Chapter VI: Front Matter (6)

The name Olympus was given by the Greeks to a number of
mountains and mountain ranges; but the one Olympus which
impressed itself most upon their imaginations, and which
seemed to be the home of their gods, was the lofty height that
terminates the Cambunian range of mountains at the east and
forms part of the boundary between Thessaly and Macedonia. Its
elevation is nearly 10,000 feet above the level of the sea and
all travelers have seemed to be affected by the peculiar
grandeur of its aspect. Other mountains called Olympus were in
Elis, near Olympia, where the great games were celebrated, and
in Laconia, near Sellasia. There was also an Olympus in the
island of Cyprus, and two in Asia Minor, one in Lycia, and a
range in Mysia, separating Bithynia from Galatia and Phrygia.

See THESSALY, and DORIANS AND IONIANS.

OLYNTHIAC ORATIONS, The.

See GREECE: B. C. 351-348.

----------OLYNTHUS: Start--------

OLYNTHUS: B. C. 383-379.
The Confederacy overthrown by Sparta.

See GREECE: B. C. 383-379.

OLYNTHUS: B. C. 351-348.
War with Philip of Macedon.
Destruction of the city.

See GREECE: B. C. 351-348.

----------OLYNTHUS: End--------

OMAGUAS, The.

See EL DORADO.

OMAHAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY,
and SIOUAN FAMILY.

OMAR I.,
Caliph, A. D. 634-643.

Omar II., Caliph, 717-720.

OMER, OR GOMER, The.

See EPHAH.

OMMIADES, OMEYYADES, The.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST:
A. D. 661; 680; 715-750, and 756-1031.

OMNIBUS BILL, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850.

ON.

"A solitary obelisk of red granite, set up at least 4,000
years ago, alone marks the site of On, also called the City of
the Sun, in Hebrew Beth-shemesh, in Greek Heliopolis. Nothing
else can be seen of the splendid shrine and the renowned
university which were the former glories of the place. … The
university to which the wise men of Greece resorted perished
when a new centre of knowledge was founded in the Greek city
of Alexandria. … It was during the temporary independence of
the country under native kings, after the first Persian rule,
that Plato the philosopher and Eudoxus the mathematician
studied at Heliopolis. … The civil name of the town was An,
the Hebrew On, the sacred name Pe-Ra, the 'Abode of the Sun.'"

_R. S. Poole,
Cities of Egypt,
chapter 9._

{2400}

The site of On, or Heliopolis, is near Cairo. There was
another city in Upper Egypt called An by the Egyptians, but
Hermonthis by the Greeks.

ONEIDAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

O'NEILS, The wars and the flight of the.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1559-1603;
and 1607-1611.

ONONDAGAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

ONTARIO:
The Name.

See OHIO: THE NAME.

ONTARIO, Lake, The Discovery of.

See CANADA: A. D. 1611-1616.

ONTARIO, The province.

The western division of Canada, formerly called Upper Canada,
received the name of Ontario when the Confederation of the
Dominion of Canada was formed.

See CANADA: A. D. 1867.

ONTARIO SCHOOL SYSTEM.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1844-1876.

OODEYPOOR.

See RAJPOOTS.

OPEQUAN CREEK, OR WINCHESTER, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (AUGUST-OCTOBER: VIRGINIA).

OPHIR, Land of.

The geographical situation of the land called Ophir in the
Bible has been the subject of much controversy. Many recent
historians accept, as "conclusively demonstrated," the opinion
reached by Lassen in his Indische Alterthumskunde, that the
true Ophir of antiquity was the country of Abhira, near the
mouths of the Indus, not far from the present province of
Guzerat. But some who accept Abhira as being the original
Ophir conjecture that the name was extended in use to southern
Arabia, where the products of the Indian Ophir were marketed.

OPIUM WAR, The.

See CHINA: A. D. 1839-1842.

----------OPORTO: Start--------

OPORTO: Early history.
Its name given to Portugal.

See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

OPORTO: A. D. 1832.
Siege by Dom Miguel.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1824-1889.

----------OPORTO: End--------

OPPIAN LAW, The.

A law passed at Rome during the second Punic War (3d century,
B. C.), forbidding any woman to wear a gay–colored dress, or
more than half an ounce of gold ornament, and prohibiting the
use of a car drawn by horses within a mile of any city or
town. It was repealed B. C. 194.

_H. G. Liddell,
History of Rome,
book 4, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN:
_R. F. Horton,
History of the Romans,
chapter 16._

OPPIDUM.

Among the Gauls and the Britons a town, or a fortified place,
was called an oppidum. As Cæsar explained the term, speaking
of the oppidum of Cassivellaunus, in Britain, it signified a
"stockade or enclosed space in the midst of a forest, where
they took refuge with their flocks and herds in case of an
invasion."

_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 19, note E (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_Cæsar,
Gallic War,
book 5, chapter 21._

OPTIMATES.

"New names came into fashion [in Rome], but it is difficult to
say when they were first used. We may probably refer the
origin of them to the time of the Gracchi [B. C. 133-121]. One
party was designated by the name of Optimates, 'the class of
the best.' The name shows that it must have been invented by
the 'best,' for the people would certainly not have given it
to them. We may easily guess who were the Optimates. They were
the rich and powerful, who ruled by intimidation, intrigue,
and bribery, who bought the votes of the people and sold their
interests. … Opposed to the Optimates were the Populares."

_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 1, chapter 20._

See ROME: B. C. 159-133.

ORACLES OF THE GREEKS.

"Wherever the worship of Apollo had fixed its roots, there
were sibyls and prophets; for Apollo is nowhere conceivable
without the beneficent light of prophecy streaming out from
his abode. The happy situation and moral significance of
leading colleges of priests procured a peculiar authority for
individual oracles. Among these are the Lycian Patara, the
Thymbræan oracle near Troja (to which belongs Cassandra, the
most famed of Apollo's prophetesses), the Gryneum on Lesbos,
the Clarian oracle near Colophon, and finally the most
important of all the oracles of Asia Minor, the Didymæum near
Miletus, where the family of the Branchidæ held the prophetic
office as a hereditary honorary right. Delos connects the
Apolline stations on the two opposite sides of the water:
here, too, was a primitive oracle, where Anius, the son of
Apollo, was celebrated as the founder of a priestly family of
soothsayers. … The sanctuaries of Ismenian Apollo in Thebes
were founded, the Ptoïum on the hill which separates the
Hylian plain of the sea from the Copæic, and in Phocis the
oracle of Abæ. The reason why the fame of all these celebrated
seats of Apollo was obscured by that of Delphi lies in a
series of exceptional and extraordinary circumstances by which
this place was qualified to become a centre, not only of the
lands in its immediate neighbourhood, like the other oracles,
but of the whole nation. … With all the more important
sanctuaries there was connected a comprehensive financial
administration, it being the duty of the priests, by shrewd
management, by sharing in profitable undertakings, by
advantageous leases, by lending money, to increase the annual
revenues. … There were no places of greater security, and they
were, therefore, used by States as well as by private persons
as places of deposit for their valuable documents, such as
wills, compacts, bonds, or ready money. By this means the
sanctuary entered into business relations with all parts of
the Greek world, which brought it gain and influence. The
oracles became money-institutions, which took the place of
public banks. … It was by their acquiring, in addition to the
authority of religious holiness, and the superior weight of
mental culture, that power which was attainable by means of
personal relations of the most comprehensive sort, as well as
through great pecuniary means and national credit, that it was
possible for the oracle-priests to gain so comprehensive an
influence upon all Grecian affairs. … With the extension of
colonies the priests' knowledge of the world increased, and
with this the commanding eminence of the oracle-god. … The
oracles were in every respect not only the provident eye, not
only the religious conscience, of the Greek nation, but they
were also its memory."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 2, chapter 4._

{2401}

"The sites selected for these oracles were generally marked by
some physical property, which fitted them to be the scenes of
such miraculous manifestations. They were in a volcanic
region, where gas escaping from a fissure in the earth might
be inhaled, and the consequent exhilaration or ecstasy, partly
real and partly imaginary, was a divine inspiration. At the
Pythian oracle in Delphi there was thought to be such an
exhalation. Others have supposed that the priests possessed
the secret of manufacturing an exhilarating gas. … In each of
the oracular temples of Apollo, the officiating functionary
was a woman, probably chosen on account of her nervous
temperament;—at first young, but, a love affair having
happened, it was decided that no one under fifty should be
eligible to the office. The priestess sat upon a tripod,
placed over the chasm in the centre of the temple."

_C. C. Felton,
Greece, Ancient and Modern,
chapter 2, lecture 9._

----------ORAN: Start--------

ORAN: A. D. 1505.
Conquest by Cardinal Ximenes.

See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1505-1510.

ORAN: A. D. 1563.
Siege, and repulse of the Moors.

See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1563-1565:

----------ORAN: End--------

ORANGE, The Prince of:
Assassination.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584, and 1584-1585.

ORANGE, The Principality.

"The little, but wealthy and delicious, tract of land, of
which Orange is the capital, being about four miles in length
and as many in breadth, lies in the Comté Venaissin, bordering
upon that of Avignon, within a small distance of the Rhone;
and made no inconsiderable part of that ancient and famous
Kingdom of Arles which was established by Boso towards the end
of the 9th century. …"

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 888-1032; and 1032.

"In the beginning of the 9th century, historians tell us of
one William, sirnamed Cornet, of uncertain extraction,
sovereign of this State, and highly esteemed by the great
Emperor Charlemagne, whose vassal he then was. Upon failure of
the male descendants of this prince in the person of Rambald
IV.; who died in the 13th century, his lands devolved to
Tiburga, great aunt to the said Rambald, who brought them in
marriage to Bertrand II. of the illustrious house of Baux.
These were common ancestors to Raymond V., father to Mary,
with whom John IV. of Chalon contracted an alliance in 1386;
and it was from them that descended in a direct male line the
brave Philibert of Chalon, who, after many signal services
rendered the Emperor Charles V., as at the taking of Rome more
particularly, had the misfortune to be slain, leaving behind
him no issue, in a little skirmish at Pistoya, while he had
the command of the siege before Florence. Philibert had one
only sister, named Claudia, whose education was at the French
court," where, in 1515, she married Henry, of Nassau, whereby
the principality passed to that house which was made most
illustrious, in the next generation, by William the Silent,
Prince of Orange. The Dutch stadtholders retained the title of
Princes of Orange until William III. Louis XIV. seized the
principality in 1672, but it was restored to the House of
Nassau by the Peace of Ryswick.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

On the death of William III. it was declared to be forfeited
to the French crown, and was bestowed on the Prince of Conti;
but the king of Prussia, who claimed it, was permitted, under
the Treaty of Utrecht, to bear the title, without possession
of the domain.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

_J. Breval,
History of the House of Nassau._

ALSO IN:
_E. A. Freeman,
Orange
(Historical Essays, volume 4)._

See, also, NASSAU.

ORANGE, The town: Roman origin.

See ARAUSIO.

ORANGE FREE STATE.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.

ORANGE SOCIETY, The formation of the.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1795-1796.

ORARIANS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ESKIMAUAN FAMILY.

ORATIONES, Roman Imperial.

See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

ORATORY, Congregation of the.

See CONGREGATION OF THE ORATORY.

ORBITELLO, Siege of (1646).

See ITALY: A. D. 1646-1654.

ORCHA, Battle of.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

ORCHAN, Ottoman Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1325-1359.

ORCHIAN, FANNIAN, DIDIAN LAWS.

"In the year 181 B. C. [Rome] a law (the Lex Orchia) was
designed to restrain extravagance in private banquets, and to
limit the number of guests. This law proved ineffectual, and
as early as 161 B. C. a far stricter law was introduced by the
consul, C. Fannius (the Lex Fannia) which prescribed how much
might be spent on festive banquets and common family meals. …
The law, moreover, prohibited certain kinds of food and drink.
By a law in the year 143 B. C. (the Lex Didia) this regulation
was extended over the whole of Italy."

_W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 6, chapter 12 (volume 4)._

ORCHOMENOS.

See MINYI, THE.

ORCHOMENOS, Battle of (B. C. 85).

See MITHRIDATIC WARS.

ORCYNIAN FOREST, The.

See HERCYNIAN.

ORDAINERS, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1310-1311.

ORDEAL, The.

"During the full fervor of the belief that the Divine
interposition could at all times be had for the asking, almost
any form of procedure, conducted under priestly observances,
could assume the position and influence of an ordeal. As early
as 592, we find Gregory the Great alluding to a simple
purgatorial oath, taken by a Bishop on the relics of St.
Peter, in terms which convey evidently the idea that the
accused, if guilty, had exposed himself to imminent danger,
and that by performing the ceremony unharmed he had
sufficiently proved his innocence. But such unsubstantial
refinements were not sufficient for the vulgar, who craved the
evidence of their senses, and desired material proof to rebut
material accusations. In ordinary practice, therefore, the
principal modes by which the will of Heaven was ascertained
were the ordeal of fire, whether administered directly, or
through the agency of boiling water or red-hot iron; that of
cold water; of bread or cheese; of the Eucharist; of the
cross; the lot; and the touching of the body of the victim in
cases of murder.
{2402}
Some of these, it will be seen, required a miraculous
interposition to save the accused; others to condemn; some
depended altogether on volition, others on the purest chance;
while others, again, derived their power from the influence
exerted on the mind of the patient. They were all accompanied
with solemn religious observances. … The ordeal of boiling
water ('æneum,' 'judicium aquæ ferventis,' 'cacabus,'
'caldaria') is probably the oldest form in which the
application of fire was judicially administered in Europe as a
mode of proof. … A caldron of water was brought to the boiling
point, and the accused was obliged with his naked hand to find
a small stone or ring thrown into it; sometimes the latter
portion was omitted, and the hand was simply inserted, in
trivial cases to the wrist, in crimes of magnitude to the
elbow, the former being termed the single, the latter the
triple ordeal. … The cold-water ordeal ('judicium aquæ
frigidæ') differed from most of its congeners in requiring a
miracle to convict the accused, as in the natural order of
things he escaped. … The basis of this ordeal was the
superstitious belief that the pure element would not receive
into its bosom anyone stained with the crime of a false oath."

_H. C. Lea,
Superstition and Force,
chapter 3._

See, also, LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1198-1199.

ORDERS, Monastic.

See
AUSTIN CANONS;
BENEDICTINE ORDERS;
CAPUCHINS;
CARMELITE FRIARS;
CARTHUSIAN ORDER;
CISTERCIAN ORDER;
CLAIRVAUX;
CLUGNY;
MENDICANT ORDERS;
RECOLLECTS;
SERVITES;
THEATINES;
TRAPPISTS.

ORDERS IN COUNCIL, Blockade by British.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1806-1810; and
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1809.

ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.

See KNIGHTHOOD.

ORDINANCE OF 1787.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1787.

ORDINANCES OF SECESSION.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1860 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER);
1861 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).

ORDINANCES OF 1311.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1310-1311.

ORDOÑO I.,
King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, A. D. 850-866.

Ordoño II., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 914-923.

Ordoño III., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 950-955.

ORDOVICES, The.
One of the tribes of ancient Wales.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

----------OREGON: Start--------

OREGON:
The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CHINOOKAN FAMILY,
and SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.

OREGON: A. D: 1803.
Was it embraced in the Louisiana Purchase?
Grounds of American possession.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

OREGON: A. D. 1805.
Lewis and Clark's exploring expedition.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1805.

OREGON: A. D. 1844-1846.
The Boundary dispute with Great Britain and its settlement.

"The territory along the Pacific coast lying between
California on the south and Alaska on the north —Oregon as it
was comprehensively called—had been a source of dispute for
some time between the United States and Great Britain. After
some negotiations both had agreed with Russia to recognize the
line of 54° 40' as the southern boundary of the latter's
possessions; and Mexico's undisputed possession of California
gave an equally well marked southern limit, at the 42d
parallel. All between was in dispute. The British had trading
posts at the mouth of the Columbia, which they emphatically
asserted to be theirs; we, on the other hand, claimed an
absolutely clear title up to the 49th parallel, a couple of
hundred miles north of the mouth of the Columbia, and asserted
that for all the balance of the territory up to the Russian
possessions our title was at any rate better than that of the
British. In 1818 a treaty had been made providing for the
joint occupation of the territory by the two powers, as
neither was willing to give up its claim to the whole, or at
the time at all understood the value of the possession, then
entirely unpeopled. This treaty of joint occupancy had
remained in force ever since. Under it the British had built
great trading stations, and used the whole country in the
interests of certain fur companies. The Americans, in spite of
some vain efforts, were unable to compete with them in this
line; but, what was infinitely more important, had begun, even
prior to 1840, to establish actual settlers along the banks of
the rivers, some missionaries being the first to come in. …
The aspect of affairs was totally changed when in 1842 a huge
caravan of over 1,000 Americans made the journey from the
frontiers of Missouri, taking with them their wives and their
children, their flocks and herds, carrying their long rifles
on their shoulders, and their axes and spades in the great
canvas-topped wagons. The next year 2,000 more settlers of
the same sort in their turn crossed the vast plains, wound
their way among the Rocky Mountains through the pass explored
by Fremont, Benton's son-in-law, and after suffering every
kind of hardship and danger, and warding off the attacks of
hostile Indians, descended the western slope of the great
water–shed to join their fellows by the banks of the Columbia.
When American settlers were once in actual possession of the
disputed territory, it became evident that the period of Great
Britain's undisputed sway was over. … Tyler's administration
did not wish to embroil itself with England; so it refused any
aid to the settlers, and declined to give them grants of land,
as under the joint occupancy treaty that would have given
England offense and cause for complaint. But Benton and the
other Westerners were perfectly willing to offend England, if
by so doing they could help America to obtain Oregon, and were
too rash and headstrong to count the cost of their actions.
Accordingly, a bill was introduced providing for the
settlement of Oregon, and giving each settler 640 acres, and
additional land if he had a family. … It passed the Senate by
a close vote, but failed in the House. … The unsuccessful
attempts made by Benton and his supporters, to persuade the
Senate to pass a resolution, requiring that notice of the
termination of the joint occupancy treaty should forthwith be
given, were certainly ill-advised. However, even Benton was
not willing to go to the length to which certain Western men
went, who insisted upon all or nothing. … He sympathized with
the effort made by Calhoun while secretary of state to get the
British to accept the line of 49° as the frontier; but the
British government then rejected this proposition. In 1844 the
Democrats made their campaign upon the issue of 'fifty-four
forty or fight'; and Polk, when elected, felt obliged to
insist upon this campaign boundary.
{2403}
To this, however, Great Britain naturally would not consent;
it was, indeed, idle to expect her to do so, unless things
should be kept as they were until a fairly large American
population had grown up along the Pacific coast, and had thus
put her in a position where she could hardly do anything else.
Polk's administration was neither capable nor warlike, however
well disposed to bluster; and the secretary of state, the
timid, shifty, and selfish politician, Buchanan, naturally
fond of facing both ways, was the last man to wish to force a
quarrel on a high-spirited and determined antagonist, like
England. Accordingly, he made up his mind to back down and try
for the line of 49°, as proposed by Calhoun, when in Tyler's
cabinet; and the English, for all their affected indifference,
had been so much impressed by the warlike demonstrations in
the United States, that they in turn were delighted …;
accordingly they withdrew their former pretensions to the
Columbia River and accepted [June 15, 1846] the offered
compromise."

_T. Roosevelt,
Life of Thomas H. Benton,
chapter 12._

ALSO IN:
_T. H. Benton,
Thirty Years' View,
volume 2, chapters 143, and 156-159._

_Treaties and Conventions between the United States
and other countries (edition of 1889),
page 438._

_W. Barrows,
Oregon._

OREGON: A. D. 1859.
Admission into the Union, with a constitution
excluding free people of color.

"The fact that the barbarism of slavery was not confined to
the slave States had many illustrations. Among them, that
afforded by Oregon was a signal example. In 1857 she formed a
constitution, and applied for admission into the Union. Though
the constitution was in form free, it was very thoroughly
imbued with the spirit of slavery; and though four fifths of
the votes cast were for the rejection of slavery, there were
seven eighths for an article excluding entirely free people of
color. As their leaders were mainly proslavery, it is probable
that the reason why they excluded slavery from the
constitution was their fear of defeat in their application for
admission. … On the 11th of February, 1859, Mr. Stephens
reported from the Committee on Territories a bill for the
admission of Oregon as a State. A minority report, signed by
Grow, Granger, and Knapp, was also presented, protesting
against its admission with a constitution so discriminating
against color. The proposition led to an earnest debate;" but
the bill admitting Oregon prevailed, by a vote of 114 to 103
in the House and 35 to 17 in the Senate.

_H. Wilson,
History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power,
volume 2, chapter 49._

----------OREGON: End--------

OREJONES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

ORELLANA, and his discovery of the Amazons River (1541).

See AMAZONS RIVER.

ORESTÆ, The.

See MACEDONIA.

ORIENTAL CHURCH, The.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 330-1054;
ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY; and FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY.

ORIFLAMME, The.

"The Oriflamme was originally the Banner of the Abbey of St.
Denis, and was received by the Counts of the Vexin, as
'Avoués' of that Monastery, whenever they engaged in any
military expedition. On the union of the Vexin with the Crown
effected by Philip I., a similar connexion with the Abbey was
supposed to be contracted by the Kings; and accordingly Louis
the Fat received the Banner, with the customary solemnities,
on his knees, bare-headed, and ungirt. The Banner was a square
Gonfalon of flame-coloured silk, unblazoned, with the lower
edge cut into three swallow-tails."

_E. Smedley,
History of France,
part 1, chapter 3, foot-note._

"The Oriflamme was a flame-red banner of silk; three-pointed
on its lower side, and tipped with green. It was fastened to a
gilt spear."

_G. W. Kitchin,
History of France,
volume 1, book 3, chapter 5, foot-note._

ORIK, OR OURIQUE, Battle of (1139).

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1095-1325.

ORISKANY, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

ORKNEYS: 8-14th Centuries.
The Norse Jarls.

See NORMANS: 8-9TH CENTURIES; and 10-13TH CENTURIES.

ORLEANISTS.

See LEGITIMISTS.

ORLEANS, The Duke of: Regency.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1715-1723.

----------ORLEANS, The House of: Start--------

ORLEANS, The House of:
Origin.

See BOURBON, THE HOUSE OF.

ORLEANS, The House of: A. D. 1447.
Origin of claims to the duchy of Milan.

See MILAN: A. D. 1447-1454.

----------ORLEANS, The House of: End--------

----------ORLEANS, The City: Start--------

ORLEANS, The City:
Origin and name.

"The Loire, flowing first northwards, then westwards,
protects, by its broad sickle of waters, this portion of Gaul,
and the Loire itself is commanded at its most northerly point
by that city which, known in Caesar's day as Genabum, had
taken the name Aureliani from the great Emperor, the conqueror
of Zenobia, and is now called Orleans."

_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 2, chapter 3 (volume 2)._

See, also, GENABUM.

ORLEANS, The City:
Early history.

See GAUL: B. C. 58-51.

ORLEANS, The City: A. D. 451.
Siege by Attila.

See HUNS: A. D. 451.

ORLEANS, The City: A. D. 511-752.
A Merovingian capital.

See FRANKS: A. D. 511-752.

ORLEANS, The City: A. D. 1429.
Deliverance by Joan of Arc.

In the summer of 1428 the English, under the Duke of Bedford,
having maintained and extended the conquests of Henry V., were
masters of nearly the whole of France north of the Loire. The
city of Orleans, however, on the north bank of that river, was
still held by the French, and its reduction was determined
upon. The siege began in October, and after some months of
vigorous operations there seemed to be no doubt that the
hard-pressed city must succumb. It was then that Joan of Arc,
known afterwards as the Maid of Orleans, appeared, and by the
confidence she inspired drove the English from the field. They
raised the siege on the 12th of May, 1429, and lost ground in
France from that day.

_Monstrelet,
Chronicles,
book 2, chapters 52-60._

See FRANCE: A. D. 1429-1431.

ORLEANS, The City: A. D. 1870.
Taken by the Germans.
Recovered by the French.
Again lost.
Repeated battles.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER); and 1870-1871.

----------ORLEANS, The City: End--------

ORLEANS, The Territory of.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1804-1812; and 1812.

ORMÉE OF BORDEAUX, The.

See BORDEAUX: A. D. 1652-1653.

{2404}

OROPUS, Naval Battle at.

The Athenians suffered a defeat at the hands of the Spartans
in a sea fight at Oropus, B. C. 411, as a consequence of which
they lost the island of Eubœa. It was one of the most disastrous
in the later period of the Peloponnesian War.

_Thucydides,
History,
book 8, section 95._

ORPHANS, The.

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434.

ORSINI, OR URSINI, The.

See ROME: 13-14TH CENTURIES.

ORTHAGORIDÆ, The.

See SICYON.

ORTHES, Battle of (1814).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812-1814.

ORTHODOX, OR GREEK CHURCH, The.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 330-1054;
also, ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY,
and FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY.

ORTOSPANA.

The ancient name of the city of Cabul.

ORTYGIA.

See SYRACUSE.

OSAGES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY, and SIOUAN FAMILY.

OSCANS, The.

"The Oscan or Opican race was at one time very widely spread
over the south (of Italy]. The Auruncans of Lower Latium
belonged to this race, as also the Ausonians, who once gave
name to Central Italy, and probably also the Volscians and the
Æquians. In Campania the Oscan language was preserved to a
late period in Roman history, and inscriptions still remain
which can be interpreted by those familiar with Latin."

_H. G. Liddell,
History of Rome,
introduction, section 2_.

See, also, ITALY: ANCIENT.

OSCAR I.,
King of Sweden, A. D. 1844-1859.

Oscar II., King of Sweden, 1872-.

OSI, The.

See ARAVISCI; also, GOTHINI.

OSISMI, The.

See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.

OSMAN. OSMANLI.

See OTHMAN.

OSMANLIS.

See TURKS (OTTOMANS): A. D. 1240-1326.

OSNABRÜCK: A. D. 1644-1648.
Negotiation of the Peace of Westphalia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

OSRHOËNE, OSROËNE.

A small principality or petty kingdom surrounding the city of
Edessa, its capital, in northwestern Mesopotamia. It appears
to have acquired its name and some little importance during
the period of Parthian supremacy. It was a prince of Osrhoëne
who betrayed the ill-fated army of Crassus to the Parthians at
Carrhæ. In the reign of Caracalla Osrhoëne was made a Roman
province. Edessa, the capital, claimed great antiquity, but is
believed to have been really founded by Seleucus. During the
first ten or eleven centuries of the Christian era Edessa was
a city of superior importance in the eastern world, under
dependent kings or princes of its own. It was especially noted
for its schools of theology.

_G. Rawlinson,
Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy,
chapter 11._

ALSO IN:
_T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 5, chapter 2._

_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapters 8 and 47._

_P. Smith,
History of the World,
volume 3 (American edition),
page 151._

OSSA AND PELION.

See THESSALY.

----------OSTEND: Start--------

OSTEND: A. D. 1602-1604.
Siege and capture by the Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1594-1609.

OSTEND: A. D. 1706.
Besieged and reduced by the Allies.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1706-1707.

OSTEND: A. D. 1722-1731.
The obnoxious Company.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725; and 1726-1731.

OSTEND: A. D. 1745-1748.
Taken by the French, and restored.

See NETHERLANDS (AUSTRIAN PROVINCES): A. D. 1745;
and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.

----------OSTEND: End--------

OSTEND MANIFESTO, The.

See CUBA: A. D. 1845-1860.

OSTIA.

Ostia, the ancient port of Rome, at the mouth of the Tiber,
was regarded as a suburb of the city and had no independent
existence. Its inhabitants were Roman citizens. In time, the
maintaining of a harbor at Ostia was found to be
impracticable, owing to deposits of silt from the Tiber, and
artificial harbors were constructed by the emperors Claudius,
Nero and Trajan, about two miles to the north of Ostia. They
were known by the names Portus Augusti and Portus Trajani. In
the 12th century the port and channel of Ostia were partially
restored, for a time, but only to be abandoned again. The
ancient city is now represented by a small hamlet, about two
miles from the sea shore.

_R. Burn,
Rome and the Campagna,
chapter 14._

OSTMEN.

See NORMANS: 10-13TH CENTURIES.

OSTRACH, Battle of (1799).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799.(AUGUST-APRIL).

OSTRACISM.

"The state [Athens] required means of legally removing persons
who, by an excess of influence and adherents, virtually put an
end to the equality among the citizens established by law, and
thus threatened the state with a revival of party-rule. For
this purpose, in the days of Clisthenes, and probably under
his influence, the institution of ostracism, or judgment by
potsherds, was established. By virtue of it the people were
themselves to protect civic equality, and by a public vote
remove from among them whoever seemed dangerous to them. For
such a sentence, however, besides a public preliminary
discussion, the unanimous vote of six thousand citizens was
required. The honour and property of the exile remained
untouched, and the banishment itself was only pronounced for a
term of ten years."

_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 2, chapter 2 (volume 1)._

"The procedure (in ostracism] was as follows: —Every year, in
the sixth or seventh Prytany, the question was put to the
people whether it desired ostracism to be put in force or not.
Hereupon of course orators came forward to support or oppose
the proposal. The former they could only do by designating
particular persons as sources of impending danger to freedom,
or of confusion and injury to the commonwealth; in opposition
to them, on the other side, the persons thus designated, and
anyone besides who desired it, were of course free to deny the
danger, and to show that the anxiety was unfounded. If the
people decided in favour of putting the ostracism in force, a
day was appointed on which it was to take place. On this day
the people assembled at the market, where an enclosure was
erected with ten different entrances and accordingly, it is
probable, the same number of divisions for the several Phylæ.
Every citizen entitled to a vote wrote the name of the person
he desired to have banished from the state upon a potsherd. …
At one of the ten entrances the potsherds were put into the
hands of the magistrates posted there, the Prytanes and the
nine Archons, and when the voting was completed were counted
one by one. The man whose name was found written on at least
six thousand potsherds was obliged to leave the country within
ten days at latest."

_G. F. Schömann,
Antiquities of Greece,
part 3, chapter 3._

{2405}

OSTROGOTHS.

See GOTHS.

OSTROLENKA, Battle of (1831).

See POLAND: A. D. 1830-1832.

OSTROVNO, Battle of.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

OSWALD, King of Northumbria, A. D. 635-642.

----------OSWEGO: Start--------

OSWEGO: A. D. 1722.
Fort built by the English.

See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.

OSWEGO: A. D. 1755.
English position strengthened.

See CANADA: A. D. 1755 (AUGUST-OCTOBER).

OSWEGO: A. D. 1756.
The three forts taken by the French.

See CANADA: A. D. 1756-1757.

OSWEGO: A. D. 1759.
Reoccupied by the English.

See CANADA: A. D. 1759.

OSWEGO: A. D. 1783-1796.
Retained by the English after peace with the United States.
Final surrender.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1783-1796; and 1794-1795.

----------OSWEGO: End--------

OSWI, King of Northumbria, A. D. 655-670.

OTADENI, OTTEDENI, The.

One of the tribes in Britain whose territory lay between the
Roman wall and the Firth of Forth. Mr. Skene thinks they were
the same people who are mentioned in the 4th century as the
"Attacotti."

_W. F. Skene,
Celtic Scotland,
volume l._

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

OTCHAKOF, Siege of (1737).

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1725-1739.

OTFORD, Battle of.

Won by Edmund Ironsides, A. D. 1016, over Cnut, or Canute, the
Danish claimant of the English crown.

OTHMAN, Caliph, A. D. 643-655.

Othman, or Osman, founder of the Ottoman or
Osmanli dynasty of Turkish Sultans, 1307-1325.

Othman II., Turkish Sultan, 1618-1622.

Othman III., Turkish Sultan, 1754-1757.

OTHO,
Roman Emperor, A. D. 69.

Otho (of Bavaria), King of Hungary, 1305-1307.

Otho, or Otto I. (called the Great),
King of the East Franks (Germany), 936-973;
King of Lombardy, and Emperor, 962-973.

Otho II., King of the East Franks (Germany),
King of Italy, and Emperor, 967-983.

Otho Ill., King of the East Franks (Germany), 983-1002;
King of Italy and Emperor, 996-1002.

Otho IV., King of Germany, 1208-1212; Emperor, 1209-1212.

OTHRYS.

See THESSALY.

OTIS, James, The speech of, against Writs of Assistance.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1761.

OTOES, OTTOES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY, and SIOUAN FAMILY.

OTOMIS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: OTOMIS.

OTRANTO: Taken by the Turks (1480).

See TURKS: A. D. 1451-1481.

OTTAWA, Canada:
The founding of the City.

"In 1826 the village of Bytown, now Ottawa, the capital of the
Dominion of Canada, was founded. The origin of this beautiful
city was this: Colonel By, an officer of the Royal Engineers,
came to survey the country with a view of making a canal to
connect the tidal waters of the St. Lawrence with the great
lakes of Canada. After various explorations, an inland route
up the Ottawa to the Rideau affluent, and thence by a ship
canal to Kingston on Lake Ontario, was chosen. Colonel By made
his headquarters where the proposed canal was to descend, by
eight locks, a steep declivity of 90 feet to the Ottawa River.
'The spot itself was wonderfully beautiful.' … It was the
centre of a vast lumber-trade, and had expanded by 1858 to a
large town."

_W. P. Greswell,
History of the Dominion of Canada,
page 168._

OTTAWAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and OJIBWAS;
also PONTIAC'S WAR.

OTTERBURN, Battle of.

This famous battle was fought, August 19, 1388, between a
small force of Scots, harrying the border, under Earl Douglas
and a hastily assembled body of English led by Sir Henry
Percy, the famous Hotspur. The English, making a night attack
on the Scottish camp, not far from Newcastle, were terribly
beaten, and Hotspur was taken prisoner; but Douglas fell
mortally wounded. The battle was a renowned encounter of
knightly warriors, and greatly interested the historians of
the age. It is narrated in Froissart's chronicles (volume 3,
chapter 126), and is believed to be the action sung of in the
famous old ballad of Chevy Chase, or the "Hunting of the
Cheviot."

_J. H. Burton,
History of Scotland,
chapter 26 (volume 3)._

OTTIMATI, The.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1498-1500.

OTTO.

See OTHO.

OTTOCAR, OTOKAR, King of Bohemia, A. D. 1253-1278.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE.

See TURKS (OTTOMANS): A. D. 1240-1326, and after.

OTTOMAN GOVERNMENT.

See SUBLIME PORTE.

OTUMBA, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1520-1521.

OTZAKOF:
Storming, capture, and massacre of inhabitants
by the Russians (1788).

See TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792.

OUAR KHOUNI, The.

See AVARS.

----------OUDE: Start--------

OUDE, OR OUDH.

"Before the British settler had established himself on the
peninsula of India, Oude was a province of the Mogul Empire.
When that empire was distracted and weakened by the invasion
of Nadir Shah [see INDIA: A. D. 1662-1748], the treachery of
the servant was turned against the master, and little by
little the Governor began to govern for himself. But holding
only an official, though an hereditary title, he still
acknowledged his vassalage; and long after the Great Mogul had
shrivelled into a pensioner and pageant, the Newab–Wuzeer of
Oude was nominally his minister. Of the earliest history of
British connexion with the Court of the Wuzeer, it is not
necessary to write in detail. There is nothing less creditable
in the annals of the rise and progress of the British power in
the East. The Newab had territory; the Newab had subjects; the
Newab had neighbours; more than all, the Newab had money.
{2406}
But although he possessed in abundance the raw material of
soldiers, he had not been able to organise an army sufficient
for all the external and internal requirements of the State;
and so he was fain to avail himself of the superior military
skill and discipline of the white men, and to hire British
battalions to do his work. … In truth it was a vicious system,
one that can hardly be too severely condemned. By it we
established a Double Government of the worst kind. The
Political and Military government was in the hands of the
Company; the internal administration of the Oude territories
still rested with the Newab–Wuzeer. In other words, hedged in
and protected by the British battalions, a bad race of Eastern
Princes were suffered to do, or not to do, what they liked. …
Every new year saw the unhappy country lapsing into worse
disorder, with less disposition, as time advanced, on the part
of the local Government to remedy the evils beneath which it
was groaning. Advice, protestation, remonstrance were in vain.
Lord Cornwallis advised, protested, remonstrated: Sir John
Shore advised, protested, remonstrated. At last a statesman of
a very different temper appeared upon the scene. Lord
Wellesley was a despot in every pulse of his heart. But he was
a despot of the right kind; for he was a man of consummate
vigour and ability, and he seldom made a mistake. The
condition of Oude soon attracted his attention; not because
its government was bad and its people were wretched, but
because that country might either be a bulwark of safety to
our own dominions, or A sea of danger which might overflow and
destroy us. … It was sound policy to render Oude powerful for
good and powerless for evil. To the accomplishment of this it
was necessary that large bodies of ill-disciplined and
irregularly paid native troops in the service of the
Newab-Wuzeer—lawless bands that had been a terror alike to him
and to his people—should be forthwith disbanded, and that
British troops should occupy their place. … The additional
burden to be imposed upon Oude was little less than half a
million of money, and the unfortunate Wuzeer, whose resources
had been strained to the utmost to pay the previous subsidy,
declared his inability to meet any further demands on his
treasury. This was what Lord Wellesley expected—nay, more, it
was what he wanted. If the Wuzeer could not pay in money, he
could pay in money's worth. He had rich lands that might be
ceded in perpetuity to the Company for the punctual payment of
the subsidy. So the Governor-General prepared a treaty ceding
the required provinces, and with a formidable array of British
troops at his call, dragooned the Wuzeer into sullen
submission to the will of the English Sultan. The new treaty
was signed; and districts then yielding a million and a half
of money, and now nearly double that amount of annual revenue,
passed under the administration of the British Government.
Now, this treaty—the last ever ratified between the two
Governments—bound the Newab-Wuzeer to 'establish in his
reserved dominions such a system of administration, to be
carried on by his own officers, as should be conducive to the
prosperity of his subjects, and he calculated to secure the
lives and properties of the inhabitants,' and he undertook at
the same time 'always to advise with and to act in conformity
to the counsels of the officers of the East India Company.'
But the English ruler knew well that there was small hope of
these conditions being fulfilled. … Whilst the counsels of our
British officers did nothing for the people, the bayonets of
our British soldiers restrained them from doing anything for
themselves. Thus matters grew from bad to worse, and from
worse to worst. One Governor-General followed another; one
Resident followed another; one Wuzeer followed another; but
still the great tide of evil increased in volume, in darkness,
and in depth. But, although the Newab-Wuzeers of Oude were,
doubtless, bad rulers and bad men, it must be admitted that
they were good allies. … They supplied our armies, in time of
war, with grain; they supplied us with carriage–cattle; better
still, they supplied us with cash. There was money in the
Treasury of Lucknow, when there was none in the Treasury of
Calcutta; and the time came when the Wuzeer's cash was needed
by the British ruler. Engaged in an extensive and costly war,
Lord Hastings wanted more millions for the prosecution of his
great enterprises. They were forthcoming at the right time;
and the British Government were not unwilling in exchange to
bestow both titles and territories on the Wuzeer. The times
were propitious. The successful close of the Nepaul war placed
at our disposal an unhealthy and impracticable tract of
country at the foot of the Hills. This 'terai' ceded to us by
the Nepaulese was sold for a million of money to the Wuzeer,
to whose domains it was contiguous, and he himself expanded
and bloomed into a King under the fostering sun of British
favour and affection."

_J. W. Kaye,
History of the Sepoy War in India,
chapter 3 (volume 1)._

"By Lord Wellesley's treaty with the then Nawab-Vizier of
Oude, that prince had agreed to introduce into his then
remaining territories, such a system of administration as
should be conducive to the prosperity of his subjects, and to
the security of the lives and property of the inhabitants; and
always to advise with, and act in conformity to the counsel
of, the officers of the Company's Government. Advantage had
been taken of this clause, from time to time, to remonstrate
with the Oude princes on their misgovernment. I have no doubt
that the charges to this effect were in great measure correct.
The house of Oude has never been remarkable for peculiar
beneficence as governors. A work lately published, the
'Private Life of an Eastern King,' affords, I suppose, a true
picture of what they may have been as men. Still, the charges
against them came, for the most part, from interested lips. …
Certain it is that all disinterested English observers—Bishop
Heber, for instance—entering Oude fresh from Calcutta, and
with their ears full of the current English talk about its
miseries, were surprised to find a well–cultivated country, a
manly and independent people. … Under Lord Dalhousie's rule,
however, and after the proclamation of his annexation policy,
complaints of Oude misgovernment became—at Calcutta—louder
and louder. Within Oude itself, these complaints were met, and
in part justified, by a rising Moslem fanaticism. Towards the
middle of 1855, a sanguinary affray took place at Lucknow"
between Hindoos and Mussulmans, "in which the King took part
with his co-religionists, against the advice of Colonel
Outram, the then Resident. Already British troops near Lucknow
were held in readiness to act; already the newspapers were
openly speculating on immediate annexation. … At Fyzabad, new
disturbances broke out between Hindoos and Moslems.
{2407}
The former were victorious. A Moolavee, or doctor, of high
repute, named Ameer Alee, proclaimed the holy war. Troops were
ordered against him. … The talk of annexation grew riper and
riper. The Indian Government assembled 16,000 men at Cawnpore.
For months the Indian papers had been computing what revenue
Oude yielded to its native prince—what revenue it might yield
under the Company's management. Lord Dalhousie's successor,
Lord Canning, was already at Bombay. But the former seems to
have been anxious to secure for himself the glory of this
step. The plea—the sole plea—for annexation, was maltreatment
of their people by the Kings of Oude. … The King had been
warned by Lord William Bentinck, by Lord Hardinge. He had
declined to sign a new treaty, vesting the government of his
country exclusively in the East India Company. He was now to
be deposed; and all who withheld obedience to the
Governor-General's mandate were to be rebels (7th February,
1856). The King followed the example of Pertaub Shean of
Sattara—withdrew his guns, disarmed his troops, shut up his
palace. Thus we entered into possession of 24,000 square miles
of territory, with 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 inhabitants,
yielding £1,000,000 of revenue. But it was expected by
officials that it could be made to yield £1,500,000 of
surplus. Can you wonder that it was annexed?"

_J. M. Ludlow,
British India,
part 2, lecture 15 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_E. Arnold,
The Marquis of Dalhousie's Administration of British India,
chapter 25 (volume 2)._

_Sir W. W. Hunter,
The Marquess of Dalhousie,
chapter 8._

_W. M. Torrens,
Empire in Asia: How we came by it,
chapter 26._

OUDE: A. D. 1763-1765.
English war with the Nawab.

See INDIA: A. D. 1757-1772.

----------OUDE: End--------

OUDE, The Begums of, and Warren Hastings.

See INDIA: A. D. 1773-1785.

----------OUDENARDE: Start--------

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1582.
Siege and capture by the Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1659.
Taken by the French and restored to Spain.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1667.
Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1668.
Ceded to France.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1679.
Restored to Spain.

See NIMEGUEN, THE PEACE OF.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1706.
Surrendered to Marlborough and the Allies.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1706-1707.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1708.
Marlborough's victory.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1708-1709.

OUDENARDE: A. D. 1745-1748.
Taken by the French, and restored.

See NETHERLANDS (AUSTRIAN PROVINCES): A. D. 1745;
and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE; THE CONGRESS.

----------OUDENARDE: End--------

OUDH.

See OUDE.

OUIARS, OUIGOURS, The.

See AVARS.

OUMAS, HUMAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKOGEAN FAMILY.

OUR LADY OF MONTESA, The Order of.

This was an order of knighthood founded by King Jayme II., of
Aragon, in 1317.

_S. A. Dunham,
History of Spain and Portugal,
volume 4, page 238 (American edition)._

OURIQUE, Battle of (1139).

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1095-1325.

OVATION, The Roman.

See TRIUMPH.

OVIEDO, Origin of the kingdom of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 713-737.

OVILIA.

See CAMPUS MARTIUS.

OXENSTIERN, Axel: His leadership in Germany.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1632-1634.

OXFORD, The Headquarters of King Charles.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1642 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

OXFORD, Provisions of.

A system or constitution of government secured in 1258 by the
English barons, under the lead of Earl Simon de Montfort. The
king, Henry III., "was again and again forced to swear to it,
and to proclaim it throughout the country. The special
grievances of the barons were met by a set of ordinances
called the Provisions of Westminster, which were produced
after some trouble in October 1259."

_W. Stubbs,
The Early Plantagenets,
page 190._

The new constitution was nominally in force for nearly six
years, repeatedly violated and repeatedly sworn to afresh by
the king, civil war being constantly imminent. At length both
sides agreed to submit the question of maintaining the
Provisions of Oxford to the arbitration of Louis IX. of
France, and his decision, called the Mise of Amiens, annulled
them completely. De Montfort's party thereupon repudiated the
award and the civil war called the "Barons' War" ensued.

_C. H. Pearson,
History of England in the Early and Middle Ages,
volume 2, chapter 8._

ALSO IN:
_W. Stubbs,
Select Charters,
part 6._

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274.

OXFORD, OR TRACT ARIAN MOVEMENT, The.

"Never was religion in England so uninteresting as it was in
the earlier part of the 19th century. Never was a time when
thought was so active, criticism so keen, taste so fastidious;
and which so plainly demanded a religion intellectual,
sympathetic, and attractive. This want the Tractarian, or
Oxford movement, as it is called, attempted to supply. … But
the Tractarians put before themselves an aim far higher than
that. They attempted nothing less than to develope and place
on a firm and imperishable basis what Laud and the Non-Jurors
had tried tentatively to do; namely, to vindicate the Church
of England from all complicity with foreign Protestantism, to
establish her essential identity with the Church of the
Apostles and Fathers through the mediæval Church, and to place
her for the first time since the Reformation in her true
position with regard to the Church in the East and the West. …
Naturally the first work undertaken was the explanation of
doctrine. The 'Tracts for the Times,' mainly written by Dr.
Newman and Dr. Pusey, put before men what the writers believed
to be the doctrine of the Church of England, with a boldness
and precision of statement hitherto unexampled. The divine
Authority of the Church. Her essential unity in all parts of
the world. The effectiveness of regeneration in Holy Baptism.
The reality of the presence of our Lord in Holy Communion. The
sacrificial character of Holy Communion. The reality of the
power to absolve sin committed by our Lord to the priesthood.
{2408}
Such were the doctrines maintained in the Tractarian writings.
… They were, of course, directly opposed to the popular
Protestantism of the day, as held by the Evangelical party.
They were equally opposed to the Latitudinarianism of the
Broad Church party, who—true descendants of Tillotson and
Burnet—were under the leadership of men like Arnold and
Stanley, endeavouring to unite all men against the wickedness
of the time on the basis of a common Christian morality under
the guardianship of the State, unhampered by distinctive
creeds or definite doctrines. No two methods could be more
opposite."

_H. O. Wakeman,
History of Religion in England,
chapter 11._