Chapter LXIV: Section 7 (21)

The name given by Columbus to the little island in the Bahama
group which he first discovered, and the identity of which is
in dispute.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1492.

SAN SALVADOR, Central America: A. D. 1821-1871.
Independence of Spain.
Brief annexation to Mexico.
Attempted Federations and their failure.

See CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.

SAN STEFANO, Treaty of.

See TURKS: A. D. 1877-1878, and 1878.

SANCHO I., King of Aragon, A. D. 1063-1094;

SANCHO IV. of Navarre, A. D. 1076-1094.

SANCHO I., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 955-967.

SANCHO I., King of Navarre, 905-925.

SANCHO I., King of Portugal, 1185-1211.

SANCHO II., King of Castile, 1065-1072.

SANCHO II. (called The Great), King of Navarre, 970-1035; and I. of Castile, 1026-1035.

SANCHO II., King of Portugal, 1223-1244.

SANCHO III., King of Castile, 1157-1158.

Sancho III., King of Navarre, 1054-1076.

SANCHO IV., King of Leon and Castile, 1284-1295.

SANCHO V., King of Navarre, 1150-1194.

SANCHO VI., King of Navarre, 1194-1236.

SAND LOT PARTY, The.

See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1877-1880.

{2801}

SANDEMANIANS.

Robert Sandeman "was a Scotchman who held peculiar religious
views: such as—that an intellectual belief would ensure
salvation, without faith; and that this intellectual belief
was certain to induce Christian virtues. He held these so
strongly and urgently that he made a small sect; and in 1764
he came to Connecticut, and founded churches at Danbury and at
some other places, where his followers were called
'Sandemanians,' and where some traces of them exist still. …
The followers of Robert Sandeman were nearly all Loyalists [at
the time of the American Revolution], and many of them
emigrated from Connecticut to New Brunswick."

_C. W. Elliott,
The New England History.,
volume 2. page 370._

SANDJAKS, SANJAKS.

See BEY; also TIMAR.

SANDJAR, Seljuk Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1116-1157.

SANDWICH ISLANDS, The.

See HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

SANGALA.

An ancient city in the Punjab, India, which was the
easternmost of all the conquests of Alexander the Great. He
took the town by storm (B. C. 326), slaying 17,000 of the
inhabitants and taking 70,000 captives.

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 94._

SANHEDRIM, The.

"Beside the priesthood [of the Jewish church], ever since the
time of Ezra, there had been insensibly growing a body of
scholars, who by the time of Herod had risen to a distinct
function of the State. Already under John Hyrcanus there was a
judicial body known as the House of Judgment (Beth Din). To
this was given the Macedonian title of Synedrion [or
Synhedrion], transformed into the barbarous Hebrew word
Sanhedrim, or Sanhedrin."

_Dean Stanley,
Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church,
lecture 50._

"The Sanhedrin was the great court of judicature; it judged of
all capital offences against the law; it had the power of
inflicting punishment by scourging and by death. … The Great
Sanhedrin was a court of appeal from the inferior Sanhedrins
of twenty-three judges established in the other towns. The
Sanhedrin was probably confined to its judicial duties —it was
a plenary court of justice, and no more during the reigns of
the later Asmonean princes, and during those of Herod the
Great and his son Archelaus. … When Judæa became a Roman
province, the Sanhedrin either, as is more likely, assumed for
the first time, or recovered its station as a kind of senate
or representative body of the nation. … At all events, they
seem to have been the channel of intercourse between the Roman
rulers and the body of the people. It is the Sanhedrin, under
the name of the chief priests, scribes, and elders of the
people, who take the lead in all the transactions recorded in
the Gospels. Jesus Christ was led before the Sanhedrin, and by
them denounced before the tribunal of Pilate."

_H. H. Milman,
History of the Jews,
book 12._

SANHIKANS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

SANITARY COMMISSION,
and Christian Commission, The United States.

"Soon after Mr. Lincoln issued his proclamation [April 15,
1861, at the outbreak of the American Civil War] … calling for
75,000 soldiers, many good men and women instituted what they
termed 'Soldiers' Aid Societies.' At first the government did
not look upon these with approval, under an apprehension that
they might interfere with the discipline and efficiency of the
armies. Certain physicians and clergymen who had interested
themselves in these charitable undertakings perceived how much
good could be accomplished by a more extensive and thorough
organization. Seeking no remuneration, they applied to the
government to give them recognition and moral support, and,
after some difficulty, this being secured, they organized
themselves and were recognized as 'the United States Sanitary
Commission.' The Reverend Henry W. Bellows, D. D., was its
president. Their intention was to aid by their professional
advice the medical department of the government service; but
soon, the field opening out before them, their operations were
greatly enlarged. From being simply an advisory, they became
more and more an executive body. … The Sanitary Commission now
entered on an extraordinary career of usefulness. It ranged
itself in affiliation with the government medical bureau. It
gathered supporters from all classes of the people. … Soon the
commission had an independent transportation of its own. It
had hospital transports, wagons, ambulances, railroad
ambulances, cars. Ingenious men devised for it inventions of
better litters, better stretchers, better ambulances. It
secured comfortable transportation for the wounded soldier
from the battle-field to the hospital. On the railroad it soon
had its hospital cars, with kitchen, dispensary, and a
surgeon's car in the midst. As its work increased, so did its
energies and the singular efficiency of its organization. It
divided its services into several departments of duty.

(1.) Its preventive service, or sanitary inspection
department, had a corps of medical inspectors, who examined
thoroughly troops in the field, and reported their condition
and needs to its own officers and to the government. It had
also a corps of special hospital inspectors, who visited the
general hospitals of the army, nearly 300 in number, their
reports being confidential, and sent to the surgeon general of
the army.

(2.) Its department of general relief. This consisted of
twelve branches of the general commission, having depots in
the large towns, each branch having from 150 to 1,200
auxiliaries engaged in obtaining supplies. These were sent to
the main depot, and there assorted, repacked, and dispatched.
One of these branches, the 'Woman's Central Association,'
collected stores to the value of over a million of dollars;
another, the Northwestern, at Chicago, furnished more than a
quarter of a million. Care was taken to have no waste in the
distribution. Soldiers of all the states were equally
supplied; and even wounded enemies left on the field, or sick
and abandoned in the hospitals, were tenderly cared for.

(3.) Its department of special relief. This took under its
charge soldiers not yet under, or just out of the care of the
government; men on sick leave, or found in the streets, or
left by their regiments. For such it furnished 'homes.' About
7,500 men were, on an average, thus daily or nightly
accommodated. It also had 'lodges' wherein a sick soldier
might stay while awaiting his pay from the paymaster general,
or, if unable to reach a hospital, might stop for a time.
Still more, it had 'Homes for the Wives, Mothers, and Children
of Soldiers.' where those visiting the wounded or sick man to
minister to his necessities might find protection, defense,
food, shelter. It had its 'Feeding Stations,' where a tired
and hungry soldier passing by could have a gratuitous meal. On
the great military lines these stations were permanently
established. On the chief rivers, the Mississippi, the
Cumberland, the Potomac, it had 'sanitary steamers' for
transmitting supplies and transporting the sick and wounded.
It established 'agencies' to see that no injustice was done to
any soldier; that the soldier, his widow, his orphan, obtained
pensions, back pay, bounties, or whatever money was due; that
any errors in their papers were properly corrected, and
especially that no sharper took advantage of them. It
instituted hospital directories by which the friends of a
soldier could obtain information without cost as to his place
and condition, if within a year he had been an inmate of any
hospital. It had such a record of not less than 900,000 names.
Whenever permitted to do so, it sent supplies to the United
States prisoners of war in confinement at Andersonville,
Salisbury, Richmond. …

{2802}

(4.) Its department of field relief. The duty of this was to
minister to the wounded on the field of battle; to furnish
bandages, cordials, nourishment; to give assistance to the
surgeons, and to supply any deficiencies it could detect in
the field hospitals. It had a chief inspector for the armies
of the East; another for the Military Department of the
Mississippi, with a competent staff for each.

(5.) Its auxiliary relief corps. This supplied deficiencies in
personal attendance and work in the hospitals, or among the
wounded on the field. Between May, 1864, when it was first
organized, and January, 1865, it gave its services to more
than 75,000 patients. It waited on the sick and wounded; wrote
letters for them, gave them stationery, postage stamps,
newspapers, and whiled away the heavy hours of suffering by
reading magazines and books to them. To the Sanitary
Commission the government gave a most earnest support; the
people gave it their hearts. They furnished it with more than
three millions of dollars in money, of which one million came
from the Pacific States; they sent it nine millions' worth of
supplies. From fairs held in its interest very large sums were
derived. One in New York yielded a million and a quarter of
dollars; one in Philadelphia more than a million. In towns
comparatively small, there were often collected at such fairs
more than twenty thousand dollars. … The Christian Commission
emulated the noble conduct of the United States Sanitary
Commission. It, too, received the recognition and countenance
of the government. Its object was to promote the physical and
spiritual welfare of soldiers and sailors. Its central office
was in Philadelphia, but it had agencies in all the large
towns. 'It aided the surgeon, helped the chaplain, followed
the armies in their marches, went into the trenches and along
the picket-line. Wherever there was a sick, a wounded, a dying
man, an agent of the Christian Commission was near by.' It
gave Christian burial whenever possible; it marked the graves
of the dead. It had its religious services, its little
extemporized chapels, its prayer-meetings. The American Bible
Society gave it Bibles and Testaments; the Tract Society its
publications. The government furnished its agents and supplies
free transportation; it had the use of the telegraph for its
purposes. Steamboat and railroad companies furthered its
objects with all their ability. It distributed nearly five
millions of dollars in money and supplies."

_J. W. Draper,
History of the American Civil War,
chapter 87 (volume 3)._

ALSO IN:
_L. P. Brockett,
Woman's Work in the Civil War._

_Mrs. M, A. Livermore,
My Story of the War._

_K. P. Wormeley,
The Other Side of the War._

_The Sanitary Commission: its Works and Purposes._

_J. S. Newberry,
The U. S. Sanitary Commission in the Mississippi Valley._

_L. Moss,
Annals of the United States Christian Commission._

SANITARY SCIENCE AND LEGISLATION.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY.

SANJAKS, SANDJAKS.

See BEY; also TIMAR.

SANQUHAR DECLARATION, The.

The Declaration affixed by the Cameronians to the market-cross
of Sanquhar, in 1680, renouncing allegiance to King Charles
II.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1681-1689.

SANS ARCS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

SANSCULOTTES.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (OCTOBER).

SANSCULOTTIDES. of the French Republican Calendar, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER)
THE NEW REPUBLICAN CALENDAR.

SANSKRIT.

"The name Sanskrit as applied to the ancient language of the
Hindus is an artificial designation for a highly elaborated
form of the language originally brought by the Indian branch
of the great Aryan race into India. This original tongue soon
became modified by contact with the dialects of the aboriginal
races who preceded the Aryans, and in this way converted into
the peculiar language ('bhasha') of the Aryan immigrants who
settled in the neighbourhood of the seven rivers of the Panjab
and its outlying districts ('Sapta-Sindhavas'=in Zand 'Hapta
Hendu'). The most suitable name for the original language thus
moulded into the speech of the Hindus is Hindu-i (= Sindhu-i),
its principal later development being called Hindi, just as
the Low German dialect of the Saxons when modified in England
was called Anglo-Saxon. But very soon that happened in India
which has come to pass in all civilized countries. The spoken
language, when once its general form and character had been
settled, separated into two lines, the one elaborated by the
learned, the other popularized and variously provincialized by
the unlearned. In India, however, … this separation became
more marked, more diversified, and progressively intensified.
Hence, the very grammar which with other nations was regarded
only as a means to an end, came to be treated by Indian
Pandits as the end itself, and was subtilized into an
intricate science, fenced around by a bristling barrier of
technicalities. The language, too, elaborated 'pari passu'
with the grammar, rejected the natural name of Hindu-i, or
'the speech of the Hindus,' and adopted an artificial
designation, viz. Sanskrita, 'the perfectly constructed
speech,' … to denote its complete severance from vulgar
purposes, and its exclusive dedication to religion and
literature; while the name Prakrita—which may mean 'the
original' as well as 'the derived' speech—was assigned to the
common dialect."

_M. Williams,
Indian Wisdom.,
introduction, page xxviii._

SANTA ANNA, The career of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1820-1826, to 1848-1861,
and TEXAS: A. D. 1824-1836.

SANTA HERMANDAD.

See HOLY BROTHERHOOD.

SANTA INES, Battle of (1859).

See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1829-1886.

{2803}

SANTA LUCIA, Battle of (1848).

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

SANTALS, The.

See INDIA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

SANTAREM, Battle of (1184).

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1095-1325.

SANTEES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

SANTIAGO, The founding of the city (1541).

See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.

SANTIAGO. OR ST. JAGO, Knights of the Order of.

See CALATRAVA.

SANTONES, The.

See PICTONES.

SAPAUDIA.
The early name of Savoy.

See BURGUNDIANS: A. D. 443-451.

SAPEIRES, The.

See IBERIANS, EASTERN.

SAPIENZA, OR PORTOLONGO; Battle of (1354).

See CONSTANTINOPLE: A. D. 1348-1355.

SARACENIC EMPIRE.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE.

SARACENIC SCHOOLS.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL.

SARACENS, The name.

"From Mecca to the Euphrates, the Arabian tribes were
confounded by the Greeks and Latins under the general
appellation of Saracens. … The name which, used by Ptolemy and
Pliny in a more confined, by Ammianus and Procopius in a
larger, sense, has been derived, ridiculously, from Sarah, the
wife of Abraham, obscurely from the village of Saraka, … more
plausibly from the Arabic words which signify a thievish
character, or Oriental situation. … Yet the last and most
popular of these etymologies is refuted by Ptolemy (Arabia, p.
2. 18. in Hudson, tom. iv.), who expressly remarks the western
and southern position of the Saracens, then an obscure tribe
on the borders of Egypt. The appellation cannot, therefore,
allude to any national character; and, since it was imposed by
strangers, it must be found, not in the Arabic, but in a
foreign language."

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 50, and note._

"Dr. Clarke (Travels, volume ii., page 391) after expressing
contemptuous pity for Gibbon's ignorance, derives the word
from Zara, Zaara, Sara, the Desert, whence Saraceni, the
children of the Desert. De Marlès adopts the derivation from
Sarrik, a robber, History des Arabes, volume 1, page 36; St.
Martin from Scharkioun, or Sharkün, Eastern, volume xi., page
55."

_H. Milman,
note to Gibbon, as above._

The Kadmonites "are undoubtedly what their name expresses,
Orientals, Saracens, otherwise B'ne Kedem,' or Suns of the
East; a name restricted in practice to the cast contiguous to
Palestine, and comprising only the Arabian nations dwelling
between Palestine and the Euphrates. … The name Saraceni was
in use among the Romans long before Islam, apparently from the
time of Trajan's and Hadrian's wars."

_H. Ewald,
History of Israel,
introduction, section 4, with foot-note (volume 1)._

In the Middle Ages the term Saracen became common in its
application to the Arabs, and, in fact, to the Mahometan races
pretty generally.

See ROME: A. D. 96-138.

----------SARAGOSSA: Start--------

SARAGOSSA:
Origin.

See CÆSAR-AUGUSTA.

SARAGOSSA: A. D. 543.
Siege by the Franks.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 507-711.

SARAGOSSA: A. D, 713.
Siege and conquest by the Arab-Moors.

See SPAIN: A. D.711-713.

SARAGOSSA: A. D. 778.
Siege by Charlemagne.

See SPAIN: A. D. 778.

SARAGOSSA: A. D. 1012-1146.
The seat of a Moorish kingdom.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1031-1086.

SARAGOSSA: A. D. 1710.-
Defeat of the Spaniards by the Allies.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1707-1710.

SARAGOSSA: A. D. 1808.
Fruitless siege by the French.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (MAY-SEPTEMBER).

SARAGOSSA: A. D. 1808-1809.
Siege and capture by the French.
Extraordinary defense of the city.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808-1809 (DECEMBER-MARCH).

SARAGOSSA: A. D. 1809.
Siege by the French.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1809 (FEBRUARY-JULY).

SARAGOSSA: A. D. 1809.
Battle and Spanish defeat.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1809 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).

----------SARAGOSSA: End--------

SARANGIANS.

The name given by Herodotus to a warlike people who dwelt
anciently on the shores of the Hamun and in the Valley of the
Hilmend—southwestern Afghanistan. By the later Greeks they
were called Zarangians and Drangians; by the Persians Zaraka.

_M. Duncker,
History of Antiquity,
book 7, chapter 1 (volume 5). _

SARATOGA, Burgoyne's surrender at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D.1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

SARATOGA, The proposed State of.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

SARCEES (TINNEH).

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
BLACKFEET, AND ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.

----------SARDINIA: Start--------

SARDINIA (The Island): Name and early history.

"The name of the island 'Sardo' is derived with probability
from the Phœnician, and describes its resemblance to the human
footstep. … Diodorus reckons this island among the places to
which the Phœnicians sent colonies, after they had enriched
themselves by the silver of Spain. … What the primitive
population of the island was, which the Phœnicians found there
when they touched at its southern ports on their way to Spain,
whether it had come from the coast of Italy, or Africa, we can
only conjecture. In historical times it appears to have been
derived from three principal sources,—immigrations from
Africa, represented by the traditions of Sardus and Aristæus;
from Greece, represented by Iolaus, and from the south and
south-east of Spain, represented by Norax. … The name Norax
has evidently a reference to those singular remains of ancient
architecture, the Nuraghi of Sardinia,—stone towers in the
form of a truncated cone, with a spiral staircase in the
thickness of the wall, which to the number of 3,000 are
scattered over the island, chiefly in the southern and western
parts. Nothing entirely analogous to these has been found in
any other part of the world; but they resemble most the
Athalayas [or Talajots] of Minorca, whose population was
partly Iberian, partly Libyan. … The Carthaginians, at the
time when their naval power was at its height, in the sixth
and fifth centuries B. C., subdued all the level country, the
former inhabitants taking refuge among the mountains, where
their manners receded towards barbarism."

_J. Kenrick,
Phœnicia,
chapter 4, section 3._

SARDINIA: A. D. 1017.
Conquest from the Saracens by the Pisans and Genoese.

See PISA: ORIGIN OF THE CITY.

{2804}

SARDINIA: A. D. 1708.
Taken by the Allies.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1707-1710.

SARDINIA: A. D. 1713.
Ceded to the Elector of Bavaria with the title of King.

See UTRECHT: A.D. 1712-1714.

SARDINIA: A. D. 1714.
Exchanged with the emperor for the Upper Palatinate.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

SARDINIA: A. D. 1717.
Retaken by Spain.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725.

SARDINIA: A. D. 1719.

Given up by Spain and acquired by the Duke of Savoy in
exchange for Sicily, giving its name to his kingdom.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725;
also ITALY: A. D. 1715-1735.

----------SARDINIA: End--------

----------SARDINIA (The Kingdom): Start--------

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1742.
The king joins Austria in the War of the Austrian Succession.

See ITALY: A. D. 1741-1743.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1743.
Treaty of Worms, with Austria and England.

See ITALY: A. D. 1743.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1743.
The Bourbon Family Compact against the king.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1743 (OCTOBER).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1774.
The War of the Austrian Succession:
French and Spanish invasion of Piedmont.

See ITALY: A. D. 1744.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1745.
The War of the Austrian Succession:
Overwhelming reverses.

See ITALY: A. D. 1745.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1746-1747.
The War of the Austrian Succession:
The French and Spaniards driven out.

See ITALY: A. D. 1746-1747.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1748.
Termination and results of the War of the Austrian Succession.

See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1792.
Annexation of Savoy and Nice to the French Republic.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1793.
Joined in the Coalition against Revolutionary France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1794.
Passes of the Alps secured by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (OCTOBER-MAY).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1795.
French victory at Loano.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1796.
Submission to the French under Bonaparte.
Treaty of peace.
Cession of Savoy to the Republic.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1798.
Piedmont taken by the French.
Its sovereignty relinquished by the king.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1799.
French evacuation of Piedmont.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1800.
Recovery of Piedmont by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800-1801 (MAY-FEBRUARY).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1802.
Annexation of part of Piedmont to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1802 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1814-1815.
The king recovers his kingdom.
Annexation of Genoa.
Cession of part of Savoy to France.

See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF:
also FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (APRIL-JUNE).

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1815.
Accession to the Holy Alliance.

See HOLY ALLIANCE.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1820-1821.
Abortive revolutionary rising and war with Austria.
The defeat at Novara.

See ITALY: A. D. 1820-1821.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1831.
Death of Charles Felix.
Accession of Charles Albert.

See ITALY: A. D. 1830-1832.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1848-1849.
Alliance with insurgent Lombardy and Venetia.
War with Austria.
Defeat.
Abdication of Charles Albert.
Accession of Victor Emmanuel II.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1855.
In the Alliance of the Crimean War against Russia.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854-1856.

SARDINIA (The Kingdom): A. D. 1856-1870.
The great work of Count Cavour and King Victor Emmanuel.
Liberation of the whole Peninsula and
creation of the kingdom of Italy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859, to 1867-1870.

----------SARDINIA (The Kingdom): End--------

SARDIS.

When Cyrus the Great founded the Persian empire by the
overthrow of that of the Medes, B. C. 558, his first
enterprise of conquest, outside of the Median dominion, was
directed against the kingdom of Lydia, then, under its famous
king Crœsus, dominant in Asia Minor and rapidly increasing in
wealth and power. After an indecisive battle, Crœsus retired
to his capital city, Sardis, which was then the most splendid
city of Asia Minor, and was followed by Cyrus, who captured
and plundered the town, at the end of a siege of only fourteen
days. The fall of Sardis was the fall of the Lydian kingdom,
which was absorbed into the great empire of Persia.

_G. Rawlinson,
Five Great Monarchies: Persia,
chapter 7._

Fifty-eight years later (about 500 B. C.) at the beginning of
the Ionian Revolt, when the Greek cities of Asia Minor
attempted to throw off the Persian yoke, Sardis was again
plundered and burned by an invading force of Ionians and
Athenians.

_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 14._

See, also, PERSIA: B. C. 521-493.

SARGASSO SEA, The.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1492.

SARISSA, The.

See PHALANX.

SARK, Battle of (1448).

This was a severe defeat inflicted by the Scots upon an
English force, invading Scottish territory, under Lord Percy.
The English lost 3,000 men and Percy was taken prisoner.

_Sir W. Scott,
History of Scotland.
chapter 19._

SARMATIA. SARMATIANS.

"The Scythians of the time of Herodotus were separated only by
the river Tanais [modern Don] from the Sarmatians, who
occupied the territory for several days' journey north-cast of
the Palus Mæôtis; on the south, they were divided by the
Danube from the section of Thracians called Getæ. Both these
nations were nomadic, analogous to the Scythians in habits,
military efficiency, and fierceness. Indeed, Herodotus and
Hippokrates distinctly intimate that the Sarmatians were
nothing but a branch of Scythians, speaking a Scythian
dialect, and distinguished from their neighbours on the other
side of the Tanais chiefly by this peculiarity,—that the women
among them were warriors hardly less daring and expert than
the men."

_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 17._

The Sarmatians ultimately gave their name to the whole region
of northeastern Europe, and some writers have considered them
to be, not Scythic or Mongolic in race, but progenitors of the
modern Slavonic family. "By Sarmatia [Tacitus] seems to have
understood what is now Moldavia and Wallachia, and perhaps
part of the south of Russia."

_Church and Brodribb,
Geographical Notes to The Germany of Tacitus._

See SLAVONIC PEOPLES.

{2805}

SARMATIAN AND MARCOMANNIAN WARS OF MARCUS AURELIUS.

It was during the reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus that the
inroads of the barbarians along the Danubian frontier of the
Roman Empire began to be seriously frequent and bold. "It is
represented as a simultaneous, and even a combined attack, of
all the races on the northern frontier, who may be ranged
under the three national divisions of Germans, Scythians, and
Sarmatians; though we may question the fact of an actual
league among tribes so many, so various, and so distant." The
Marcomanni and the Quadi on the upper Danube, and the
Sarmatian tribes on the lower, were the prominent intruders,
and the campaigns which Aurelius conducted against them, A. D.
167-180, are generally called either the Marcomannian or the
Sarmatian Wars. During these thirteen years, the noblest of
all monarchs surrendered repeatedly the philosophic calm which
he loved so well, and gave himself to the hateful business of
frontier war, vainly striving to arrest in its beginning the
impending flood of barbaric invasion. Repeatedly, he won the
semblance of a peace with the unrelenting foe, and as
repeatedly it was broken. He died in his soldier's harness, at
Vindobona (Vienna), and happily did not live to witness the
peace . which Rome, in the end, stooped to buy from the foes
she had no more strength to overcome.

_C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 68._

ALSO IN:
_P. B. Watson,
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,
chapters 4-6._

See, also, THUNDERING LEGION.

SARN HELEN, The.

A Roman road running through Wales, called by the Welsh the
Sarn Helen, or road of Helen, from a notion that the Empress
Helena caused it to be made.

_T. Wright,
Celt, Roman and Saxon,
chapter 5._

SARPI, Fra Paolo, and the contest of Venice with the Papacy.

See VENICE: A. D. 1606-1607.

SARRE-LOUIS: A. D. 1680.
The founding of the city.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1679-1681.

SARUS, Battle of the.

One of the victories of the Emperor Heraclius,
A. D. 625, in his war with the Persians.

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 24._

SASKATCHEWAN, The district of.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORIES OF CANADA.

SASSANIAN DYNASTY.

Artaxerxes I., who resurrected the Persian empire, or called a
new Persian empire into existence, A. D. 226, by the overthrow
of the Parthian monarchy and the subjection of its dominions,
founded a dynasty which took the name of the Sassanian, or the
family of the Sassanidæ, from one Sasan, who, according to
some accounts was the father, according to others a remoter
progenitor of Artaxerxes. This second Persian monarchy is,
itself, often called the Sassanian, to distinguish it from the
earlier Achæmenian Persian empire.

_G. Rawlinson,
Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy._

See, also, PERSIA: B. C. 150-A. D. 226.

SASTEAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SASTEAN FAMILY.

SATOLLI, Apostolic Delegate in America.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1892.

SATRAP. SATRAPIES.

Darius Hystaspis "has been well called 'the true founder of
the Persian state.' He found the Empire a crude and
heterogeneous mass of ill-assorted elements, hanging loosely
together by the single tie of subjection to a common head; he
left it a compact and regularly organized body, united on a
single well-ordered system, permanently established
everywhere. … It was the first, and probably the best,
instance of that form of government which, taking its name
from the Persian word for provincial ruler, is known generally
as the system of 'satrapial' administration. Its main
principles were, in the first place, the reduction of the
whole Empire to a quasi-uniformity by the substitution of one
mode of governing for several; secondly, the substitution of
fixed and definite burthens on the subject in lieu of variable
and uncertain calls; and thirdly, the establishment of a
variety of checks and counterpoises among the officials to
whom it was necessary that the crown should delegate its
powers. … The authority instituted by Darius was that of his
satraps. He divided the whole Empire into a number of separate
governments—a number which must have varied at different
times, but which seems never to have fallen short of twenty.
Over each government he placed a satrap, or supreme civil
governor, charged with the collection and transmission of the
revenue, the administration of justice, the maintenance of
order, and the general supervision of the territory. These
satraps were nominated by the king at his pleasure from any
class of his subjects, and held office for no definite term,
but simply until recalled, being liable to deprivation or
death at any moment, without other formality than the
presentation of the royal 'firman.' While, however, they
remained in office they were despotic—they represented the
Great King, and were clothed with a portion of his majesty. …
They wielded the power of life and death. They assessed the
tribute on the several towns and villages within their
jurisdiction at their pleasure, and appointed deputies—called
sometimes, like themselves, satraps—over cities or districts
within their province, whose office was regarded as one of
great dignity. … Nothing restrained their tyranny but such
sense of right as they might happen to possess, and the fear
of removal or execution if the voice of complaint reached the
monarch."

_G. Rawlinson,
Five Great Monarchies: Persia,
chapter 7._

SATTAGYDÆ, The.

See GEDROSIANS.

SATURNALIA, The Roman.

"The Saturnalia, first celebrated in Rome at the dedication
[of the temple of Saturn, on the southern slope of the
Capitoline Hill] … extended originally over three, but finally
over seven days, during which all social distinctions were
ignored; slaves were admitted to equality with their masters;
and the chains which the emancipated from slavery used to
hang, as thanksgiving, on or below the statue of the god, were
taken down to intimate that perfect freedom had been enjoyed
by all alike under the thrice-happy Saturnian reign. Varro
mentions the practice of sending wax tapers as presents during
this festival; and when we remember the other usage of
suspending wax masks, during the Saturnalia, in a chapel
beside the temple of the beneficent Deity, the analogies
between these equalizing fêtes and the modern Carnival become
more apparent."

_C. I. Hemans,
Historic and Monumental Rome,
chapter 6. _

SAUCHIE BURN, Battle of (1488).

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1482-1488.

{2806}

SAUCY CASTLE.

See CHÂTEAU GAILLARD.

SAUK, OR SAC, Indians.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and SACS.

SAULCOURT, Battle of (A. D. 881).

A notable defeat inflicted upon the invading Northmen or Danes
in 881 by the French king Louis III., one of the last of the
Carolingian line. The battle is commemorated in a song which
is one of the earliest specimens of Teutonic verse.

_Sir F. Palgrave,
History of Normandy and England,
book 1, chapter 4 (volume 1)._

SAULT STE. MARIE, The Jesuit mission at.

See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

SAULTEUR, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: OJIBWAYS.

SAUMUR: Stormed by the Vendeans.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JUNE).

SAUROMATÆ, The.

See SCYTHIANS.

SAVAGE STATION, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JUNE-JULY: VIRGINIA).

SAVANNAH: A. D. 1732.
The founding of the city.

See GEORGIA: A. D. 1732-1739.

SAVANNAH: A. D. 1775-1776.
Activity of the Liberty Party.

See GEORGIA: A. D. 1775-1777.

SAVANNAH: A. D. 1778.
Taken and occupied by the British.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1778-1779 WAR CARRIED INTO THE SOUTH.

SAVANNAH: A. D. 1779.
Unsuccessful attack by the French and Americans.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1779 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

SAVANNAH: A. D. 1861.
Threatened by the Union forces, in occupation of the islands
at the mouth of the river.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: SOUTH
CAROLINA-GEORGIA).

SAVANNAH: A. D. 1862.
Reduction of Fort Pulaski by the national forces,
and sealing up of the port.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (FEBRUARY-APRIL: GEORGIA-FLORIDA).

SAVANNAH: A. D. 1864.
Confederate evacuation.
Sherman in possession.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER: GEORGIA).

SAVANNAHS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

SAVENAY, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER) THE CIVIL WAR.

SAVERNE:
Taken by Duke Bernhard (1636).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

SAVERY, Thomas, and the Steam Engine.

See STEAM ENGINE.

SAVONA, The Pope at.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1808-1814.

SAVONAROLA, in Florence.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1490-1498.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT:
The founding of the Burgundian kingdom in Savoy.

See BURGUNDIANS: A. D. 443-451.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: 11th Century.
The founders of the House of Savoy.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1032.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: 11-15th Centuries.
Rise and growth of the dominions of the Savoyard princes,
in Italy and the Burgundian territory.
Creation of the duchy.
Assumption of the title of Princes of Piedmont.

"The cradle of the Savoyard power lay in the Burgundian lands
immediately bordering upon Italy and stretching on both sides
of the Alps. It was to their geographical position, as holding
several great mountain passes, that the Savoyard princes owed
their first importance, succeeding therein in some measure to
the Burgundian kings themselves. The early stages of the
growth of the house are very obscure; and its power does not
seem to have formed itself till after the union of Burgundy
with the Empire. But it seems plain that, at the end of the
11th century, the Counts of Maurienne, which was their
earliest title, held rights of sovereignty in the Burgundian
districts of Maurienne, Savoy strictly so called, Tarantaise,
and Aosta. … The early Savoyard possessions reached to the
Lake of Geneva, and spread on both sides of the inland mouth
of the Rhone. The power of the Savoyard princes in this region
was largely due to their ecclesiastical position as advocates
of the abbey of Saint Maurice. Thus their possessions had a
most irregular outline, nearly surrounding the lands of
Genevois and Faucigny. A state of this shape, like Prussia in
a later age and on a greater scale, was, as it were,
predestined to make further advances. But for some centuries
those advances were made much more largely in Burgundy than in
Italy. The original Italian possessions of the House bordered
on their Burgundian counties of Maurienne and Aosta, taking in
Susa and Turin. This small marchland gave its princes the
sounding title of Marquesses in Italy. … In the 12th and 13th
centuries, the princes of Savoy were still hemmed in, in their
own corner of Italy, by princes of equal or greater power, at
Montferrat, at Saluzzo, at Iverea, and at Biandrate. And it
must be remembered that their position as princes at once
Burgundian and Italian was not peculiar to them. … The Italian
dominions of the family remained for a long while quite
secondary to its Burgundian possessions. … The main object of
Savoyard policy in this region was necessarily the acquisition
of the lands of Faucigny and the Genevois. But the final
incorporation of those lands did not take place till they were
still more completely hemmed in by the Savoyard dominions
through the extension of the Savoyard power to the north of
the Lake. This began early in the 13th century [1207] by a
royal grant of Moudon to Count Thomas of Savoy. Romont was
next won, and became the centre of the Savoyard power north of
the Lake. Soon after, through the conquests of Peter of Savoy
[1263-1268], who was known as the Little Charlemagne and who
plays a part in English as well as in Burgundian history,
these possessions grew into a large dominion, stretching along
a great part of the shores of the Lake of Neufchâtel and
reaching as far north as Murten or Morat. … This new dominion
north of the Lake was, after Peter's reign, held for a short
time by a separate branch of the Savoyard princes as Barons of
Vaud; but in the middle of the 14th century, their barony came
into the direct possession of the elder branch of the house.
The lands of Faucigny and the Genevois were thus altogether
surrounded by the Savoyard territory. Faucigny had passed to
the Dauphins of the Viennois, who were the constant rivals of
the Savoyard counts, down to the time of the practical
transfer of their dauphiny to France. Soon after that
annexation, Savoy obtained Faucigny, with Gex and some other
districts beyond the Rhone, in exchange for some small
Savoyard possessions within the dauphiny.
{2807}
The long struggle for the Genevois, the county of Geneva, was
ended by its purchase in the beginning of the 15th century
[1401]. This left the city of Geneva altogether surrounded by
Savoyard territory, a position which before long altogether
changed the relations between the Savoyard counts and the
city. Hitherto, in the endless struggles between the Genevese
counts, bishops, and citizens, the Savoyard counts … had often
been looked on by the citizens as friends and protectors. Now
that they had become immediate neighbours of the city, they
began before long to be its most dangerous enemies. The
acquisition of the Genevois took place in the reign of the
famous Amadeus, the Eighth, the first Duke of Savoy, who
received that rank by grant of King Siegmund [1417], and who
was afterwards the Anti-pope Felix.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1431-1448.

In his reign the dominions of Savoy, as a power ruling on both
sides of the Alps, reached their greatest extent. But the
Savoyard power was still pre-eminently Burgundian, and
Chambery was its capital. The continuous Burgundian dominion
of the house now reached from the Alps to the Saône,
surrounding the lake of Geneva and spreading on both sides of
the lake of Neufchâtel. Besides this continuous Burgundian
dominion, the House of Savoy had already become possessed
[1388] of Nizza, by which their dominions reached to the sea.
… After the 15th century, the Burgundian history of that house
consists of the steps spread over more than 300 years by which
this great dominion was lost. The real importance of the house
of Savoy in Italy dates from much the same time as the great
extension of its power in Burgundy. … During the 14th century,
among many struggles with the Marquesses of Montferrat and
Saluzzo, the Angevin counts of Provence, and the lords of
Milan, the Savoyard power in Italy generally increased. …
Before the end of the reign of Amadeus [the Eighth—1391-1451],
the dominions of Savoy stretched as far as the Sesia, taking
in Biella, Santhia and VerceIli. Counting Nizza and Aosta as
Italian, which they now practically were, the Italian
dominions of the House reached from the Alps of Wallis to the
sea. But they were nearly cut in two by the dominions of the
Marquesses of Montferrat, from whom however the Dukes of Savoy
now claimed homage. … Amadeus, the first Duke of Savoy, took
the title of Count of Piedmont, and afterwards that of Prince.
His possessions were now fairly established as a middle state,
Italian and Burgundian, in nearly equal proportions."

_E. A. Freeman,
Historical Geography of Europe,
chapter 8, section 7._

ALSO IN:
_A. Gallenga,
History of Piedmont,
volume 1, chapters 6-9,
volume 2, chapters 1-6._

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1452-1454.
Alliance with Venice and Naples.
War with Milan and Florence.

See MILAN: A. D. 1447-1454.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1504-1535.
Struggles with the independent burghers of Geneva.
Loss of the Vidommate.

See GENEVA: A. D. 1504-1535.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1536-1544.
Conquest by the French and restoration to
the Duke by the Treaty of Crespy.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1559-1580.
End of the French occupation.
Recovery of his dominions by Emanuel Philibert.
His reconstruction of the state.
Treaties with the Swiss.
War with the Waldenses.
Tolerant Treaty of Cavour.
Settlement of government at Turin.

"The history of Piedmont begins where the history of Italy
terminates. At the Peace of Chateau-Cambresis], in 1559,
Piedmont was born again.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

Under Amadeus VIII. Savoy bade fair to become a State of the
very first order. In the course of a century it had sunk to a
third-rate power. … Piedmont, utterly prostrated by
five-and-twenty years of foreign occupation, laid waste by the
trampling of all the armies of Europe, required now the work
of a constructive genius, and Emanuel Philibert was
providentially fitted for the task. No man could better afford
to be pacific than the conqueror of St. Quintin. …

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

After the battle of St. Quintin, Emanuel Philibert had France
at his discretion. Had his counsels been instantly followed,
the Spanish army would have dictated its own terms before or
within the walls of Paris. … The reconciliation of France with
the hero who had alarmed and humbled her seemed, nevertheless,
to be sincere." Under the terms of the treaty, the Duke of
Savoy's dominions, occupied by the French, were to be restored
to him, except that Turin, Chieri, Chivasso, Pinerolo, and
Villanova d' Asti, with part of their territories, "were to be
occupied for three years, or until the settlement of the
differences between the two Courts, chiefly with regard to the
dowry of Louisa of Savoy, mother of Francis I., the original
cause of dispute. … So long as France insisted on keeping the
five above-mentioned places, Spain was also empowered to
retain Asti and Vercelli." Philip II., however, gave up
VerceIli and "contented himself with the occupation of Asti
and Santia." The differences with France proved hard of
settlement, and it was not until 1574 that "Emanuel Philibert
found himself in possession of all his Subalpine dominions. No
words can describe the meanness and arrogance by which the
French aggravated this prolonged usurpation of their
neighbour's territories. … Had Emanuel Philibert put himself
at the head of one of [the factions which fought in France at
this time] … he might have paid back … the indignities he had
had to endure; but his mission was the restoration of his own
State, not the subjugation of his neighbour's. … The same
moderation and longanimity which enabled Emanuel Philibert to
avoid a collision with France, because be deemed it
unreasonable, equally distinguished him in his relations with
his neighbours of Italy. There was now, alas! no Italy; the
country had fallen a prey to the Spanish branch of the House
of Austria, and the very existence of Mantua, Parma, Tuscany,
etc., was at the mercy of Philip II. … This 'most able and
most honest of all the princes of his line' was fully aware of
the importance of his position as the 'bulwark of Italy,' and
felt that on his existence hung the fate of such states in the
Peninsula as still aspired to independence. 'I know full
well,' he said in a moment of cordial expansion, 'that these
foreigners are all bent on the utter destruction of Italy, and
that I may be the first immolated; but my fall can be
indifferent to no Italian state, and least of all to Venice.'
Full of these thoughts, he was unwearied in his endeavours to
secure the friendship of that republic. … The same instinctive
dread of the crushing ascendancy of Spain and France, which
made Emanuel Philibert cling to the Venetian alliance, equally
urged him to settle, no matter at what cost, the differences
with the other old allies of his house—the Swiss. The Pays de
Vaud, Gex, Chablais, and Lower Valais were still in the power
of the confederates.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1531-1648.

{2808}

It was not without a murmur that the Duke of Savoy could part
with so fair a portion of his forefathers' inheritance; but it
was not long ere he learnt to resign all hope of its recovery.
A new generation had sprung up in those provinces, amongst
whom all loyalty to Savoy had died off. The Bernese had
introduced the Reformation into the conquered lands. …
Political freedom went hand in hand with religious innovation.
… Geneva was the very head-quarters of reform; it was proud of
the appellation of the 'Rome of Calvinism.' … Emanuel
Philibert, ill-supported by Spain and thwarted by France, laid
aside all ideas of an appeal to force, and trusted his cause
to negotiation. There was happily division in the enemy's
camp; religious difference had set the old forest cantons into
opposition with Berne and her Protestant associates. The Duke
of Savoy made a treaty at Lucerne (November 11, 1560) with
Schwytz, Uri, Unterwald, Zug, Lucerne, Soleure, and even
Zurich; and these promised their good offices with their
Protestant brethren in behalf of Savoy. Lengthy and somewhat
stormy conferences ensued, the result of which was the treaty
of Lausanne (October 30, 1564); by the terms of which Berne
retained Vaud, and Friburg Romont, and Savoy only recovered
Gex and Chablais. At a later period (March 4th, 1569) Valais
also came to terms at Thonon; it gave up its own share of
Chablais, but remained in possession of Lower Valais. By the
recovery of Gex and Chablais Savoy now encompassed Geneva on
all sides, and caused that town incessant uneasiness; but the
Duke … was … earnestly bent on peace, and he reassured the
Genevese by new treaties, signed at Berne (May 5th, 1570), by
which he engaged to give no molestation to Geneva. These same
treaties bound Savoy to allow freedom of conscience and
worship to those of her subjects who had embraced
Protestantism during the Swiss occupation; and we hear, in
fact, of no persecutions in the provinces round the Leman in
Emanuel Philibert's lifetime; but it is important to inquire
how that Prince dealt in these matters with his subjects in
general. … We hear from several authorities that 'the
Piedmontese were more than half Protestants.' The Waldensian
ministers reckoned their sectaries at the foot of the Alps at
800,000. … The Waldenses considered the prevalence of the new
tenets as their own triumph. From 1526 to 1530 they entered
into communication with the Reformers, and modified their own
creed and worship in accordance with the new ideas,
identifying themselves especially with the disciples of
Calvin. … Their valleys became a refuge for all persecuted
sectaries, amongst whom there were turbulent spirits, who
stirred up those simple and loyal mountaineers to mutiny and
revolt. Although they thus called down upon themselves the
enmity of all the foes to Protestantism, these valleys
continued nevertheless to be looked upon as a privileged
district, and their brethren of other provinces found there a
safe haven from the storms which drove them from their homes."
In 1559, the Duke issued his edict of Nice, "intended not so
much to suppress heresy as to repress it." The Waldenses
"assumed a mutinous attitude," and "applied for succour to the
Huguenot chiefs of the French provinces." Then the Duke sent
4,000 foot and 200 horse into the valleys, under the Count de
la Trinita, and a fierce and sanguinary war ensued. "Its
horrors were aggravated by foreign combatants, as the ranks of
La Trinita were swelled by both French and Spanish marauders;
and the Huguenots of France, and even some Protestant
volunteers from Germany, fought with the Waldenses. … But it
was not for the interest of the Duke of Savoy that his
subjects should thus tear each other to pieces. After repeated
checks La Trinita met with, … a covenant was signed at Cavour
on the 5th of June, 1561. The Waldenses were allowed full
amnesty and the free exercise of their worship within their
own territory. … Within those same boundaries they consented
to the erection of Catholic churches, and bound themselves to
a reciprocal toleration of Roman rites. … The Treaty of Cavour
satisfied neither party. It exposed the Duke to the loud
reprimands of Rome, France and Spain, no less than to the
bitter invectives of all his clergy …; and, on the other hand
the Waldenses … again and again placed themselves in
opposition to the authorities deputed to rule over them. … In
his leniency towards the sectaries of the valleys, Emanuel
Philibert was actuated by other motives besides the promptings
of a naturally generous soul. … His great schemes for the
regeneration of the country could only find their development
in a few years of profound peace. … Whatever may be thought of
the discontent to which his heavy taxes gave rise among the
people, or his stern manners among the nobles, it is a
beautiful consoling fact that the establishment of despotism
in Piedmont did not cost a single drop of blood, that the
prince subdued and disciplined his people by no other means
than the firmness of his iron will. … The great work for which
Piedmont will be eternally indebted to the memory of this
great prince was the nationalization of the State. He
established the seat of government at Turin, recalled to that
city the senate which had been first convoked at Carignano,
and the university which had been provisionally opened at
Mondovi. Turin, whose bishop had been raised to metropolitan
honours in 1515, had enjoyed comparative security under the
French, who never lost possession of it from 1536 to 1562. It
dates its real greatness and importance from Emanuel
Philibert's reign, when the population … rose to 17,000 souls.
… It was not without great bitterness that the transalpine
provinces of Savoy submitted to the change, and saw the
dignity and ascendancy of a sovereign state depart from them."
Emanuel Philibert died in 1580, and was succeeded by his son,
Charles Emanuel.

_A. Gallenga,
History of Piedmont,
volume 3, chapter 1._

{2809}

SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: A. D. 1580-1713.
Vicissitudes of a century and a quarter.
Profitable infidelities in war.
The Duke wins Sicily and the title of King.

Emanuel Philibert, by his "well-timed policy of peace, … was
enabled to leave his duchy immensely strengthened to his son
Charles Emanuel (1580-1630). The new duke was much more active
in his policy. His marriage with a daughter of Philip II. bound
him to the side of Spain and he supported the cause of the
League in France. With the help of the Catholic party he
seized the vacant marquisate of Saluzzo, and thus involved
himself in a long quarrel with Henry IV. In 1601 the pence of
Lyons confirmed the duke in the possession of Saluzzo, in
exchange for which he ceded Bresse on the Rhone frontier to
Henry. All attempts made to recover Geneva for Savoy proved
unsuccessful. Before his death the restless Charles Emanuel
brought forward another claim to the marquisate of Montferrat.
This had been held since 1533 by the dukes of Mantua, whose
male line became extinct in 1627. The duke did not live to see
the settlement of the Mantuan succession, but his son, Victor
Amadeus I., obtained great part of Montferrat by the treaty of
Cherasco (1631). Richelieu had now acquired Pinerolo and
Casale for France and this effected a complete change in the
policy of Savoy. Victor Amadeus was married to Christine, a
daughter of Henry IV., and he and his successor remained till
nearly the end of the century as faithful to France as his
predecessors had been to Spain. Charles Emanuel II., who
succeeded as a minor on the early death of his father, was at
first under the guardianship of his mother, and when he came
of age remained in the closest alliance with Louis XIV. His
great object was to secure the Italian position which Savoy
had assumed, by the acquisition of Genoa. But the maritime
republic made a successful resistance both to open attack and
to treacherous plots. Victor Amadeus II., who became duke in
1675, was married to a daughter of Philip of Orleans. But
Louis XIV. had begun to treat Savoy less as an ally than as a
dependency, and the duke, weary of French domination, broke
off the old connexion, and in 1690 joined the League of
Augsburg against Louis. His defection was well-timed and
successful, for the treaty of Ryswick (1697) gave him the
great fortresses of Pinerolo and Casale, which had so long
dominated his duchy. In the war of the Spanish succession he
first supported Louis and afterwards turned against him. His
faithlessness was rewarded in the peace of Utrecht [1713] with
the island of Sicily and the title of king. Within a few
years, however, he was compelled to exchange Sicily for
Sardinia."