Chapter VIII: Adverbs

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They are _now here_, studying _very diligently_.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.--Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require several words: as _Now_, for _at this time_;--_Here_, for _in this place_;--_Very_, for _in a high degree_;--_Diligently_, for _in an industrious manner_. Thus the meaning of almost any adverb, may be explained by some phrase beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun.

OBS. 2.--There are several customary combinations of short words, which are used adverbially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing; _as, not at all, at length, in fine, in full, at least, at present, at once, this once, in vain, no doubt, on board_. But all words that convey distinct ideas, and rightly retain their individuality, ought to be taken separately in parsing. With the liberty of supposing a few ellipses, an ingenious parser will seldom find occasion to speak of "adverbial phrases." In these instances, _length, doubt, fine_, and _board_, are unquestionably nouns; _once_, too, is used as a noun; _full_ and _all_ may be parsed either as nouns, or as adjectives whose nouns are understood; _at least_, is, _at the least measure; at present_, is, _at the present time_; and _in vain_, is, _in a vain course, or manner._

OBS. 3.--A phrase is a combination of two or more separable parts of speech, the _parsing_ of which of course implies their separation. And though the division of our language into words, and the division of its words into parts of speech, have never yet been made exactly to correspond, it is certainly desirable to bring them as near together as possible. Hence such terms as _everywhere, anywhere, nowadays, forever, everso, to-day, to-morrow, by-and-by, inside-out, upside-down_, if they are to be parsed simply as adverbs, ought to be compounded, and not written as phrases.

OBS. 4--Under nearly all the different classes of words, some particular instances may be quoted, in which other parts of speech seem to take the nature of adverbs, so as either to become such, or to be apparently used _for_ them. (1.) ARTICLES: "This may appear incredible, but it is not _the_ less true."--_Dr. Murray's Hist._, i, 337. "The other party was _a_ little coy."--_D. Webster._ (2.) NOUNS: "And scrutiny became _stone_[306] blind."--_Cowper._ "He will come _home to-morrow._"--_Clark._ "They were travelling _post_ when he met them."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 69. "And with a vengeance sent from Media _post_ to Egypt."--_Milton, P. L._, B. iv, l. 170. "That I should care _a groat_ whether he likes the work or not."--_Kirkham._ "It has snowed terribly all night, and is _vengeance_ cold."--_Swift._ (3.) ADJECTIVES: "Drink _deep_, or taste not."--_Pope._ "A place _wondrous_ deep."--_Webster's Dict._ "That fools should be so _deep_ contemplative."--_Shak._ "A man may speak _louder_ or _softer_ in the same key; when he speaks _higher_ or _lower_, he changes his key."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 116. (4.) PRONOUNS: "_What_ am I eased?"--_Job._ "_What_ have I offended thee?"--_Gen._, xx, 9. "He is _somewhat_ arrogant."--_Dryden._ (5.) VERBS: "_Smack_ went the whip, round went the wheels."--_Cowper._ "For then the farmers came _jog, jog_, along the miry road."--_Id._ "_Crack!_ went something on deck."--_Robinson Crusoe._ "Then straight went the yard _slap_ over their noddle."--Arbuthnot. (6.) PARTICIPLES: "Like medicines given _scalding_ hot."--_Dodd._ "My clothes are almost _dripping_ wet."--"In came Squire South, stark, _staring_ mad."--_Arbuthnot._ "An _exceeding_ high mountain."--_Matt._, iv, 8. "How sweet, how _passing_ sweet, the hour to me!"--_Ch. Observer._ "When we act _according_ to our duty."--_Dr. Johnson._ "A man was famous _according_ as he had lifted up axes upon the thick trees."--_Psal._, lxxiv, 5. (7.) CONJUNCTIONS: "Look, _as_ I blow this feather from my face."--_Shak._ "Not at all, or _but_ very gently."--_Locke._ "He was _but_ born to try the lot of man."--_Pope._ (8.) PREPOSITIONS: "They shall go _in_ and _out._"--_Bible._ "From going _to_ and _fro_ in the earth, and walking _up_ and _down_ in it."--_Ib._ These are actually _adverbs_, and not prepositions, because they govern nothing. (9.) INTERJECTIONS are never used as adverbs, though the Greek grammarians refer them nearly all to this class. The using of other words for adverbs, (i. e., the adverbial use of any words that we do not actually call adverbs,) may be referred to the figure _enallage_:[307] as,

"_Tramp, tramp_, across the land they speed,
_Splash, splash_, across the sea."--_Burger._

OBS. 5.--As other parts of speech seem sometimes to take the nature of adverbs, so adverbs sometimes, either really or apparently, assume the nature of other parts of speech. (1.) Of NOUNS: as, "A committee is not needed merely to say _Yes_ or _No_; that will do very little good; _the yes_ or _the no_ must be accompanied and supported by reasons."--_Dr. M'Cartee._ "Shall I tell you _why?_ Ay, sir, and _wherefore_; for, they say, every _why_ hath a _wherefore._"--_Shak._ (2.) Of ADJECTIVES: as, "Nebuchadnezzar invaded the country, and reduced it to an _almost_ desert."--_Wood's Dict., w. Moab._ "The _then_ bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty."--_Clarendon._ "With _upward_ speed his agile wings he spread."--_Prior._ "She lights the _downward_ heaven, and rises there."--_Dryden._ (3.) Of PRONOUNS: as, "He liked the ground _whereon_ she trod."--_Milton._ "_Wherein_ have you been galled by the king?"--_Shak._ "O how unlike the place from _whence_ they fell!"--_Par. Lost_, B. i, l. 75. Here _whereon_ is exactly equivalent in sense to _on which; wherein_, to _in what_; and _whence_, to _which_: but none of them are actually reckoned pronouns. (4.) Of VERBS: as, "If he be hungry, more than wanton, bread alone will _down._"--_Locke._ "To _down_ proud hearts that would not willing die."--_Sidney._ "She never could _away_ with me."--_Shak._ "_Away_, and glister like the god of war."--_Id._ "_Up_, get ye out of this place."--_Gen._, xix, 14. (5.) Of CONJUNCTIONS: as, "I, _even_ I, am he."--_Isaiah_, xliii, 25. "If I will that he tarry _till_ I come."--_John_, xxi, 22. "I will go and see him _before_ I die."--_Gen._, xlv, 28. "Before I go _whence_ I shall not return."--_Job_, x, 21. (6) Of PREPOSITIONS: as, "Superior to any that are dug _out_ the ground."--_Eames's Lect._, p. 28. "Who act _so counter_ heavenly mercy's plan."--_Burns._ Better perhaps, "_out of_" and "_counter to._" (7.) Of INTERJECTIONS: as, "_Up, up_, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!"--_Scott._ "_Down, down_, cried Mar, your lances _down!_"--_Id._ "_Off!_ or I fly for ever from thy sight."--_Smith._

OBS. 6.--In these last examples, _up_, and _down_, and _off_, have perhaps as much resemblance to imperative verbs, as to interjections; but they need not be referred to either of these classes, because by supplying a verb we may easily parse them as adverbs. I neither adopt the notion of Horne Tooke, that the same word cannot belong to different parts of speech, nor refer every word to that class to which it may at first sight appear to belong; for both of these methods are impracticable and absurd. The essential nature of each part of speech, and every important peculiarity of its individual terms, it is hoped, will be sufficiently explained in some part or other of this work; but, as the classification of words often depends upon their _construction_, some explanations that go to determine the parts of speech, must be looked for under the head of Syntax.

OBS. 7.--The proper classification, or subdivision, of adverbs, though it does not appear to have been discovered by any of our earlier grammarians, is certainly very clearly indicated by the meaning and nature of the words themselves. The four important circumstances of any event or assertion, are the _when_, the _where_, the _how-much_, and the _how_; or the _time_, the _place_, the _degree_, and the _manner_. These four are the things which we usually express by adverbs. And seldom, if ever, do we find any adverb the notion of which does not correspond to that of _sometime, somewhere, somewhat_, or _somehow_. Hence, the general classes of this sort of words ought to be formed under these four heads. The classification heretofore most commonly adopted in English grammar, has every fault which the spirit of awkwardness could possibly give it. The head of it is this: "Adverbs, _though very numerous_, may be reduced to _certain_ classes, the _chief_ of which are _those of_ Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 115; _Comly's_, 66; _Kirkham's_, 86; _R. C. Smith's_, 34; _Hall's_, 26; _and others_.

CLASSES.

Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes; namely, adverbs of _time_, of _place_, of _degree_, and of _manner_. Besides these, it is proper to distinguish the particular class of _conjunctive_ adverbs.

I. Adverbs of _time_ are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask.

OBS.--Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows:--

1. Of time present; as, _Now, yet, to-day, nowadays, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith_.

2. Of time past; as, _Already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday, formerly, anciently, once, heretofore, hitherto, since, till now, long ago, erewhile, erst_.

3. Of time to come; as, _To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, soon, erelong, shortly_.

4. Of time relative; as, _When, then, first, just, before, after, while, whilst, meanwhile, as, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, afterward, afterwards, otherwhile, otherwhiles_.

5. Of time absolute; as, _Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, forever, perpetually, continually, incessantly, endlessly, evermore, everlastingly_.

6. Of time repeated; as, _Often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, once, twice, thrice_, or _three times_. Above this, we use only the phrases _four times, five times, six times, &c_. Whether these ought to be reckoned adverbs, or not, is questionable: _times_, for _repetitions_, or _instances_, may be supposed a noun; but such phrases often appear to be used adverbially.

II. Adverbs of _place_ are those which answer to the question, _Where? Whither? Whence?_ or, _Whereabout?_ including these which ask.

OBS.--Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows:--

1. Of place in which; as, _Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, otherwhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout, whereabouts, hereabout, hereabouts, thereabout, thereabouts_.

2. Of place to which; as, _Whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, forth, aside, ashore, abroad, aloft, home, homewards, inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards_. _Inward, homeward, upward, downward, backward_, and _forward_, are also adverbs, as well as adjectives; but some critics, for distinction's sake, choose to use these only as adjectives.

3. Of place from which; as, _Whence, hence, thence, away, out, off, far, remotely_.

4. Of the order of place; as, _First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c_. Thus, _secondly_ means _in the second place_; _thirdly, in the third place_; &c. For order, or rank, implies place, though it may consist of relative degrees.

III. Adverbs of _degree_ are those which answer to the question, _How much? How little?_ or, to the idea of _more or less_.

OBS.--Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows:--

1. Of excess or abundance; as, _Much, more, most, too, very, greatly, far, besides; chiefly, principally, mainly, mostly, generally; entirely, full, fully, completely, perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, excessively, extravagantly, intolerably; immeasurably, inconceivably, infinitely_.

2. Of equality or sufficiency; as, _Enough, sufficiently, competently, adequately, proportionally, equally, so, as, even, just, exactly, precisely_.

3. Of deficiency or abatement; as, _Little, less, least, scarcely, hardly, scantly, scantily merely, barely, only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost, well-nigh, not quite_.

4. Of quantity in the abstract; as, _How_, (meaning, _in what degree_,) _however, howsoever, everso, something, anything, nothing, a groat, a sixpence, a sou-markee_, and other nouns of quantity used adverbially.

IV. Adverbs of _manner_ are those which answer to the question, _How?_ or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show _how_ a subject is regarded.

OBS.--Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows:--

1. Of manner from quality; as, _Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, wickedly_, and many others formed by adding _ly_ to adjectives of quality. _Ly_ is a contraction of _like_; and is the most common termination of English adverbs. When added to nouns, it forms adjectives; but some few of these are also used adverbially; as, _daily, weekly, monthly_, which denote time.

2. Of affirmation or assent; as, _Yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, assuredly, certes, forsooth,[308] amen_.

3. Of negation; as, _No, nay, not, nowise, noway, noways, nohow_.

4. Of doubt or uncertainty; as, _Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, may-be_.

5. Of mode or way; as, _Thus, so, how, somehow, nohow, anyhow, however, howsoever, like, else, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, necessarily, hesitatingly, trippingly, extempore, headlong, lengthwise_.

V. _Conjunctive adverbs_ are those which perform the office of conjunctions, and serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or the like. This class embraces a few words not strictly belonging to any of the others: as, (1.) The adverbs of cause; _why, wherefore, therefore_; but the last two of these are often called conjunctions. (2.) The pronominal compounds; _herein, therein, wherein_, &c.; in which the former term is a substitute, and virtually governed by the enclitic particle.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.--Conjunctive adverbs often relate equally to two verbs in different clauses, on which account it is the more necessary to distinguish them from others; as, "And they feared _when_ they heard that they were Romans,"--_Acts_, xvi, 38. Here _when_ is a conjunctive adverb of time, and relates equally to _feared_ and to _heard_. "The right of coming on the shore for their purposes in general, _as_ and _when_ they please."--_Holroyd_. Here _as_ is a conjunctive adverb of manner, and _when_, of time; both relating equally to _coming_ and to _please_.

OBS. 2.--The following words are the most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs: _after, again, also, as, before, besides, consequently, else, ere, even, furthermore, hence, how, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, since, so, still, till, then, thence, therefore, too, until, when, where, wherefore, whither_, and _while_, or _whilst_.

OBS. 3.--Adverbs of _time, place_, and _manner_, are generally connected with verbs or participles; those of _degree_ are more frequently placed before adjectives or adverbs: the latter, however, sometimes denote the measure of actions or effects; as, "And I wept _much_"--_Rev._, v, 4. "And Isaac trembled _very exceedingly_"--_Gen._, xxvii, 33. "Writers who had felt _less_, would have said _more_"--_Fuller_.

"Victors and vanquished, in the various field,
Nor _wholly_ overcome, nor _wholly_ yield."--_Dryden_.

OBS. 4.--The adverbs _here, there_, and _where_, when compounded with prepositions, have the force of pronouns, or of pronominal adjectives: as, _Hereby_, for _by this; thereby_, for _by that_; _whereby_, for _by which_, or _by what_. The prepositions which may be subjoined in this manner, are only the short words, _at, by, for, from, in, into, of, on, to, unto, under, upon_, and _with_. Compounds of this kind, although they partake of the nature of pronouns with respect to the nouns going before, are still properly reckoned adverbs, because they relate as such to the verbs which follow them; as, "You take my life, when you do take the means _whereby_ I live."--_Shak_. Here _whereby_ is a conjunctive adverb, representing _means_, and relating to the verb _live_.[309] This mode of expression is now somewhat antiquated, though still frequently used by good authors, and especially by the poets.

OBS. 5--The adverbs, _when, where, whither, whence, how, why, wherefore, wherein, whereof, whereby_, and other like compounds of _where_, are sometimes used as _interrogatives_; but, as such, they still severally belong to the classes under which they are placed in the foregoing distribution, except that words of interrogation are not at the same time connectives. These adverbs, and the three pronouns, _who, which_, and _what_, are the only interrogative words in the language; but questions may be asked without any of them, and all have other uses than to ask questions.

OBS. 6.--The conjunctive adverbs, _when, where, whither, whence, how_, and _why_, are sometimes so employed as to partake of the nature of _pronouns_, being used as a sort of _special relatives_, which refer back to antecedent nouns of _time, place, manner_, or _cause_, according to their own respective meanings; yet being adverbs, because they relate as such, to the verbs which follow them: as, "In the _day when_ God shall judge the secrets of men."--_Rom._, ii, 16. "In a _time when_ thou mayest be found."--_Psal._, xxxii, 6. "I sought for some time what I at length found here, a _place where_ all real wants might be easily supplied."--_Dr. Johnson_. "To that _part_ of the mountain _where_ the declivity began to grow craggy."--_Id._ "At _Canterbury, whither_ some voice had run before."--_Wotton_. "Look unto the _rock whence_ ye are hewn, and to the hole of the _pit whence_ ye are digged."--_Isaiah_, li, 1. "We may remark three different _sources whence_ it arises."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 163. "I'll tell you a _way how_ you may live your time over again."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 108. "A crude account of the _method how_ they perceive truth."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 404. "The _order how_ the Psalter is appointed to be read."--_Common Prayer_. "In the same reasoning we see the _cause, why_ no substantive is susceptible of these comparative degrees."--_Hermes_, p. 201. "There seems no _reason why_ it should not work prosperously."--_Society in America_, p. 68. "There are strong _reasons why_ an extension of her territory would be injurious to her."--_Ib._ "An other _reason why_ it deserved to be more studied."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 123. "The _end why_ God hath ordained faith, is, that his free grace might be glorified."--_Goodwin_.

OBS. 7.--The direct use of adverbs for pronouns, is often, if not generally, inelegant; and, except the expression may be thereby agreeably shortened, it ought to be considered ungrammatical. The following examples, and perhaps also some of the foregoing, are susceptible of improvement: "Youth is _the time, when_ we are young."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 120. Say rather, "Youth is _that part of life which_ succeeds to childhood." "The boy gave a satisfactory _reason why_ he was tardy."--_Ibid._ Say rather, "The boy gave a satisfactory reason _for his tardiness_." "The several _sources from whence_ these pleasures are derived."--_Murray's Key_, p. 258. Say rather--"sources from _which_" "In _cases where_ it is only said, that a question has been asked."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 117. Say, "In _those_ cases _in which_." "To the false rhetoric of the _age when_ he lived."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 415. Say rather--"of the age _in which_ he lived."

OBS. 8.--When a conjunctive adverb is equivalent to both an antecedent and a relative, the construction seems to be less objectionable, and the brevity of the expression affords an additional reason for preferring it, especially in poetry: as, "But the Son of man hath not _where_ to lay his head."--_Matt._, viii, 20. "There might they see _whence_ Po and Ister came."--_Hoole's Tasso._ "Tell _how_ he formed your shining frame."--_Ogilvie._ "The wind bloweth _where_ it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell _whence_ it cometh, and _whither_ it goeth."--_John_, iii, 8. In this construction, the adverb is sometimes preceded by a preposition; the noun being, in fact, _understood_: as,

"Sinks, like a sea-weed, _into whence_ she rose."--_Byron._

"Here Machiavelli's earth return'd _to whence_ it rose."--_Id._

OBS. 9.--The conjunctive adverb _so_, very often expresses the sense of some word or phrase going before; as, "Wheresoever the speech is corrupted, _so_ is the mind."--_Seneca's Morals_, p. 267. That is, the mind is _also corrupted_. "I consider grandeur and sublimity, as terms synonymous, or nearly _so_."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 29. The following sentence is grossly wrong, because the import of this adverb was not well observed by the writer: "We have now come to _far the most complicated_ part of speech; and one which is sometimes rendered _still more so_, than the nature of our language requires."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 38. _So_, in some instances, repeats the import of a preceding _noun_, and consequently partakes the nature of a _pronoun_; as,

"We think our fathers _fools_, so wise we grow;
Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us _so_."--_Pope, on Crit._

OBS. 10.--"_Since_ is often improperly used for _ago_: as, 'When were you in France?--Twenty years _since_.' It ought to be, 'Twenty years _ago_.' _Since_ may be admitted to supply the place of _ago that_: it being equally correct to say, 'It is twenty years _since_ I was in France;' and, 'It is twenty years _ago, that_ I was in France.'"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 337. The difference between _since_ and _ago_ is clearly this: the former, being either a preposition or a conjunctive adverb, cannot with strict propriety be used _adjectively_; the latter, being in reality an old participle, naturally comes after a noun, in the sense of an adjective; as, _a year ago, a month ago, a week ago_. "_Go, ago, ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone_, are all used indiscriminately by our old English writers as the past participle of the verb _to go_."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 376. "Three days _agone_, I fell sick."--_1 Samuel_, xxx, 13.

MODIFICATIONS.

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are compared, after the manner of adjectives: as, _soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest;[310] long, longer, longest; fast, faster, fastest_.

The following are irregularly compared: _well, better, best; badly_ or _ill, worse, worst; little less, least; much, more, most; far, farther, farthest; forth, further, furthest. Rath, rather, rathest_, is now used only in the comparative.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.--Most adverbs that are formed from adjectives by the addition of _ly_, will admit the comparative adverbs _more and most, less_ and _least_, before them:, as, _wisely, more wisely, most wisely; culpably, less culpably, least culpably_. This is virtually a comparison of the latter adverb, but the grammatical inflection, or degree, belongs only to the former; and the words being written separately, it is certainly most proper to parse them separately, ascribing the degree of comparison to the word which expresses it. As comparison does not belong to adverbs in general, it should not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those few which are varied by it.

OBS. 2.--In the works of Milton, and occasionally in those of some other poets of his age,[311] adverbs of two syllables, ending in _ly_, are not only compared regularly like adjectives of the same ending, but are used in the measure of iambic verse as if they still formed only two syllables. Examples:--

"But God hath _wiselier_ arm'd his vengeful ire."
--_P. Lost_, B. x, l. 1022.

"Destroyers _rightlier_ call'd and plagues of men."
--_Ib._, B. xi, l. 699.

"And on his quest, where _likeliest_ he might find."
--_Ib._, B. ix, l. 414.

"Now _amplier_ known thy Saviour and thy Lord."
--_Ib._, B. xii, l. 544.

"Though thou wert _firmlier_ fasten'd than a rock."
--_Sam. Agon._, l. 1398.

"Not rustic, as before, but _seemlier_ clad."
--_P. Reg._, B. ii, l. 299.

-------------------------"Whereof to thee anon
_Plainlier_ shall be reveal'd."
--_Paradise Lost_, B. xii, l. 150.

------------"To show what coast thy sluggish erare
Might _easiliest_ harbour in."
--_Shakspeare, Cymb._, Act IV.

"Shall not myself be _kindlier_ mov'd than thou art?"
--_Id., Tempest_, Act V.

"But _earthlier_ happy is the rose distill'd."
--_Id., M. S. N. Dream_, Act I.

OBS. 3.--The usage just cited is clearly analogical, and has the obvious advantage of adding to the flexibility of the language, while it also multiplies its distinctive forms. If carried out as it might be, it would furnish to poets and orators an ampler choice of phraseology, and at the same time, obviate in a great measure the necessity of using the same words both adjectively and adverbially. The words which are now commonly used in this twofold character, are principally monosyllables; and, of adjectives, monosyllables are the class which we oftenest compare by _er_ and _est_: next to which come dissyllables ending in _y_; as, _holy, happy, lovely_. But if to any monosyllable we add _ly_ to form an adverb, we have of course a dissyllable ending in _y_; and if adverbs of this class may be compared regularly, after the manner of adjectives, there can be little or no occasion to use the primitive word otherwise than as an adjective. But, according to present usage, few adverbs are ever compared by inflection, except such words as may also be used adjectively. For example: _cleanly, comely, deadly, early, kindly, kingly, likely, lively, princely, seemly, weakly_, may all be thus compared; and, according to Johnson and Webster, they may all be used either adjectively or adverbially. Again: _late, later, latest_, is commonly contrasted in both senses, with _early, earlier, earliest_; but if _lately, latelier, lateliest_, were adopted in the adverbial contrast, _early_ and _late, earlier_ and _later, earliest_ and _latest_, might be contrasted as adjectives only.

OBS. 4.--The using of adjectives for adverbs, is _in general_ a plain violation of grammar. Example: "_To_ is a preposition, governing the verb _sell_, in the infinitive mood, _agreeable_ to Rule 18, which says, The preposition TO governs the infinitive mood."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 137. Here _agreeable_ ought to be _agreeably_; an adverb, relating to the participle _governing_. Again, the using of adverbs for adjectives, is a fault as gross. Example: "Apprehending the nominative to be put _absolutely._"-- _Murray's Gram._, p. 155. Here _absolutely_ ought to be _absolute_; an adjective, relating to the word _nominative_. But, _in poetry_, there is not only a frequent substitution of quality for manner, in such a way that the adjective may still be parsed adjectively; but sometimes also what _appears_ to be (whether right or wrong) a direct use of adjectives for adverbs, especially in the higher degrees of comparison: as,

"_Firmer_ he roots him the _ruder_ it blow."
--_Scott, L. of L._, C. ii, st. 19.

"True ease in writing comes from art, not chance,
As those move _easiest_ who have learn'd to dance."
--_Pope, Ess. on Crit._

"And also now the sluggard _soundest_ slept."
--_Pollok, C. of T._, B. vi, l. 257.

"In them is _plainest_ taught, and _easiest_ learnt,
What makes a nation happy, and keeps it so."
--_Milton, P. R._, B. iv, l. 361.

OBS. 5.--No use of words can be _right_, that actually confounds the parts of speech; but in many instances, according to present practice, the same words may be used either adjectively or adverbially. _Firmer_ and _ruder_ are not adverbs, but adjectives. In the example above, they may, I think, be ranked with the instances in which quality is poetically substituted for manner, and be parsed as relating to the pronouns which follow them. A similar usage occurs in Latin, and is considered elegant. _Easiest_, as used above by Pope, may perhaps be parsed upon the same principle; that is, as relating to _those_, or to _persons_ understood before the verb _move_. But _soundest, plainest_, and _easiest_, as in the latter quotations, cannot be otherwise explained than as being adverbs. _Plain_ and _sound_, according to our dictionaries, are used both adjectively and adverbially; and, if their superlatives are not misapplied in these instances, it is because the words are adverbs, and regularly compared as such. _Easy_, though sometimes used adverbially by reputable writers, is presented by our lexicographers as an adjective only; and if the latter are right, Milton's use of _easiest_ in the sense and construction of _most easily_, must be considered an error in grammar. And besides, according to his own practice, he ought to have preferred _plainliest_ to _plainest_, in the adverbial sense of _most plainly_.

OBS. 6.--Beside the instances already mentioned, of words used both adjectively and adverbially, our dictionaries exhibit many primitive terms which are to be referred to the one class or the other, according to their construction; as, _soon, late, high, low, quick, slack, hard, soft, wide, close, clear, thick, full, scant, long, short, clean, near, scarce, sure, fast_; to which may as well be added, _slow, loud_, and _deep_; all susceptible of the regular form of comparison, and all regularly convertible into adverbs in _ly_; though _soonly_ and _longly_ are now obsolete, and _fastly_, which means _firmly_, is seldom used. In short, it is, probably, from an idea, that no adverbs are to be compared by _er_ and _est_ unless the same words may also be used adjectively, that we do not thus compare _lately, highly, quickly, loudly_, &c., after the example of Milton. But, however custom may sanction the adverbial construction of the foregoing simple terms, the distinctive form of the adverb is in general to be preferred, especially in prose. For example: "The more it was complained of, the _louder_ it was praised."--_Daniel Webster, in Congress_, 1837. If it would seem quaint to say, "The _loudlier_ it was praised," it would perhaps be better to say, "The _more loudly_ it was praised;" for our critics have not acknowledged _loud_ or _louder_ to be an adverb. Nor have _slow_ and _deep_ been so called. Dr. Johnson cites the following line to illustrate the latter as an _adjective_:

"Drink hellebore, my boy! drink _deep_, and scour thy brain. DRYDEN."
--_Joh. Dict., w. Deep_.

"Drink hellebore, my boy! drink deep, and _purge_ thy brain."
--_Dryd. IV. Sat. of Persius_.

OBS. 7.--In some instances, even in prose, it makes little or no difference to the sense, whether we use adjectives referring to the nouns, or adverbs of like import, having reference to the verbs: as, "The whole conception is conveyed _clear_ and _strong_ to the mind."--_Blair's Rhet._, p, 138. Here _clear_ and _strong_ are adjectives, referring to _conception_; but we might as well say, "The whole conception is conveyed _clearly_ and _strongly_ to the mind." "Against a power that exists _independent_ of their own choice."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 46. Here we might as well say, "exists _independently_;" for the independence of the power, in whichever way it is expressed, is nothing but _the manner_ of its _existence_. "This work goeth _fast_ on and prospereth."--_Ezra_. "Skill comes so _slow_, and life so _fast_ doth fly."--_Davies_. Dr. Johnson here takes _fast_ and _slow_ to be adjectives, but he might as well have called them adverbs, so far as their meaning or construction is concerned. For what here qualifies the things spoken of, is nothing but _the manner_ of their _motion_; and this might as well be expressed by the words, _rapidly, slowly, swiftly_. Yet it ought to be observed, that this does not prove the equivalent words to be adverbs, and not adjectives. Our philologists have often been led into errors by the argument of equivalence.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS VIII.--ETYMOLOGICAL.

_In the Eighth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, _and_ ADVERBS.

_The definitions to be given in the Eighth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb,--and one for a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:--

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?"--_R. G. Harper._

_When_ is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, _When? How long? How soon?_ or, _How often?_ including these which ask.

_Was_ is an irregular neuter verb, from _be, was, being, been_; found in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occurring, in time fully past. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

_It_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

_That_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

_Rome_ is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, personified feminine, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

_Attracted_ is a regular active-transitive verb, from _attract, attracted, attracting, attracted_; found in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occurring, in time fully past. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

_Most_ is an a adverb of degree, compared, _much, more, most_, and found in the superlative. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, _How much? How little?_ or to the idea of _more or less_. 3. The superlative degree is that which is _most_ or _least_ of all included with it.

_Strongly_ is an adverb of manner. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, _How?_ or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show _how_ a subject is regarded.

_The_ is the definite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things.

_Admiration_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

_Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

_Mankind_ is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of many individuals together. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.--PARSING.

"Wisely, therefore, is it ordered, and agreeably to the system of Providence, that we should have nature for our instructor."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 358.

"It is surprising, how quickly, and for the most part how correctly, we judge of character from external appearance."--_Id., ib._, i, 359.

"The members of a period connected by proper copulatives, glide smoothly and gently along, and are a proof of sedateness and leisure in the speaker."--_Id., ib._, ii, 33.

"Antithesis ought only to be occasionally studied, when it is naturally demanded by the comparison or opposition of objects."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 102.

"Did men always think clearly, and were they at the same time fully masters of the language in which they write, there would be occasion for few rules."--_Ib._, 102. "Rhetoric, or oratory, is the art of speaking justly, methodically, floridly, and copiously, upon any subject, in order to touch the passions, and to persuade."--_Bradley's Literary Guide_, p. 155.

"The more closely we follow the natural order of any subject we may be investigating, the more satisfactorily and explicitly will that subject be opened to our understanding."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 160.

"Why should we doubt of that, whereof our sense
Finds demonstration from experience?
Our minds are here, and there, below, above;
Nothing that's mortal, can so swiftly move."--_Denham_.

LESSON II.--PARSING.

"If we can discern particularly and precisely what it is, which is most directly obedience or disobedience to the will and commands of God; what is truly morally beautiful, or really and absolutely deformed; the question concerning liberty, as far as it respects ethics, or morality, will be sufficiently decided."--_West, on Agency_, p. xiii.

"Thus it was true, historically, individually, philosophically, and universally, that they did not like to retain God in their knowledge."--_Cox, on Christianity_, p. 327.

"We refer to Jeremiah Evarts and Gordon Hall. They had their imperfections, and against them they struggled discreetly, constantly, successfully, until they were fitted to ascend to their rest."--_N. Y. Observer_, Feb. 2d, 1833.

"Seek not proud riches; but such as thou mayst get justly, use soberly, distribute cheerfully and leave contentedly."--_Ld. Bacon._

"There are also some particularly grievous sins, of which conscience justly accuses us; sins committed more or less presumptuously and willingly, deliberately and repeatedly."--_Bickersteth, on Prayer_, p. 59.

"And herein I apprehend myself now to suffer wrongfully, being slanderously reported, falsely accused, shamefully and despitefully used, and hated without a cause."--_Jenks's Prayers_, p. 173.

"Of perfect knowledge, see, the dawning light
Foretells a noon most exquisitely bright!
Here, springs of endless joy are breaking forth!
There, buds the promise of celestial worth!"--_Young._

LESSON III--PARSING.

"A true friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently, defends courageously, and continues a friend unchangeably."--_Penn's Maxims._

"That mind must be wonderfully narrow, that is wholly wrapped up in itself; but this is too visibly the character of most human minds."--_Burgh's Dignity_, ii, 35.

"There is not a man living, who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan adopted for the abolition of slavery; but there is only one proper and effectual mode by which it can be accomplished, and that is, by legislative authority."--_Geo. Washington_, 1786.

"Sloth has frequently and justly been denominated the rust of the soul. The habit is easily acquired; or, rather, it is a part of our very nature to be indolent."--_Student's Manual_, p. 176.

"I am aware how improper it is to talk much of my wife; never reflecting how much more improper it is to talk much of myself."--_Home's Art of Thinking_, p. 89.

"Howbeit whereinsoever any is bold, (I speak foolishly,) I am bold also. Are they Hebrews? so am I. Are they Israelites? so am I. Are they the seed of Abraham? so am I. Are they ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool,) I am more."--_2 Cor._, xi.

"Oh, speak the wondrous man! how mild, how calm,
How greatly humble, how divinely good,
How firm establish'd on eternal truth."--_Thomson_.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING ADVERBS.

"We can much easier form the conception of a fierce combat."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 167.

[FORMULE--Not proper, because the adjective _easier_ is used as an adverb, to qualify the verb _can form._ But, according to Observation 4th on the Modifications of Adverbs, "The using of adjectives for adverbs, is in general a plain violation of grammar." Therefore, _easier_ should be _more easily_; thus, "We can much _more easily_ form the conception of a fierce combat."]

"When he was restored, agreeable to the treaty, he was a perfect savage."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 235. "How I shall acquit myself suitable to the importance of the trial."--_Duncan's Cic._, p. 85. "Can any thing show your holiness how unworthy you treat mankind?"--_Spect._, No. 497. "In what other [language,] consistent with reason and common sense, can you go about to explain it to him?"--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. viii. "Agreeable to this rule, the short vowel Sheva has two characters."--_Wilson's Hebrew Gram._, p. 46. "We shall give a remarkable fine example of this figure."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 347. "All of which is most abominable false."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 431. "He heaped up great riches, but passed his time miserable."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, ii, 202. "He is never satisfied with expressing any thing clearly and simple."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 96. "Attentive only to exhibit his ideas clear and exact, he appears dry."--_Ib._, p. 100. "Such words as have the most liquids and vowels, glide the softest."--_Ib._, p. 129. "The simplest points, such as are easiest apprehended."--_Ib._, p. 312. "Too historical, to be accounted a perfect regular epic poem."--_Ib._, p. 441. "Putting after them the oblique case, agreeable to the French construction."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 108. "Where the train proceeds with an extreme slow pace."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 151. "So as scarce to give an appearance of succession."--_Ib._, i, 152. "That concord between sound and sense, which is perceived in some expressions independent of artful pronunciation."--_Ib._, ii, 63. "Cornaro had become very corpulent, previous to the adoption of his temperate habits."--_Hitchcock, on Dysp._, p. 396. "Bread, which is a solid and tolerable hard substance."--_Sandford and Merton_, p. 38. "To command every body that was not dressed as fine as himself."--_Ib._, p, 19. "Many of them have scarce outlived their authors."--_Pref. to Lily's Gram._, p. ix. "Their labour, indeed, did not penetrate very deep."--_Wilson's Heb. Gram._, p. 30. "The people are miserable poor, and subsist on fish."--_Hume's Hist._, ii, 433. "A scale, which I took great pains, some years since, to make."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 81. "There is no truth on earth so well established as the truth of the Bible."--_Taylor's District School_, p. 288. "I know of no work so much wanted as the one Mr. Taylor has now furnished."--DR. NOTT: _ib._, p. ii. "And therefore their requests are seldom and reasonable."--_Taylor_: _ib._, p. 58. "Questions are easier proposed than rightly answered."--_Dillwyn's Reflections_, p. 19. "Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source from whence they are all derived."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 374. "If there be no special Rule which requires it to be put forwarder."--_Milnes's Greek Gram._, p. 234. "The Masculine and Neuter have the same Dialect in all Numbers, especially when they end the same."--_Ib._, p. 259.

"And children are more busy in their play
Than those that wisely'st pass their time away."--_Butler_, p. 163.