Chapter LXIII: Section 7 (20)

"The Saiones were apparently a class of men peculiar to the
Ostrogothic monarchy [of Theodoric, in Italy]. More honoured
than the Roman lictor (who was but a menial servant of the
magistrate), but hardly perhaps rising to the dignity of a
sheriff or a marshal, they were, so to speak, the arms by
which Royalty executed its will. If the Goths had to be
summoned to battle with the Franks, a Saio carried round the
stirring call to arms. If a Prætorian Prefect was abusing his
power to take away his neighbour's lands by violence, a Saio
was sent to remind him that under Theodoric not even Prætorian
Prefects should be allowed to transgress the law. … The
Saiones seem to have stood in a special relation to the King.
They are generally called 'our Saiones,' sometimes 'our brave
Saiones,' and the official virtue which is always credited to
them (like the 'Sublimity' or the 'Magnificence' of more
important personages) is 'Your Devotion.' One duty which was
frequently entrusted to the Saio was the 'tuitio' of some
wealthy and unwarlike Roman. It often happened that such a
person, unable to protect himself against the rude assaults of
sturdy Gothic neighbours, appealed to the King for protection.
… The chief visible sign of the King's protection, and the
most effective guarantee of its efficiency, was the stout
Gothic soldier who as Saio was quartered in the wealthy
Roman's house."

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 4, chapter 7 (volume 3)._

SAJO, Battle of the (1241).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1114-1301.

SAKKARAH, Necropolis of.

The most ancient and important cemetery of Memphis, Egypt.

_A. Mariette,
Monuments of Upper Egypt,
page 86._

SAKKARAH, Tablet of.

An important list of Egyptian kings, found by M. Mariette and
now preserved in the Museum of Cairo.

_F. Lenormant,
Manual of Ancient History of the East,
book 3, chapter 1 (volume 1)._

SALADIN: The Empire of.

Among the revolutions which attended the breaking up of the
empire of the Seljuk Turks was one that brought about the rise
to power in Syria and Mesopotamia of a vigorous and capable
soldier named Zenghi or Zengui. Zenghi and his son Noureddin
acquired a wide dominion, with its capital, as it enlarged,
shifting from Mossoul to Aleppo, from Aleppo to Damascus, and
they were the first formidable enemies with whom the
Christians of the Crusade settlements in Syria had to contend.
The dynasty of sultans which they founded was one of those
called Atabecks, or Atabegs, signifying "governors of the
prince." Having found an opportunity (A. D. 1162-1168) to
interfere in the affairs of Egypt, where the Fatimite caliphs
were still nominally reigning, Noureddin sent thither one of
his most trusted officers, Shiracouh, or Shirkoh, a Koord, and
Shiracouh's nephew, Saladin,—then a young man, much addicted
to elegant society and the life of pleasure, at Damascus.
Shiracouh established his master's authority in Egypt—still
leaving the puppet caliph of the Fatimites on his throne—and
he was succeeded by Saladin, as the representative of the
sultan Noureddin, and grand vizier of the caliph. But in 1171,
the latter, being on his death-bed, was quietly deposed and
the sovereignty of the Abbaside caliph of Bagdad was
proclaimed. "This great 'coup d'etat,' which won Egypt over to
the Orthodox Mohammedan sect, and ultimately enabled Saladin
to grasp the independent sovereignty of the country, was
effected, as an Arab historian quaintly observes, 'so quietly,
that not a brace of goats butted over it.'"
{2793}
Saladin had now developed great talents as a ruler, and great
ambitions, as well. On the death of Nouraddin, in 1174, he was
prepared to seize the sultan's throne, and succeeded, after a
short period of civil war, in making himself master of the
whole Atabeg dominion. From that he went on to the conquest of
Jerusalem, and the expulsion of the Christians from all
Palestine, except Tyre and a small strip of coast. By his
defense of that conquest against the crusaders of the Third
Crusade, and by the decided superiority of character which he
evinced, compared with his Christian antagonists, Richard Cœur
de Lion and the rest, Saladin acquired surpassing renown in
the western world and became a great figure in history. He
died at Damascus, in March, 1193, in his fifty-seventh year.
The dynasty which he founded was called the Ayoubite (or
Aiyubite) dynasty, from the name of Saladin's father, Ayoub
(Job), a native Koord of Davin.

_W. Besant and E. H. Palmer,
Jerusalem,
chapter 16._

"Saladin gave no directions respecting the order of
succession, and by this want of foresight prepared the ruin of
his empire. One of his sons, Alaziz, who commanded in Egypt,
caused himself to be proclaimed sultan of Cairo; another took
possession of the sovereignty of Aleppo, and a third of the
principality of Amath. Malek-Adel [called Seïf Eddin, the
Sword of Religion, by which latter name, in the corrupted form
Saphadin, he was known commonly to the crusaders], the brother
of Saladin, assumed the throne of Mesopotamia and the
countries in the neighbourhood of the Euphrates. The principal
emirs, and all the princes of the race of the Ayoubites, made
themselves masters of the cities and provinces of which they
held the command. Afdhal [Almelek Alafdhal], eldest son of
Saladin, was proclaimed sultan of Damascus. Master of Syria,
and of the capital of a vast empire, sovereign of Jerusalem
and Palestine, he appeared to have preserved something of the
power of his father; but all fell into disorder and
confusion." After some years of disorder and of war between
the brothers, Malek Adel, or Saphadin, the more capable uncle
of the young princes, gathered the reins of power into his
hands and reunited most of the provinces of Saladin's empire.
On his death, in 1217, the divisions and the disorder
reappeared. The Ayoubite dynasty, however, held the throne at
Cairo (to the dominion of which Palestine belonged) until
1250, when the last of the line was killed by his Mamelukes.
The lesser princes of the divided empire were swept away soon
after by the Mongol invasion.

_J. F. Michaud,
History of the Crusades,
books 9, 12-14._

See, also, JERUSALEM: A. D. 1149-1187.

SALADIN, The Tithe of.

"In England and in France, in order to defray expenses [of the
Third Crusade], a tax called the Tithe of Saladin, consisting
of a tenth part of all their goods, was levied on every person
who did not take the Cross. … In every parish the Tithe of
Saladin was raised in the presence of a priest, a Templar, a
Hospitaller, a king's man, a baron's man and clerk, and a
bishop's clerk."

_W. Besant and E. H. Palmer,
Jerusalem,
chapter 15._

SALADO, OR GUADACELITO, Battle of (1340).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1273-1460.

SALAMANCA, Battle of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-AUGUST).

SALAMANCA, University of.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

SALAMIS, Cyprus,
Battle of (B. C. 449).

See ATHENS: B. C. 460-449.

Battle of (B. C. 306).

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 310-301.

SALAMIS, Greece: B. C. 610-600.
War of Athens and Megara for possession of the island.

See ATHENS: B. C. 610-586.

SALAMIS, Greece: B. C. 480.
Great battle between Greeks and Persians.

See GREECE: B. C. 480.

SALANKAMENT, Battle of (1691).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

SALCES, OR SALSAS: A. D. 1639-1640.
Siege and capture by the French.
Recovery by the Spaniards.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1637-1640.

SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1628.
The first settlement.

See MASSACHUSETTS:
A. D. 1623-1629 THE DORCHESTER COMPANY.

SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1631-1636.
Ministry and banishment of Roger Williams.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1636.

SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1692.
The Witchcraft madness.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1692; and 1692-1693.

SALERNO, Principality of.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 800-1016.

SALERNO, School of Medicine.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 12-17TH CENTURIES.

SALIAN FRANKS, The.

See FRANKS: ORIGIN, ETC.

----------SALIC LAW: Start--------

SALIC LAW, The.

"A greatly exaggerated importance has been attributed to the
Salic Law. You are acquainted with the reason of this error;
you know that at the accession of Philippe-le-Long, and during
the struggle of Philippe· de-Valois and Edward III. for the
crown of France, the Salic law was invoked in order to prevent
the succession of women, and that, from that time, it has been
celebrated by a crowd of writers as the first source of our
public law, as a law always in vigor, as the fundamental law
of monarchy. Those who have been the most free from this
illusion, as, for example, Montesquieu, have yet experienced,
to some degree, its influence, and have spoken of the Salic
law with a respect which it is assuredly difficult to feel
towards it when we attribute to it only the place that it
really holds in our history. … I pray you to recall that which
I have already told you touching the double origin and the
incoherence of the barbarous laws; they were, at once,
anterior and posterior to the invasion; at once, German and
Germano-Roman: they belonged to two different conditions of
society. This character has influenced all the controversies
of which the Salic law has been the object; it has given rise
to two hypotheses: according to one, this law was compiled in
Germany, upon the right bank of the Rhine, long before the
conquest, and in the language of the Franks. … According to
the other hypothesis, the Salic law was, on the contrary,
compiled after the conquest, upon the left bank of the Rhine,
in Belgium or in Gaul, perhaps in the seventh century, and in
Latin. … I believe, however, that the traditions which,
through so many contradictions and fables, appear in the
prefaces and epilogues annexed to the law, … indicate that,
from the eighth century, it was a general belief, a popular
tradition, that the customs of the Salian Franks were
anciently collected. …
{2794}
We are not obliged to believe that the Salic law, such as we
have it, is of a very remote date, nor that it was compiled as
recounted, nor even that it was ever written in the German
language; but that it was connected with customs collected and
transmitted from generation to generation, when the Franks
lived about the mouth of the Rhine, and modified, extended,
explained, reduced into law, at various times, from that epoch
down to the end of the eighth century—this, I think, is the
reasonable result to which this discussion should lead. … At
the first aspect it is impossible not to be struck with the
apparent utter chaos of the law. It treats of all things—of
political law, of civil law, of criminal law, of civil
procedure, of criminal procedure, of rural jurisdiction, all
mixed up together without any distinction or classification. …
When we examine this law more closely, we perceive that it is
essentially a penal regulation. … I say nothing of the
fragments of political law, civil law, or civil procedure,
which are found dispersed through it, nor even of that famous
article which orders that 'Salic land shall not fall to woman;
and that the inheritance shall devolve exclusively on the
males.' No person is now ignorant of its true meaning. … When,
in the fourteenth century, they invoked the Salic law, in
order to regulate the succession to the crown, it had
certainly been a long time since it had been spoken of, except
in remembrance, and upon some great occasion."

_F. Guizot,
History of Civilization,
volume 2 (France, volume 1), lecture 9._

ALSO IN:
_W. C. Perry,
The Franks,
chapter 10._

_E. F. Henderson,
Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages,
book 2, number 1._

SALIC LAW:
Applied to the regal succession in France.

Louis X., surnamed Hutin, king of France, died in 1316,
leaving a daughter, Jeanne, and his queen with child. The late
king's brother, Philip the Long, became regent; but when the
queen bore a son and the child died, this Philip "hastened to
Rheims, filled the Cathedral with his own followers, and
compelled the archbishop to consecrate him King [Philip V.].
Thence he returned to Paris, assembled the citizens, and, in
the presence of a great concourse of barons and notables of
the realm, declared that no female could succeed to the crown
of France. Thus began the so-called Salic Law of France,
through the determined violence of an unscrupulous man. The
lawyers round the throne, seeking to give to the act of might
the sanction of right, bethought them of that passage in the
law of the Salian Franks which declares 'That no part or
heritage of Salic land can fall to a woman'; and it is from
this that the law obtained the name of 'the Salic Law.'"

_G. W. Kitchin,
History of France,
volume 1, book 3, chapter 11, sections 1-2._

"In this contest [after the death of Louis X., as mentioned
above], every way memorable, but especially on account of that
which sprung out of it, the exclusion of females from the
throne of France was first publicly discussed. … It may be
fairly inferred that the Salic law, as it was called, was not
so fixed a principle at that time as has been contended. But
however this may be, it received at the accession of Philip
the Long a sanction which subsequent events more thoroughly
confirmed. Philip himself leaving only three daughters, his
brother Charles [IV.] mounted the throne; and upon his death
the rule was so unquestionably established, that his only
daughter was excluded by the count of Valois, grandson of
Philip the Bold. This prince first took the regency, the
queen-dowager being pregnant, and, upon her giving birth to a
daughter, was crowned king [Philip of Valois]. No competitor
or opponent appeared in France; but one more formidable than
any whom France could have produced was awaiting the occasion
to prosecute his imagined right with all the resources of
valour and genius, and to carry desolation over that great
kingdom with as little scruple as if he was preferring a suit
before a civil tribunal." This was King Edward III. of
England, whose mother Isabel was the sister of the last three
French kings, and who claimed through her a right to the
French crown.

_H. Hallam,
The Middle Age,
chapter 1, part 1._

See, also, FRANCE: A. D. 1328-1339.

SALICE, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).

SALICES, Ad, Battle of.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 378.

SALINÆ.

A Roman town in Britain, celebrated for its salt-works and
salt-baths. Its site is occupied by modern Droitwich.

_T. Wright,
Celt, Roman and Saxon,
chapter 5._

SALINAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SALINAN FAMILY.

SALISBURY, Gemot of.

William the Conqueror, while establishing feudalism in
England, "broke into its 'most essential attribute, the
exclusive dependence of a vassal upon his lord,' by requiring
in accordance with the old English practice, that all
landowners, mesne tenants as well as tenants-in-chief, should
take the oath of fealty to the King. This was formally decreed
at the celebrated Gemot held on Salisbury Plain, on the 1st of
August, 1086, at which the Witan and all the landowners of
substance in England whose vassals soever they were, attended,
to the number, it is reported, of 60,000. The statute, as soon
as passed, was carried into immediate effect."

_T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
English Constitutional History,
page 55._

SALISBURY MINISTRIES, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1885; 1885-1886; and 1892-1893.

SALISHAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: FLATHEADS.

SALLUVIANS.

See SALYES.

SALON, Origin of the French.

See RAMBOUILLET, HÔTEL DE.

SALONA, Ancient.

"Amidst the decay of the empire in the third century Dalmatia
suffered comparatively little; indeed, Salonae probably only
reached at that time its greatest prosperity. This, it is
true, was occasioned partly by the fact that the regenerator
of the Roman state, the emperor Diocletian, was by birth a
Dalmatian, and allowed his efforts, aimed at the
decapitalising of Rome, to redound chiefly to the benefit of
the capital of his native land; he built alongside of it the
huge palace from which the modern capital of the province
takes the name Spalato, within which it has for the most part
found a place, and the temples of which now serve it as
cathedral and as baptistery. Diocletian, however, did not make
Salonae a great city for the first time, but, because it was
such, chose it for his private residence; commerce,
navigation, and trade must at that time in these waters have
been concentrated chiefly at Aquileia and at Salonae, and the
city must have been one of the most populous and opulent towns
of the west."

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 6._

ALSO IN;
_E. A. Freeman,
Subject and Neighbor Lands of Venice._

_T. G. Jackson,
Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria,
chapters 1-2 and 10-12 (volumes 1-2). _

{2795}

SALONICA.

The modern name of ancient Thessalonica.

See THESSALONICA.

SALONIKI, The kingdom of.

The kingdom obtained by Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat, in
the partition of the Byzantine Empire after its conquest by
the Crusaders, A. D. 1204, comprised the province of
Macedonia, with Thessalonica for its capital, and was called
the kingdom of Saloniki. Its duration was brief. In 1222 the
neighboring Greek despot of Epirus took Thessalonica and
conquered the whole kingdom. He then assumed the title of
emperor of Thessalonica, in rivalry with the Greek emperors of
Nicæa and Trebizond. The title of king of Saloniki was
cherished by the family of Montferrat for some generations;
but those who claimed it never made good their title by
possession of the kingdom.

_G. Finlay,
History of Greece from the Conquest by the Crusaders,
chapter 5._

See, also, BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1204-1205.

SALOPIAN WARE.

Pottery manufactured by the Romans in Britain from the clay of
the Severn valley. Two sorts are found in considerable
abundance—one white, the other a light red color.

_L. Jewitt,
Grave-Mounds,
page 164. _

SALSBACH, Death of Turenne at (1675).

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

SALT, French tax on.

See TAILLE AND GABELLE.

SALT LAKE CITY: The founding of (1847).

See MORMONS: A. D. 1846-1848.

SALYES, SALLUVIANS.

The Salyes or Saluvii or Salluvians, named Salvii Yalli in
Livy's Epitome, "were Ligurians or a mixed race of Celts
and Ligurians. They perhaps occupied part of the coast east
of Massilia: they certainly extended inland behind that
town to the Rhone on the west and to the north as far as
the river Druentia (Durance). They occupied the wide plain
which you may see from the highest point of the great
amphitheatre of Arelate (Arles) stretching east from
Tarascon and the Rhone as far as the eye can reach." The
Salyes were dangerous to Massilia and in 125 B. C. the
latter appealed to the Romans, as allies. The latter
responded promptly and sent Flaccus, one of the consuls, to
deal with the Salyes. He defeated them; but in two or three
years they were again in arms, and consul C. Sextius
Calvinius was sent against them. "The Salyes were again
defeated and their chief city taken, but it is uncertain
whether this capital was Arelate (ArIes) or the place
afterwards named Aquae Sextiae (Aix). … The Roman general
found in this arid country a pleasant valley well supplied
with water from the surrounding hills, and here he
established the colony named Aquae Sextiae." The chiefs of
the conquered Salyes took refuge with the Allobroges, and
that led to the subjugation of the latter (see ALLOBROGES).

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 1, chapters 17 and 21._

SALZBURG, Origin of.

"The foundation of a colony [by Hadrian] at Juvavium, or
Salzburg, which received the name of Forum Hadriani, attests
the vigilance which directed his view from the Rhine to the
Salza, and the taste, I would willingly add, which selected
for a town to bear his name the most enchanting site in
central Europe."

_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 66._

SALZBURGERS, The.

See GEORGIA: A. D. 1734.

SALZWEDEL.

See BRANDENBURG.

SAM ADAMS REGIMENTS, The.

See BOSTON: A. D. 1770.

SAMANA, The proposed cession of.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1804-1880.

SAMANIDES OR SAMANIANS, The.

"As the vigour of the Khalifate began to pass away, and
effeminate luxury crept imperceptibly into the palaces of
Baghdad, the distant lieutenants gradually aspired to
independence. At length, in 868 A. D., one Ya' kub-bin-Lais,
the son of a brasier in Sistan, rose in rebellion, subdued
Balkh, Kabul, and Fars, but died on his march to Baghdad. In
former days he would have been treated as an audacious rebel
against the authority of the Vicar of God; now the degenerate
Khalifah appointed his brother 'Amr his lieutenant on the
death of Ya' kub [A. D. 877], and allowed him to govern Fars,
as the founder of the Saffary, or Brasier, dynasty. Ever
fearful of the power of 'Amr, the Khalifah at length
instigated a Tatar lord, named Isma'il Samany, to raise an
army against the Saffaris, in Khurasan. 'Amr marched against
him, and crossed the Oxus, but he was entirely defeated; and
laughed heartily at a dog, who ran away with the little pot
that was preparing the humble meal of the fallen king. That
morning it had taken thirty camels to carry his kitchen
retinue. 'Amr was sent to Baghdad, and put to death in 901 A.
D. Isma'il, who traced his descent from a Persian noble who
had rebelled against Khusru Parviz, now founded the Samany [or
Samanide] dynasty, which ruled over Khurasan and the north of
Persia, with their capital at Bukhara. The Dailamy [or
Dilemite or Bouide] dynasty ruled in Fars and the south of
Persia during the same period. To the Samanians Persia owes
the restoration of its nationality, which had been oppressed
and trodden under foot by the Arabian conquerors." The
Samanide dynasty was overthrown in 998 by the founder of the
Gaznevide Empire, which succeeded.

_C. R. Markham,
General Sketch of the History of Persia,
chapter 6._

ALSO IN;
_Sir J. Malcolm,
History of Persia,
volume 1, chapter 6_

See, also, TURKS: A. D. 999-1183.

SAMARAH, Battle of.

This was the battle in which the Roman emperor Julian was
killed (June 26, A. D. 363), during the retreat from his
ill·starred expedition beyond the Tigris, against the
Persians.

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 10._

----------SAMARCAND: Start--------

SAMARCAND.

Ancient Maracanda, the capital city of Sogdiana.

See SOGDIANA;
and BOKHARA.

SAMARCAND: 6th Century.
Taken from the White Huns by the Turks.

See TURKS: 6TH CENTURY.

SAMARCAND: A. D. 1209-1220.
Capital of the Khuarezmian empire.

See KHUAREZM.

{2796}

SAMARCAND: A. D. 1221.
Conquest and destruction by Jingis Khan.

When Jingis Khan, the Mongol conqueror and devastator of
Central Asia, invaded the Khahrezmian Empire, Samarkand was
its capital and its most important city. "The fugitive
Khahrezmian prince had left behind him for the defence 110,000
men—i. e., 60,000 Turks and 50,000 Tadjiks—with twenty
elephants." But the Turkish mercenaries deserted in a body and
the town was surrendered after a siege of three days. "The
flourishing city of Samarkand and the fortress were laid even
with the ground; and the inhabitants; stripped of all they
possessed, shared the fate of their brethren of Bokhara. Those
who had contrived to escape were lured back by false promises;
all capable of bearing arms were compulsorily enrolled in the
Mongolian army; the artistic gardeners of the place were sent
off to the far East, where they were wanted to adorn the
future Mongolo-Chinese capital with pleasure-grounds, after
the fashion of those of Samarkand, and the celebrated
artisans, especially the silk and cotton weavers, were either
distributed as clever and useful slaves amongst the wives and
relations of Djenghiz, or else carried with him to Khorasan. A
few were sent as slaves to his sons Tchagatai and Oktai, who
were then marching on Khahrezm. This was the end, in the year
618 (1221), of Samarkand, which Arabian geographers have
described as the most brilliant and most flourishing spot on
the face of the earth."

_A. Vámbéry,
History of Bokhara,
chapter 8._

"Samarkand was not only the capital of Trans-Oxiana, but also
one of the greatest entrepots of commerce in the world. Three
miles in circumference, it was surrounded with a wall having
castles at intervals, and pierced by twelve iron gates."

_H. H. Howorth,
History of the Mongols,
part 1, page 79._

SAMARCAND: A. D. 1371-1405.
The capital of Timour.

See TIMOUR, THE CONQUESTS OF.

SAMARCAND: A. D. 1868.
Seizure by the Russians.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1859-1876.

----------SAMARCAND: End--------

SAMARIA.
SAMARITANS:
Early history.
The Kingdom of Israel.
Overthrow by the Assyrians.

See JEWS: KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH.

SAMARITANS:
Repopulation of the city and district by the Assyrian conqueror.

After the capture of the city of Samaria (B. C. 722) and the
deportation of a large part of its inhabitants by the Assyrian
conqueror (see as above), "these districts remained for many
years in a condition of such desolation that they were overrun
with wild beasts. In the meantime King Asarhaddon, whom we
suppose to be Asarhaddon II., having reduced afresh several
refractory towns about twenty years after the death of
Sennacherib, and wishing to inflict on their inhabitants the
favourite punishment of his predecessors, transported large
bodies of their heathen populations into these deserted
regions. … A great number of the settlers in Samaria, the
former capital, appear to have come from the Babylonian city
of Cuthah, from which arose the name of Cutheans, often
applied in derision to the Samaritans by the later Jews. Other
settlers were sent from Babylon itself," and "from the cities
on the west of the Euphrates, Hamath, Ivah, and Sepharvaim."

_H. Ewald,
History of Israel,
volume 4, pages 215-216._

SAMARIA:
After the Exile.

In the second and third generations after the return of the
Judæans from exile, there began to be connections formed by
marriage with the neighboring peoples. These peoples,
"particularly the Samaritans, had given up idolatry, and were
longing earnestly and truly to take part in the divine service
at Jerusalem. They were, in fact, proselytes to the religion
of Judæa; and were they always to be sternly repulsed? The
principal Judæan families determined to admit the foreigners
into the community, and the high priest of that time, either
Jehoiakim or his son Eliashib, was ready to carry these wishes
into effect. Marriages were therefore contracted with the
Samaritans and other neighbouring people." But when Ezra and
his party came from Babylon (B. C. 459-458) bringing an access
of religious zeal and narrower interpretations of the law,
these marriages were condemned, and those who had contracted
them were forced to repudiate their foreign wives and the
children borne by such. This cruelly fanatical action changed
the friendly feeling of the Samaritans to hatred. Their
leader, Sanballat, was a man of power, and he began against
the restored Judæans a war which drove them from Jerusalem. It
was not until Nehemiah came from Susa, with the authority of
King Artaxerxes to rebuild the walls, that they recovered the
city. "The strict observance of the Law enjoined by Ezra was
followed out by Nehemiah; he strengthened the wall of
separation between Judæans and Gentiles so securely that it
was almost impossible to break through it." Sanballat, whose
son-in-law, a priest, had been exiled on account of his
Samaritan marriage, now "cunningly conceived the plan of
undermining the Judæan community, by the help of its own
members. How would it be were he to raise a temple to the God
of Israel, in rivalry to the one which held sway in
Jerusalem?" He executed his plan and the Samaritan temple was
raised on Mount Gerizim. Thus "the Samaritans had their
temple, around which they gathered; they had priests from the
house of Aaron; they compared Mount Gerizim … to Mount Moriah;
they drew the inference from the Book of the Law that God had
designed Mount Gerizim as a site for a sanctuary, and they
proudly called themselves Israelites. Sanballat and his
followers being intent upon attracting a great many Judæans to
their community, tempted them with the offer of houses and
land, and in every way helped to support them. Those who had
been guilty of crime and who feared punishment, were received
with open arms by the Samaritans. Out of such elements a new
semi-Judæan community or sect was formed. Their home was in
the somewhat limited district of Samaria, the centre of which
was either the city that gave its name to the province or the
town of Shechem. The members of the new community became an
active, vigorous, intelligent people, as if Sanballat, the
founder, had breathed his spirit into them. … They actually
tried to argue away the right of the Judæans to exist as a
community. They declared that they alone were the descendants
of Israel, and they denied the sanctity of Jerusalem and its
Temple, affirming that everything achieved by the Judæan
people was a debasement of the old Israelite character. … Upon
the Judæan side, the hatred against their Samaritan neighbours
was equally great. … The enmity between Jerusalem and Samaria
that existed in the time of the two kingdoms blazed out anew;
it no longer bore a political character, but one of a
religious tendency."

_H. Graetz,
History of the Jews,
chapters 19-20 (volume 1)._

{2797}

"While the Hebrew writers unanimously represent the Samaritans
as the descendants of the Cuthæan colonists introduced by
Esarhaddon, a foreign and idolatrous race, their own
traditions derive their regular lineage from Ephraim and
Manasseh, the sons of Joseph. The remarkable fact, that this
people have preserved the book of the Mosaic law in the ruder
and more ancient character, while the Jews, after the return
from Babylonia, universally adopted the more elegant Chaldean
form of letters, strongly confirms the opinion that, although
by no means pure and unmingled, the Hebrew blood still
predominated in their race. In many other respects, regard for
the Sabbath and even for the sabbatic year, and the payment of
tithes to their priests, the Samaritans did not fall below
their Jewish rivals in attachment to the Mosaic polity. The
later events in the history of the kings of Jerusalem show
that the expatriation of the ten tribes was by no means
complete and permanent: is it then an unreasonable
supposition, that the foreign colonists were lost in the
remnant of the Israelitish people, and, though perhaps slowly
and imperfectly weaned from their native superstitions, fell
by degrees into the habits and beliefs of their adopted
country? … Whether or not it was the perpetuation of the
ancient feud between the two rival kingdoms, from this period
[of the return from the captivity in Babylonia] the hostility
of the Jews and Samaritans assumed its character of fierce and
implacable animosity. No two nations ever hated each other
with more unmitigated bitterness."

_H. H. Milman,
History of the Jews,
book 9. _

SAMARIA:
Change of population by Alexander the Great.

After the submission of Palestine to Alexander the Great (B.
C. 332), Samaria "rebelled and murdered the Macedonian
governor, Andromachus. Alexander expelled the inhabitants, and
planted a Macedonian colony in their room—another heathen
element in the motley population of Samaria."

_P. Smith,
History of the World: Ancient,
volume 3, chapter 34._

SAMARIA:
Rebuilding of the city by Herod.

One of the measures of King Herod, for strengthening himself
outside of Jerusalem, was "the rebuilding of Samaria, which he
did (B. C. 25) on a scale of great magnificence and strength,
and peopled it partly with his soldiers, partly with the
descendants of the old Samaritans, who hoped to see their
temple likewise restored." He changed the name of Samaria,
however, to Sebaste—the August.

_H. H. Milman,
History of the Jews,
book 11._

SAMARIA:
Justinian's War.

The Christian zeal of the Emperor Justinian [A. D. 527-565]
induced him to undertake the forcible conversion of all
unbelievers in his empire. Among others, the Samaritans of
Palestine were offered "the alternative of baptism or
rebellion. They chose the latter: under the standard of a
desperate leader they rose in arms, and retaliated their
wrongs on the lives, the property, and the temples of a
defenceless people. The Samaritans were finally subdued by the
regular forces of the East; 20,000 were slain, 20,000 were
sold by the Arabs to the infidels of Persia and India, and the
remains of that unhappy nation atoned for the crime of treason
by the sin of hypocrisy. It has been computed that 100,000
Roman subjects were extirpated in the Samaritan war, which
converted the once fruitful province into a desolate and
smoking wilderness."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 47._

----------SAMARIA: End--------

SAMARKAND.

See SAMARCAND.

SAMBUCA, The.

A great military engine, in ancient sieges, was a species of
huge covered ladder, supported by two ships lashed together
and floated up against the sea wall of the besieged town. The
Greeks called it a Sambuca. Mithridates brought one into use
when besieging Rhodes, B. C. 88, but with disastrous failure.

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 2, chapter 20._

SAMIAN WARE.

An elegant species of Roman pottery, red in color, which was
in great repute among the ancients.

SAMMARINESI, The.

The citizens of San Marino.

See SAN MARINO, THE REPUBLIC OF.

SAMNITE WARS, The.

See ROME: B. C. 343-290.

SAMNITES, The.

"The Samnite nation [see ITALY: ANCIENT], which, at the time
of the expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome, had doubtless
already been for a considerable period in possession of the
hill-country which rises between the Apulian and Campanian
plains and commands them both, had hitherto found its further
advance impeded on the one side by the Daunians, … on the
other by the Greeks and Etruscans. But the fall of the
Etruscan power towards the end of the third, and the decline
of' the Greek colonies in the course of' the fourth century
[B. C.], made room for them towards the west and south; and
now one Samnite host after another marched down to, and even
moved across, the south Italian seas. They first made their
appearance in the plain adjoining the bay, with which the name
of the Campanians has been associated from the beginning of
the fourth century; the Etruscans there were suppressed, and
the Greeks were confined within narrower bounds; Capua was
wrested from the former [B. C. 424] Cumæ from the latter [B.
C. 420]. About the same time, perhaps even earlier, the
Lucanians appeared in Magna Graecia. … Towards the end of the
fourth century mention first occurs of the separate
confederacy of the Bruttii, who had detached themselves from
the Lucanians—not, like the other Sabellian stocks, as a
colony, but through a quarrel—and had become mixed up with
many foreign elements. The Greeks of Lower Italy tried to
resist the pressure of the barbarians. … But even the union of
Magna Graecia no longer availed; for the ruler of Syracuse,
Dionysius the Elder, made common cause with the Italians
against his countrymen. … In an incredibly short time the
circle of flourishing cities was destroyed or laid desolate.
Only a few Greek settlements, such as Neapolis, succeeded with
difficulty, and more by means of treaties than by force of
arms, in preserving their existence and their nationality.
Tarentum alone remained thoroughly independent and powerful. …
About the period when Veii and the Pomptine plain came into
the hands of Rome, the Samnite hordes were already in
possession of all Lower Italy, with the exception of a few
unconnected Greek colonies, and of the Apulo-Messapian coast."

_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 2, chapter 5._

SAMO, The Kingdom of.

See AVARS: 7TH CENTURY.

{2798}

SAMOA.

Samoa is the native name of the group of twelve volcanic
islands in central Polynesea formerly known as the Navigator
Islands. Their place on the chart is between the parallels of
13° and 15° south latitude, and 168° and 173° west longitude.
The total area of the islands is about 1,700 square miles. The
population consists of about 36,000 natives and a few hundred
foreigners, English, American and German. The islands are said
to have been first visited by the Dutch navigator, Roggewein,
in 1722. A Christian mission was first established upon them
in 1830, by the London Missionary Society. After some years
the trade of the islands became important, and German traders
acquired an influence which they seem to have used to bring
about a state of civil war between rival kings. The United
States, Great Britain and Germany, at length, in 1879, by
joint action, intervened, and, after ten years more of
disturbed and unsatisfactory government, the affairs of Samoa
were finally settled at a conference of the three Powers held
in Berlin in 1889. A treaty was signed by which they jointly
guarantee the neutrality of the islands, with equal rights of
residence, trade and personal protection to the citizens of
the three signatory Powers. They recognize the independence of
the Samoan Government, and the free right of the natives to
elect their chief or king and choose the form of their
government. The treaty created a supreme court, with
jurisdiction over all questions arising under it. It stopped
the alienation of lands by the natives, excepting town lots in
Apia, the capital town; and it organized a municipal
government for Apia, with an elected council under the
presidency of a magistrate appointed by the three Powers.
Other articles impose customs duties on foreign importations,
and prohibit the sale of intoxicating liquors to the natives.

_Appleton's Annual Cyclopœdia, 1888 and 1889._

ALSO IN:
_The Statesman's Year-Book, 1894._

_R. L. Stevenson,
A Foot-note to History._

_G. H. Bates,
Some Aspects of the Samoan Question,
and Our Relations to Samoa
(The Century, April and May, 1889)._

----------SAMOS: Start--------

SAMOS. SAMIANS.

The island now called Samo, lying close to the coast of Asia
Minor, in the part of the Ægean Sea which was anciently known
as the Icarian Sea. It is of considerable size, being about
eighty miles in circumference. The narrow strait which
separates it from the mainland is only about three-fourths of
a mile wide. The ancient Samians were early and important
members of the Ionian confederacy [see ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK
COLONIES] and acquired an early prominence among Greek
communities in navigation, commerce, colonizing enterprise and
advancement in the arts. Shortly before the Persian wars, in
the last half of the sixth century B. C. the island became
subject to a profoundly able and ambitious usurper,
Polycrates, the most famous of all the Greek "tyrants" of the
age, and under whom Samos rose to great power and great
splendor of development. "Samos was at that time the brilliant
centre of all Ionia, as far as the latter was yet untouched by
the barbarians. For such a position she was preeminently
fitted: for nowhere had the national life of the Ionians
attained to so many-sided and energetic a development as on
this particular island. … An unwearying impulse for inventions
was implanted in these islanders, and at the same time a manly
and adventurous spirit of discovery, stimulated by the dangers
of unknown seas. … Under Polycrates, Samos had become a
perfectly organized piratical state; and no ship could quietly
pursue its voyages without having first purchased a
safe-conduct from Samos. … But Polycrates intended to be
something more than a freebooter. After he had annihilated all
attempts at resistance, and made his fleet the sole naval
power of the Archipelago, he began to take steps for creating
a new and lasting establishment. The defenceless places on the
coast had to buy security by the regular payment of tribute;
under his protection they united into a body, the interests
and affairs of which came more and more to find their centre
in Samos, which from a piratical state became the federal
capital of an extensive and brilliant empire of coasts and
islands."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 2, chapter 5 (volume 2)._

Two of the great works of Polycrates in Samos, the aqueduct,
for which a mountain was tunnelled, and the harbor breakwater,
were among the wonders of antiquity. The Heræum, or temple of
Here, was a third marvel. After the death of Polycrates,
treacherously murdered by the Persians, Samos became subject
to Persia. At a later time it came under the sovereignty of
Athens, and its subsequent history was full of vicissitudes.
It retained considerable importance even to Roman times.

SAMOS: B. C. 440.
Revolt from Athens.
Siege and subjugation.

See ATHENS: B. C. 440-437.

SAMOS: B. C. 413.
Overthrow of the oligarchy.
Concession of freedom and alliance by Athens.

See GREECE: B. C. 413-412.

SAMOS: B. C. 33-32.
Antony and Cleopatra.

The winter of B. C. 33-32. before the battle of Actium, was
passed by Mark Antony at Samos, in company with Cleopatra, the
Queen of Egypt. "The delicious little island was crowded with
musicians, dancers and stage players; its shores resounded
with the wanton strains of the flute and tabret."

_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 28._

SAMOS: A. D. 1824.
Defeat of the Turks by the Greeks.

See GREECE: A. D. 1821-1829.

----------SAMOS: End--------

SAMOSATA.

See COMMAGENE.

SAMOTHRACE.

A mountainous island in the northern part of the Ægean sea, so
elevated that its highest point is over 5,000 feet above the
sea level. In ancient times it derived its chief importance
from the mysteries of the little understood worship of the
Cabiri, of which it seems to have been the chief seat.

_G. S. Faber,
Mysteries of the Cabiri_

"The temple and mysteries of Samothrace formed a point of
union for many men from all countries: for a great portion of
the world at that time, the temple of Samothrace was like the
Caaba of Mecca, the tomb of the prophet at Medina, or the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Samothrace and Dodona were to the
Pelasgian nations what perhaps Delphi and Delos were to the
Hellenic world."

_B. G. Niebuhr,
Lectures on the History of Rome,
lecture 1._

SAN.

See ZOAN.

SAN ANTONIO, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1847 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

SAN CARLOS, Battle of.

See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1829-1886.

SAN DOMINGO, OR HAYTI.

See HAYTI.

{2799}

----------SAN FRANCISCO: Start--------

SAN FRANCISCO: A. D. 1579.
Supposed visit by Drake.

See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1543-1781;
and AMERICA: A. D. 1572-1580.

SAN FRANCISCO: A. D. 1772-1776.
First exploration and naming of the Bay.
Founding of the Mission.

See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1543-1781.

SAN FRANCISCO: A. D. 1846.
Possession taken by the Americans.

See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1846-1847.

SAN FRANCISCO: A. D. 1846.
The naming of the Golden Gate.
The great Bay.

See GOLDEN GATE.

SAN FRANCISCO: A. D. 1848.
On the eve of the Gold discoveries.

See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1848-1849.

SAN FRANCISCO: A. D. 1856.
The Vigilance Committee.

See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1856.

SAN FRANCISCO: A. D. 1877-1880.
Kearney and the Sand Lot Party.

See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1877-1880.

----------SAN FRANCISCO: End--------

SAN FRANCISCO, Battle of (1879).

See CHILE: A. D. 1833-1884.

SAN JACINTO, Battle of (1836).

See TEXAS: A. D. 1824-1836.

SAN JUAN OR NORTHWESTERN WATER-BOUNDARY QUESTION.

The treaty of 1846 which settled the Oregon boundary question
left still in dispute the water-boundary between the territory
of the United States and Vancouver's Island. Provision for
submitting the determination of this San Juan water-boundary
question, as it was called, to the Emperor of Germany was made
in the Treaty of Washington.

See ALABAMA CLAIMS: A. D. 1871.

"The Emperor, it appears, referred the arguments on both sides
to three experts, Dr. Grimm, Dr. Kiepert, and Dr. Goldschmidt,
personages among the most eminent of his subjects in
jurisprudence and in science, upon whose report he decided, on
the 21st of October, 1872, in the terms of the reference, that
the claim of the United States to have the line drawn through
the Canal de Haro is most in accordance with the true
interpretation of the treaty concluded on the 15th of June,
1846, between Great Britain and the United States. 'This
Award,' says the President's Message of December 2, 1872,
'confirms the United States in their claim to the important
archipelago of islands lying between the continent and
Vancouver's Island, which for more than 26 years … Great
Britain had contested, and leaves us, for the first time in
the history of the United States as a nation, without a
question of disputed boundary between our territory and the
possessions of Great Britain on this continent.'"

_C. Cushing,
The Treaty of Washington,
page 222._

The Haro Archipelago, which formed the subject of dispute, is
a group of many islands, mostly small, but containing one of
considerable importance, namely the island of San Juan. The
combined area of the islands is about 170 square miles. The
archipelago is bounded on the north by the Canal de Haro and
the Gulf of Georgia, on the east by Rosario Strait, on the
west by the Canal de Haro, on the south by the Straits of
Fuca. The entrance to the strait called the Canal de Haro is
commanded by the Island of San Juan, which has, therefore,
been called "'the Cronstadt of the Pacific.' Its position is
such that a few batteries, skilfully placed, would render it
almost impregnable." Hence the importance attached to the
possession of this island, and especially on the part of Great
Britain, looking to the future of British Columbia. By the
decision of the Emperor of Germany the entire Archipelago
became part of the recognized territory of the United States.

_Viscount Milton,
History of the San Juan Water Boundary Question [to 1869]._

SAN MARINO, The Republic of.

"The Republic of San Marino is a survival unique in the
political world of Europe. … The sovereign independence of San
Marino is due to a series of happy accidents which were
crystallised into a sentiment. The origin of the State is
ascribed to a Dalmatian saint who fled from the early
persecutions at Rome and dwelt in a hermitage on Mount
Titanus. But it is impossible to believe that there was no
earlier population. The mountain is a detached block standing
free of the Apennines,—a short twelve miles from the
sea-coast, easily defensible and commanding a fertile
undulating district. The hill-villages must have existed
before the towns of the coast. As old as Illyrian pirates were
the highland townships of Verrucchio, San Leo, Urbino, Osimo,
Loretto, and above all San Marino. Yet, but for the saint and
his noble benefactress Felicitá, San Marino would have shared
the fate of other highland communes. This lady was a Countess
Matilda on a small scale. She gave to the young congregation
the proprietorship of the mountain, and the lower table-land
was acquired by subsequent purchase and by the generosity of
Pope Æneas Sylvius. But Felicitá could not give
sovereignty,—she could give no more than she possessed. The
sovereignty had rested with the Roman Republic—the Empire—the
Goths —the Greeks—the Germans. The Papacy itself had as much
claim to San Marino as to anything which it possessed. It was
included at all events in the donation of Pepin. In the
Pontificate of John XXII. the Bishop of Feltro, who claimed
the ownership of the town, proposed to sell it, partly because
he needed money to restore his church, partly because the
Sammarinesi were rebellious subjects,—'not recognising
superiors here on earth, and perchance not believing upon a
superior in heaven.' Yet the Papacy appears in the 13th
century to have accepted a judicial decision as to the
sovereign independence of the Republic, and Pius II.
considerably increased its territory in 1463 at the expense of
Sigismund Malatesta. The sovereignty of San Marino is
therefore almost as complete a puzzle as that of the
mysterious Royaume d' Yvetot. … The Malatestas, originally
lords of the neighboring upland fortress of Verrucchio would
willingly have made the whole ridge the backbone of their
State of Rimini. But this very fact secured for the
Sammarinesi the constant friendship of the lords of Urbino. …
Neither power could allow the other to appropriate so
invaluable a strategic position. … The existing constitution
is a living lesson on medieval history. … Theoretically,
sovereignty in the last resort belongs to the people, and of
old this was practically exercised by the Arengo, which thus
has some correspondence in meaning and functions to the
Florentine Parlamento. The Sammarinesi, however, were wiser
than the Florentines. When the increase of population and
territory rendered a gathering of the whole people an
incompetent engine of legislation, the Arengo was not allowed
to remain as a mischievous survival with ill-defined authority
at the mercy of the governmental wire-pullers. The prerogatives
which were reserved to the Arengo were small but definite. …
It was after the accession of territory granted by Pius II. in
1465 that the constitution of the State was fundamentally
altered. …
{2800}
The people now delegated its sovereignty to the Council, which
was raised to 60 members. … In 1600 an order of Patricians was
established, to which was given one-third of the
representation, and the Council now consists of 20 'nobili,'
20 'artisti,' artisans and shopkeepers, and 20 'contadini,'
agriculturists. The harmony of the Republic is undisturbed by
general elections, for the Council is recruited by
co-optation. … At the head of the Executive stand the two
Captains Regent. To them the statutes assign the sovereign
authority and the power of the sword. … They draw a small
salary, and during their six months of office are free from
all State burdens."

_E. Armstrong,
A Political Survival
(Macmillan's Magazine, Jan., 1891)._

"Between this miniature country and its institutions there is
a delicious disproportion. The little area of thin soil has
for centuries maintained a complicated government. … There is
a national post-office; there is an army of nine hundred and
fifty men and eight officers; there are diplomatic agents in
Paris and Montevideo, and consuls in various European cities.
Services rendered to the State or to science may be rewarded
by knighthood, and so late as 1876 San Marino expressed its
gratitude to an English lady for her gift of a statue of
liberty, by making her Duchess of Acquaviva. Titles are by no
means the most undemocratic part of the republic. On
examination it is seen to be in fact an oligarchy. … Yet an
oligarchy among yeoman farmers is a very different thing from
an oligarchy among merchant princes. San Marino may be
compared with colonial Massachusetts. The few voters have
always really represented the mass of the people. It has been
a singularly united, courageous, honorable, public·spirited,
and prudent people. Union was possible because it was and is a
poor community, in which there were no powerful families to
fight and expel each other, or exiles to come back with an
enemy's army. The courage of the people is shown by their
hospitality to Garibaldi when he was fleeing after his defeat
of 1849. An excellent moral fibre was manifested when, in
1868, the Republic refused to receive the gambling
establishments which had been made illegal in other countries.
The new town-hall is a monument to the enlightened public
spirit of the San Marinese, as well as to their taste. That
the State is prudent is shown by its distinction, almost
unique in Europe, of having no public debt. Other little
states in Europe have had similar good qualities, yet have
long since been destroyed. Why has San Marino outlived them
all? … The perpetuation of the government is due in the first
place to it singular freedom from any desire to extend its
borders. The outlying villages have been added by gift or by
their own free will; and when, in 1797, General Bonaparte
invited the San Marinese to make their wishes known, 'if any
part of the adjacent territory is absolutely necessary to
you,' the hard-headed leaders declined 'an enlargement which
might in time compromise their liberty.' On the other hand,
the poor town had nothing worth plundering, and annexation was
so difficult a task that Benedict XIV. said of Cardinal
Alberoni's attempt in 1739: 'San Marino is a tough
bread-crust; the man who tries to bite it gets his teeth
broken.' Nevertheless, even peaceful and inoffensive
communities were not safe during the last twelve centuries,
without powerful protectors. The determining reason for the
freedom of San Marino since 1300 has been the friendship of
potentates, first of the neighboring Dukes of Urbino, then of
the Popes, then of Napoleon, then of Italy. … When the kingdom
of Italy was formed in 1860, no one cared to erase from the
map a state which even the Pope had spared, and in which
Europe was interested. Hence the San Marinese retained a
situation comparable with that of the native states in India.
A 'consolato' of the Italian Government resides in the town;
the schools are assimilated to the Italian system; appeals may
be had from the courts to the Italian upper courts, and
precautions are taken to prevent the harboring of refugee
criminals. Yet of the old sovereignty four important incidents
are retained. San Marino has a post-office, a kind of national
plaything; but the rare and beautiful stamps are much prized
by collectors, and doubtless the sale helps the coffers of the
state. The San Marinese manage, and well manage, their own
local affairs, without any annoying interference from an
Italian prefect. They owe no military service to Italy, and
their own militia is no burden. Above all, they pay no taxes
to Italy. If I were an Italian, I should like to be a San
Marinese."

_A. B. Hart,
The Ancient Commonwealth of San Marino
(The Nation, February 1, 1894)._

SAN MARTIN, General Jose de,
The liberation of Chile and Peru.

See CHILE: A. D. 1810-1818;
and PERU: A. D. 1820-1826.

SAN MARTINO, Battle of (1859).

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859.

SAN SALVADOR, Bahamas.