself,'
'Nothing too much,'
'Know thy opportunity,'
'Suretyship is the precursor of ruin.'

… Dikæarchus, however, justly observed that these seven or ten
persons were not wise men, or philosophers, in the sense which
those words bore in his day, but persons of practical
discernment in reference to man and society,—of the same turn
of mind as their contemporary the fabulist Æsop, though not
employing the same mode of illustration. Their appearance
forms an epoch in Grecian history, inasmuch as they are the
first persons who ever acquired an Hellenic reputation
grounded on mental competency apart from poetical genius or
effect—a proof that political and social prudence was
beginning to be appreciated and admired on its own account."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 29._

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SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD.

See RHODES, THE COLOSSUS OF.

----------SEVEN YEARS WAR: Start--------

SEVEN YEARS WAR:
Its causes and provocations.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1755-1756;
and ENGLAND: A. D. 1754-1755.

SEVEN YEARS WAR:
Campaigns in America.

See CANADA: A. D. 1750-1753, to 1760;
NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1749-1755, and 1755;
OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1748-1754, 1754, and 1755;
CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1758-1760.

SEVEN YEARS WAR:
English Naval Operations.

See CANADA: A. D. 1755;
ENGLAND: A. D. 1758 (JUNE-AUGUST),
and 1759 (AUGUST-NOVEMBER).

SEVEN YEARS WAR:
Campaigns in Germany.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1756, to 1761-1762.

SEVEN YEARS WAR:
The conflict in India.

See INDIA: A. D. 1758-1761.

SEVEN YEARS WAR:
The Treaties which ended the war.
The Peace of Paris and the Peace of Hubertsburg.

Negotiations for a peace between England, France, and Spain
were brought to a close by the signing of preliminaries at
Fontainebleau, November 3, 1762. In the course of the next
month, a conference for the arrangement of terms between
Prussia, Austria and Saxony was begun at Hubertsburg, a
hunting-seat of the Elector of Saxony, between Leipsic and
Dresden. "The definitive Peace of Paris, between France,
Spain, England, and Portugal, was signed February 10th 1763.
Both France and England abandoned their allies, and neither
Austria nor Prussia was mentioned in the treaty." But it was
stipulated that all territories belonging to the Elector of
Hanover, the Landgrave of Hesse, and the Count of Lippe
Bücheburg should be restored to them. "France ceded to England
Nova Scotia, Canada, and the country east of the Mississippi
as far as the Iberville. A line drawn through the Mississippi,
from its source to its mouth, was henceforth to form the
boundary between the possessions of the two nations, except
that the town and island of New Orleans were not to be
included in this cession. France also ceded the island of Cape
Breton, with the isles and coasts of the St. Lawrence,
retaining, under certain restrictions, the right of fishing at
Newfoundland, and the isles of St. Peter and Miquelon. In the
West Indies she ceded Grenada and the Grenadines, and three of
the so-called neuter islands, namely, Dominica, St. Vincent,
and Tobago, retaining the fourth, St. Lucie. Also in Africa,
the river Senegal, recovering Goree; in the East Indies, the
French settlements on the coast of Coromandel made since 1749,
retaining previous ones. She also restored to Great Britain
Natal and Tabanouly, in Sumatra, and engaged to keep no troops
in Bengal. In Europe, besides relinquishing her conquests in
Germany, she restored Minorca, and engaged to place Dunkirk in
the state required by former treaties. Great Britain, on her
side, restored Belle Isle, and in the West Indies, Martinique,
Guadaloupe, Marie Galante, and La Desirade. Spain ceded to
Great Britain Florida and all districts east of the
Mississippi, recovering the Havannah and all other British
conquests. British subjects were to enjoy the privilege of
cutting logwood in the Bay of Honduras. … With regard to the
Portuguese colonies, matters were to be placed in the same
state as before the war. … By way of compensation for the loss
of Florida, France, by a private agreement, made over to Spain
New Orleans and what remained to her of Louisiana. The Peace
of Hubertsburg, between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony, was
signed February 15th 1763. Marie Theresa renounced all
pretensions she might have to any of the dominions of the King
of Prussia, and especially those which had been ceded to him
by the treaties of Breslau and Berlin; and she agreed to
restore to Prussia the town and county of Glatz, and the
fortresses of Wesel and Gelders. The Empire was included in
the peace, but the Emperor was not even named. … In the peace
with the Elector of Saxony, Frederick engaged speedily to
evacuate that Electorate and to restore the archives, &c.; but
he would give no indemnification for losses suffered. The
Treaty of Dresden, of 1745, was renewed."

_T. H. Dyer,
History of Modern Europe,
book 6, chapter 6 (volume 3)._

"Of the Peace-Treaties at Hubertsburg, Paris and other places,
it is not necessary that we say almost anything. … The
substance of the whole lies now in Three Points. … The issue,
as between Austria and Prussia, strives to be, in all points,
simply 'As-you-were'; and, in all outward or tangible points,
strictly is so. After such a tornado of strife as the
civilised world had not witnessed since the Thirty-Years War.
Tornado springing doubtless from the regions called Infernal;
and darkening the upper world from south to north, and from
east to west for Seven Years long;—issuing in general
'As-you-were'! Yes truly, the tornado was Infernal; but
Heaven, too, had silently its purposes in it. Nor is the mere
expenditure of men's diabolic rages, in mutual clash as of
opposite electricities, with reduction to equipoise, and
restoration of zero and repose again after seven years, the
one or the principal result arrived at. Inarticulately, little
dreamt on at the time by any bystander, the results, on survey
from this distance, are visible as Threefold. Let us name them
one other time: