Chapter XIV: Questions

ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.

PART THIRD, SYNTAX.

[Fist][The following questions, which embrace nearly all the important particulars of the foregoing code of Syntax, are designed not only to direct and facilitate class rehearsals, but also to develop the acquirements of those who may answer them at examinations more public.]

LESSON I.--DEFINITIONS. 1. Of what does Syntax treat? 2. What is the _relation_ of words? 3. What is the _agreement_ of words? 4. What is the _government_ of words? 5. What is the _arrangement_ of words? 6. What is a _sentence_? 7. How many and what are the _principal parts_ of a sentence? 8. What are the other parts called? 9. How many kinds of sentences are there? 10. What is a _simple_ sentence? 11. What is a _compound sentence_? 12. What is a _clause_, or _member_? 13. What is a _phrase_? 14. What words must be supplied in parsing? 15. How are the leading principles of syntax presented? 16. In what order are the rules of syntax arranged in this work?

LESSON II.--THE RULES.

1. To what do articles relate? 2. What case is employed as the subject of a finite verb? 3. What agreement is required between words in apposition? 4. By what is the possessive case governed? 5. What case does an active-transitive verb or participle govern? 6. What case is put after a verb or participle not transitive? 7. What case do prepositions govern? 8. When, and in what case, is a noun or pronoun put absolute in English? 9. To what do adjectives relate? 10. How does a pronoun agree with its antecedent? 11. How does a pronoun agree with a collective noun? 12. How does a pronoun agree with joint antecedents? 13. How does a pronoun agree with disjunct antecedents?

LESSON III.--THE RULES.

14. How does a finite verb agree with its subject, or nominative? 15. How does a verb agree with a collective noun? 16. How does a verb agree with joint nominatives? 17. How does a verb agree with disjunctive nominatives? 18. What governs the infinitive mood? 19. What verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition _to_? 20. What is the regular construction of participles, as such? 21. To what do adverbs relate? 22. What do conjunctions connect? 23. What is the use of prepositions? 24. What is the syntax of interjections?

LESSON IV.--THE RULES.

1. What are the several titles, or subjects, of the twenty-four rules of syntax? 2. What says Rule 1st of _Articles_? 3. What says Rule 2d of _Nominatives_? 4. What says Rule 3d of _Apposition_? 5. What says Rule 4th of _Possessives_? 6. What says Rule 5th of _Objectives_? 7. What says Rule 6th of _Same Cases_? 8. What says Rule 7th of _Objectives_? 9. What says Rule 8th of the _Nominative Absolute_? 10. What says Rule 9th of _Adjectives_? 11. What says Rule 10th of _Pronouns_? 12. What says Rule 11th of _Pronouns_? 13. What says Rule 12th of _Pronouns_? 14. What says Rule 13th of _Pronouns_? 15. What says Rule 14th of _Finite Verbs_? 16. What says Rule 15th of _Finite Verbs_? 17. What says Rule 16th of _Finite Verbs_? 18. What says Rule 17th of _Finite Verbs_? 19. What says Rule 18th of _Infinitives_? 20. What says Rule 19th of _Infinitives_? 21. What says Rule 20th of _Participles_? 22. What says Rule 21st of _Adverbs_? 23. What says Rule 22d of _Conjunctions_? 24. What says Rule 23d of _Prepositions_? 25. What says Rule 24th of _Interjections_?

LESSON V.--THE ANALYZING OF SENTENCES.

1. What is it, "to analyze a sentence?" 2. What are the component parts of a sentence? 3. Can all sentences be divided into clauses? 4. Are there different methods of analysis, which may be useful? 5. What is the first method of analysis, according to this code of syntax? 6. How is the following example analyzed by this method? "Even the Atheist, who tells us that the universe is self-existent and indestructible--even he, who, instead of seeing the traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties, sees nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty dimensions of materialism--even he, who would despoil creation of its God, cannot look upon its golden suns, and their accompanying systems, without the solemn impression of a magnificence that fixes and overpowers him." 7. What is the second method of analysis? 8. How is the following example analyzed by this method? "Fear naturally quickens the flight of guilt. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive, with his utmost efforts; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course." 9. What is the third method of analysis? 10. How is the following example analyzed by this method? "Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment, that we are always impatient of the present. Attainment is followed by neglect, and possession, by disgust. Few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking. From the first hint that wakens the fancy, to the hour of actual execution, all is improvement and progress, triumph and felicity." 11. What is the fourth method of analysis? 12. How are the following sentences analyzed by this method? (1.) "Swift would say, 'The thing has not life enough in it to keep it sweet;' Johnson, 'The creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction.'" (2.) "There is one Being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security, which nothing about us can give, and which nothing about us can take away." 13. What is said of the fifth method of analysis?

[Now, if the teacher choose to make use of any other method of analysis than full syntactical parsing, he may direct his pupils to turn to the next selection of examples, or to any other accurate sentences, and analyze them according to the method chosen.]

LESSON VI.--OF PARSING.

1. Why is it necessary to observe _the sense_, or _meaning_, of what we parse? 2. What is required of the pupil in syntactical parsing? 3. How is the following long example parsed in Praxis XII? "A young man studious to know his duty, and honestly bent on doing it, will find himself led away from the sin or folly in which the multitude thoughtlessly indulge themselves; but, ah! poor fallen human nature! what conflicts are thy portion, when inclination and habit--a rebel and a traitor--exert their sway against our only saving principle!"

[Now parse, in like manner, and with no needless deviations from the prescribed forms, the ten lessons of the _Twelfth Praxis_; or such parts of those lessons as the teacher may choose.]

LESSON VII.--THE RULES.

1. In what chapter are the rules of syntax first presented? 2. In what praxis are these rules first applied in parsing? 3. Which of the ten parts of speech is left without any rule of syntax? 4. How many and which of the ten have but one rule apiece? 5. Then, of the twenty-four rules, how many remain for the other three parts,--nouns, pronouns, and verbs? 6. How many of these seventeen speak of _cases_, and therefore apply equally to nouns and pronouns? 7. Which are these seven? 8. How many rules are there for the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents, and which are they? 9. How many rules are there for finite verbs, and which are they? 10. How many are there for infinitives, and which are they? 11. What ten chapters of the foregoing code of syntax treat of the ten parts of speech in their order? 12. Besides the rules and their examples, what sorts of matters are introduced into these chapters? 13. How many of the twenty-four rules of syntax are used both in parsing and in correcting? 14. Of what use are those which cannot be violated in practice? 15. How many such rules are there among the twenty-four? 16. How many and what parts of speech are usually parsed by such rules only?

LESSON VIII.--THE NOTES.

1. What is the essential character of the _Notes_ which are placed under the rules of syntax? 2. Are the different forms of false construction as numerous as these notes? 3. Which exercise brings into use the greater number of grammatical principles, parsing or correcting? 4. Are the principles or doctrines which are applied in these different exercises usually the same, or are they different? 5. In etymological parsing, we use about seventy _definitions_; can these be used also in the correcting of errors? 6. For the correcting of false syntax, we have a hundred and fifty-two _notes_; can these be used also in parsing? 7. How many of the rules have no such notes under them? 8. What order is observed in the placing of these notes, if some rules have many, and others few or none? 9. How many of them are under the rule for _articles_? 10. How many of them refer to the construction of _nouns_? 11. How many of them belong to the syntax of _adjectives_? 12. How many of them treat of _pronouns_? 13. How many of them regard the use of _verbs_? 14. How many of them pertain to the syntax of _participles_? 15. How many of them relate to the construction of _adverbs_? 16. How many of them show the application of _conjunctions_? 17. How many of them expose errors in the use of _prepositions_? 18. How many of them speak of _interjections_?

[Now correct orally the examples of _False Syntax_ placed under the several Rules and Notes; or so many texts under each head as the teacher may think sufficient.]

LESSON IX.--THE EXCEPTIONS.

1. In what exercise can there be occasion to cite and apply the _Exceptions_ to the rules of syntax? 2. Are there exceptions to all the rules, or to how many? 3. Are there exceptions in reference to all the parts of speech, or to how many of the ten? 4. Do articles always relate to nouns? 5. Can the subject of a finite verb be in any other case than the nominative? 6. Are words in apposition always supposed to be in the same case? 7. Is the possessive case always governed by the name of the thing possessed? 8. Can an active-transitive verb govern any other case than the objective? 9. Can a verb or participle not transitive take any other case after it than that which precedes it? 10. Can a preposition, in English, govern any other case than the objective? 11. Can "the case absolute," in English, be any other than the nominative? 12. Does every adjective "belong to a substantive, expressed or understood," as Murray avers? 13. Can an adjective ever relate to any thing else than a noun or pronoun? 14. Can an adjective ever be used without relation to any noun, pronoun, or other subject? 15. Can an adjective ever be substituted for its kindred abstract noun? 16. Are the person, number, and gender of a pronoun always determined by an antecedent? 17. What pronoun is sometimes applied to animals so as not to distinguish their sex? 18. What pronoun is sometimes an expletive, and sometimes used with reference to an infinitive following it?

LESSON X.--THE EXCEPTIONS.

19. Does a singular antecedent ever admit of a plural pronoun? 20. Can a pronoun agree with its antecedent in one sense and not in an other? 21. If the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, must the pronoun always be plural? 22. If there are two or more antecedents connected by _and_, must the pronoun always be plural? 23. If there are antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, is the pronoun always to take them separately? 24. Must a finite verb always agree with its nominative in number and person? 25. If the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, must the verb always be plural? 26. If there are two or more nominatives connected by _and_, must the verb always be plural? 21. If there are nominatives connected by _or_ or _nor_, is the verb always to refer to them separately? 28. Does the preposition _to_ before the infinitive always govern the verb? 29. Can the preposition _to_ govern or precede any other mood than the infinitive? 30. Is the preposition _to_ "understood" after _bid, dare, feel_, and so forth, where it is "superfluous and improper?" 31. How many and what exceptions are there to rule 20th, concerning participles? 32. How many and what exceptions are there to the rule for adverbs? 33. How many and what exceptions are there to the rule for conjunctions? 34. How many and what exceptions are there to the rule for prepositions? 35. Is there any exception to the 24th rule, concerning interjections?

LESSON XI.--THE OBSERVATIONS.

1. How many of the ten parts of speech in English are in general incapable of any agreement? 2. Can there be a syntactical relation of words without either agreement or government? 3. Is there ever any needful agreement between unrelated words? 4. Is the mere relation of words according to the sense an element of much importance in English syntax? 5. What parts of speech have no other syntactical property than that of simple relation? 6. What rules of relation are commonly found in grammars? 7. Of what parts is syntax commonly said to consist? 8. Is it common to find in grammars, the rules of syntax well adapted to their purpose? 9. Can you specify some that appear to be faulty? 10. Wherein consists _the truth_ of grammatical doctrine, and how can one judge of what others teach? 11. Do those who speak of syntax as being divided into two parts, Concord and Government, commonly adhere to such division? 12. What false concords and false governments are cited in Obs. 7th of the first chapter? 13. Is it often expedient to join in the same rule such principles as must always be applied separately? 14. When one can condense several different principles into one rule, is it not expedient to do so? 15. Is it ever convenient to have one and the same rule applicable to different parts of speech? 16. Is it ever convenient to have rules divided into parts, so as to be double or triple in their form? 17. What instance of extravagant innovation is given in Obs. 12th of the first chapter?

LESSON XII.--THE OBSERVATIONS.

18. Can a uniform series of good grammars, Latin, Greek, English, &c., be produced by a mere revising of one defective book for each language? 19. Whose are "The Principles of English Grammar" which Dr. Bullions has republished with alterations, "on the plan of Murray's Grammar?" 20. Can praise and success entitle to critical notice works in themselves unworthy of it? 21. Do the Latin grammarians agree in their enumeration of the concords in Latin? 22. What is said in Obs. 16th, of the plan of mixing syntax with etymology? 23. Do not the principles of etymology affect those of syntax? 24. Can any words agree, or disagree, except in something that belongs to each of them? 25. How many and what parts of speech are concerned in government? 26. Are rules of government to be applied to the governing words, or to the governed? 27. What are gerundives? 28. How many and what are the principles of syntax which belong to the head of simple relation? 29. How many agreements, or concords, are there in English syntax? 30. How many rules of government are there in the best Latin grammars? 31. What fault is there in the usual distribution of these rules? 32. How many and what are the governments in English syntax? 33. Can the parsing of words be varied by any transposition which does not change their import? 34. Can the parsing of words be affected by the parser's notion of what constitutes a simple sentence? 35. What explanation of simple and compound sentences is cited from Dr. Wilson, in Obs. 25? 36. What notion had Dr. Adam of simple and compound sentences? 37. Is this doctrine consistent either with itself or with Wilson's? 38. How can one's notion of _ellipsis_ affect his mode of parsing, and his distinction of sentences as simple or compound?

LESSON XIII.--ARTICLES.

1. Can one noun have more than one article? 2. Can one article relate to more than one noun? 3. Why cannot the omission of an article constitute a proper ellipsis? 4. What is the position of the article with respect to its noun? 5. What is the usual position of the article with respect to an adjective and a noun? 6. Can the relative position of the article and adjective be a matter of indifference? 7. What adjectives exclude, or supersede, the article? 8. What adjectives precede the article? 9. What four adverbs affect the position of the article and adjective? 10. Do other adverbs come between the article and the adjective? 11. Can any of the definitives which preclude _an_ or _a_, be used with the adjective _one_? 12. When the adjective follows its noun, where stands the article? 13. Can the article in English, ever be placed after its noun? 14. What is the effect of the word _the_ before comparatives and superlatives? 15. What article may sometimes be used in lieu of a possessive pronoun? 16. Is the article _an_ or _a_ always supposed to imply unity? 17. Respecting _an_ or _a_, how does present usage differ from the usage of ancient writers? 18. Can the insertion or omission of an article greatly affect the import of a sentence? 19. By a repetition of the article before two or more adjectives, what other repetition is implied? 20. How do we sometimes avoid such repetition? 21. Can there ever be an implied repetition of the noun when no article is used?

LESSON XIV.--NOUNS, OR CASES.

1. In how many different ways can the nominative case be used? 2. What is the usual position of the nominative and verb, and when is it varied? 3. With what nominatives of the second person, does the imperative verb agree? 4. Why is it thought improper to put a noun in two cases at once? 5. What case in Latin and Greek is reckoned _the subject_ of the infinitive mood? 6. Can this, in general, be literally imitated in English? 7. Do any English authors adopt the Latin doctrine of the accusative (or objective) before the infinitive? 8. Is the objective, when it occurs before the infinitive in English, usually governed by some verb, participle, or preposition? 9. What is our nearest approach to the Latin construction of the accusative before the infinitive? 10. What is _apposition_, and from whom did it receive this name? 11. Is there a construction of like cases, that is not apposition? 12. To which of the apposite terms is the rule for apposition to be applied? 13. Are words in apposition always to be parsed separately? 14. Wherein are the common rule and definition of apposition faulty? 15. Can the explanatory word ever be placed first? 16. Is it ever indifferent, which word be called the principal, and which the explanatory term? 17. Why cannot two nouns, each having the possessive sign, be put in apposition with each other? 18. Where must the sign of possession be put, when two or more possessives are in apposition? 19. Is it compatible with apposition to supply between the words a relative and a verb; as, "At Mr. Smith's [_who is_] the bookseller?" 20. How can a noun be, or seem to be, in apposition with a possessive pronoun? 21. What construction is produced by the _repetition_ of a noun or pronoun? 22. What is the construction of a noun, when it emphatically repeats the idea suggested by a preceding sentence?

LESSON XV.--NOUNS, OR CASES.

23. Can words differing in number be in apposition with each other? 24. What is the usual construction of _each other_ and _one an other_? 25. Is there any argument from analogy for taking _each other_ and _one an other_ for compounds? 26. Do we often put proper nouns in apposition with appellatives? 27. What preposition is often put between nouns that signify the same thing? 28. When is an active verb followed by two words in apposition? 29. Does apposition require any other agreement than that of case? 30. What three modes of construction appear like exceptions to Rule 4th? 31. In the phrase, "For _David_ my servant's sake," which word is governed by _sake_, and which is to be parsed by the rule of apposition? 32. In the sentence, "It is _man's_ to err," what is supposed to govern _man's_? 33. Does the possessive case admit of any abstract sense or construction? 34. Why is it reasonable to limit the government of the possessive to nouns only, or to words taken substantive? 35. Does the possessive case before a real participle denote the possessor of something? 36. What two great authors differ in regard to the correctness of the phrases, "_upon the rule's being observed_," and "_of its being neglected_?" 37. Is either of them right in his argument? 38. Is the distinction between the participial noun and the participle well preserved by Murray and his amenders? 39. Who invented the doctrine, that a participle and its adjuncts may be used as "_one name_" and in that capacity govern the possessive? 40. Have any popular authors adopted this doctrine? 41. Is the doctrine well sustained by its adopters, or is it consistent with the analogy of general grammar? 42. When one doubts whether a participle ought to be the governing word or the adjunct,--that is, whether he ought to use the possessive case before it or the objective,--what shall he do? 43, What is objected to the sentences in which participles govern the possessive case, and particularly to the examples given by Priestley, Murray, and others, to prove such a construction right? 44. Do the teachers of this doctrine agree among themselves? 45. How does the author of this work generally dispose of such government? 46. Does he positively determine, that the participle should _never_ be allowed to govern the possessive case?

LESSON XVI.--NOUNS, OR CASES.

47. Are the distinctions of voice and of time as much regarded in participial nouns as in participles? 48. Why cannot an omission of the possessive sign be accounted a true _ellipsis_? 49. What is the usual position of the possessive case, and what exceptions are there? 50. In what other form can the meaning of the possessive case be expressed? 51. Is the possessive often governed by what is not expressed? 52. Does every possessive sign imply a separate governing noun? 53. How do compounds take the sign of possession? 54. Do we put the sign of possession always and only where the two terms of the possessive relation meet? 55. Can the possessive sign be ever rightly added to a separate adjective? 56. What is said of the omission of _s_ from the possessive singular on account of its hissing sound? 57. What errors do Kirkham, Smith, and others, teach concerning the possessive singular? 58. Why is Murray's rule for the possessive case objectionable? 59. Do compounds embracing the possessive case appear to be written with sufficient uniformity? 60. What rules for nouns coming together are inserted in Obs. 31st on Rule 4th? 61. Does the compounding of words necessarily preclude their separate use? 62. Is there a difference worth notice, between such terms or things as _heart-ease_ and _heart's-ease_; a _harelip_ and a _hare's lip_; a _headman_ and a _headsman_; a _lady's-slipper_ and a _lady's slipper_? 63. Where usage is utterly unsettled, what guidance should be sought? 64. What peculiarities are noticed in regard to the noun _side_? 65. What peculiarities has the possessive case in regard to correlatives? 66. What is remarked of the possessive relation between time and action? 67. What is observed of nouns of weight, measure, or time, coming immediately together?

LESSON XVII.--NOUNS, OR CASES.

68. Are there any exceptions or objections to the old rule, "Active verbs govern the objective case?" 69. Of how many different constructions is the objective case susceptible? 70. What is the usual position of the objective case, and what exceptions are there? 71. Can any thing but the governing of an objective noun or pronoun make an active verb transitive? 72. In the sentence, "What _have_ I to _do_ with thee?" how are _have_ and _do_ to be parsed? 73. Can infinitives, participles, phrases, sentences, and parts of sentences, be really "in the objective case?" 74. In the sentence, "I _know why_ she blushed," how is _know_ to be parsed? 75. In the sentence, "I _know that_ Messias cometh," how are _know_ and _that_ to be parsed? 76. In the sentence, "And _Simon_ he surnamed _Peter_", how are _Simon_ and _Peter_ to be parsed? 77. In such sentences as, "I paid _him_ the _money_,"--"He asked _them_ the _question_," how are the two objectives to be parsed? 78. Does any verb in English ever govern two objectives that are not coupled? 79. Are there any of our passive verbs that can properly govern the objective case? 80. Is not our language like the Latin, in respect to verbs governing two cases, and passives retaining the latter? 81. How do our grammarians now dispose of what remains to us of the old Saxon dative case? 82. Do any reputable writers allow passive verbs to govern the objective case? 83. What says Lindley Murray about this passive government? 84. Why is the position, "Active verbs govern the objective case," of no use to the composer? 85. On what is the construction of _same cases_ founded? 86. Does this construction admit of any variety in the position of the words? 87. Does an ellipsis of the verb or participle change this construction into apposition? 88. Is it ever right to put both terms before the verb? 89. What kinds of words can take different cases after them? 90. Can a participle which is governed by a preposition, have a case after it which is governed by neither? 91. How is the word _man_ to be parsed in the following example? "The atrocious _crime of being_ a young _man_, I shall neither attempt to palliate, nor deny."

LESSON XVIII.--NOUNS, OR CASES.

92. In what kinds of examples do we meet with a doubtful case after a participle? 93. Is the case after the verb reckoned doubtful, when the subject going before is a sentence, or something not declinable by cases? 94. In the sentence, "It is certainly as easy to be a _scholar_, as a _gamester_," what is the case of _scholar_ and _gamester_, and why? 95. Are there any verbs that sometimes connect like cases, and sometimes govern the objective? 96. What faults are there in the rules given by _Lowth, Murray, Smith_, and others, for the construction of _like cases_? 97. Can a preposition ever govern any thing else than a noun or a pronoun? 98. Is every thing that a preposition governs, necessarily supposed to have cases, and to be in the objective? 99. Why or wherein is the common rule, "Prepositions govern the objective case," defective or insufficient? 100. In such phrases as _in vain, at first, in particular_, how is the adjective to be parsed? 101. In such expressions as, "I give it up _for lost_,"--"I take it _for granted_," how is the participle to be parsed? 102. In such phrases as, _at once, from thence, till now_, how is the latter word to be parsed? 103. What peculiarity is there in the construction of nouns of time, measure, distance, or value? 104. What is observed of the words _like, near_, and _nigh_? 105. What is observed of the word _worth_? 106. According to Johnson and Tooke, what is _worth_, in such phrases as, "Wo _worth_ the day?" 107. After verbs of _giving, paying_, and the like, what ellipsis is apt to occur? 108. What is observed of the nouns used in dates? 109. What defect is observable in the common rules for "the case absolute," or "the nominative independent?" 110. In how many ways is the nominative case put absolute? 111. What participle is often understood after nouns put absolute? 112. In how many ways can nouns of the second person be employed? 113. What is said of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and abbreviated sayings? 114. What is observed of such phrases as, "_hand to hand_,"--"_face to face_?" 115. What authors deny the existence of "the case absolute?"

LESSON XIX.--ADJECTIVES.

1. Does the adjective frequently relate to what is not uttered with it? 2. What is observed of those rules which suppose every adjective to relate to some noun? 3. To what does the adjective usually relate, when it stands alone after a finite verb? 4. Where is the noun or pronoun, when an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle? 5. What is observed of adjectives preceded by _the_ and used elliptically? 6. What is said of the position of the adjective? 7. In what instances is the adjective placed after its noun? 8. In what instances may the adjective either precede or follow the noun? 9. What are the construction and import of the phrases, _in particular, in general_, and the like? 10. What is said of adjectives as agreeing or disagreeing with their nouns in number? 11. What is observed of _this_ and _that_ as referring to two nouns connected? 12. What is remarked of the use of adjectives for adverbs? 13. How can one determine whether an adjective or an adverb is required? 14. What is remarked of the placing of two or more adjectives before one noun? 15. How can one avoid the ambiguity which Dr. Priestley notices in the use of the adjective _no_?

LESSON XX.--PRONOUNS.

1. Can such pronouns as stand for things not named, be said to agree with the nouns for which they are substituted? 2. Is the pronoun _we_ singular when it is used in lieu of _I_? 3. Is the pronoun _you_ singular when used in lieu of _thou_ or _thee_? 4. What is there remarkable in the construction of _ourself_ and _yourself_? 5. Of what person, number, and gender, is the relative, when put after such terms of address as, _your Majesty, your Highness, your Lordship, your Honour_? 6. How does the English fashion of putting _you_ for _thou_, compare with the usage of the French, and of other nations? 7. Do any imagine these fashionable substitutions to be morally objectionable? 8. What figures of rhetoric are liable to affect the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents? 9. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of personification? 10. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metaphor? 11. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metonymy? 12. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of synecdoche? 13. What is the usual position of pronouns, and what exceptions are there? 14. When a pronoun represents a phrase or sentence, of what person, number, and gender is it? 15. Under what circumstances can a pronoun agree with either of two antecedents? 16. With what does the relative agree when an other word is introduced by the pronoun _it_? 17. In the sentence, "_It_ is useless to complain," what does _it_ represent? 18. How are relative and interrogative pronouns placed? 19. What are the chief constructional peculiarities of the relative pronouns? 20. Why does the author discard the two special rules commonly given for the construction of relatives?

LESSON XXI.--PRONOUNS.

21. To what part of speech is the greatest number of rules applied in parsing? 22. Of the twenty-four rules in this work, how many are applicable to pronouns? 23. Of the seven rules for cases, how many are applicable to relatives and interrogatives? 24. What is remarked of the ellipsis or omission of the relative? 25. What is said of the suppression of the antecedent? 26. What is noted of the word _which_, as applied to persons? 27. What relative is applied to a proper noun taken merely as a name? 28. When do we employ the same relative in successive clauses? 29. What odd use is sometimes made of the pronoun _your_? 30. Under what _figure_ of syntax did the old grammarians rank the plural construction of a noun of multitude? 31. Does a collective noun with a singular definitive before it ever admit of a plural verb or pronoun? 32. Do collective nouns generally admit of being made literally plural? 33. When joint antecedents are of different persons, with which person does the pronoun agree? 34. When joint antecedents differ in gender, of what gender is the pronoun? 35. Why is it wrong to say, "The first has a lenis, _and_ the other an asper over _them_?" 36. Can nouns without _and_ be taken jointly, as if they had it? 37. Can singular antecedents be so suggested as to require a plural pronoun, when only one of them is uttered? 38. Why do singular antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_ appear to require a singular pronoun? 39. Can different antecedents connected by _or_ be accurately represented by differing pronouns connected in the same way? 40. Why are we apt to use a plural pronoun after antecedents of different genders? 41. Do the Latin grammars teach the same doctrine as the English, concerning nominatives or antecedents connected disjunctively?

LESSON XXII.--VERBS.

1. What is necessary to every finite verb? 2. What is remarked of such examples as this: "The _Pleasures_ of Memory _was_ published in 1702?" 3. What is to be done with "_Thinks I_ to myself," and the like? 4. Is it right to say with Smith, "Every hundred _years constitutes_ a century?" 5. What needless ellipses both of nominatives and of verbs are commonly supposed by our grammarians? 6. What actual ellipsis usually occurs with the imperative mood? 7. What is observed concerning the place of the verb? 8. What besides a noun or a pronoun may be made the subject of a verb? 9. What is remarked of the faulty omission of the pronoun _it_ before the verb? 10 When an infinitive phrase is made the subject of a verb, do the words remain adjuncts, or are they abstract? 11. How can we introduce a noun or pronoun before the infinitive, and still make the whole phrase the subject of a finite verb? 12. Can an objective before the infinitive become "the subject of the affirmation?" 13. In making a phrase the subject of a verb, do we produce an exception to Rule 14th? 14. Why is it wrong to say, with Dr. Ash, "The king and queen appearing in public _was_ the cause of my going?" 15. What inconsistency is found in Murray, with reference to his "_nominative sentences_?" 16. What is Dr. Webster's ninth rule of syntax? 17. Why did Murray think all Webster's examples under this rule bad English? 18. Why are both parties wrong in this instance? 19. What strange error is taught by Cobbett, and by Wright, in regard to the relative and its verb? 20. Is it demonstrable that verbs often agree with relatives? 21. What is observed of the agreement of verbs in interrogative sentences? 22. Do we ever find the subjunctive mood put after a relative pronoun? 23. What is remarked of the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood, and of the limits of the latter?

LESSON XXIII.--VERBS.

24. In respect to collective nouns, how is it generally determined, whether they convey the idea of plurality or not? 25. What is stated of the rules of Adam, Lowth, Murray, and Kirkham, concerning collective nouns? 26. What is Nixon's notion of the construction of the verb and collective noun? 27. Does this author appear to have gained "a _clear idea_ of the nature of a collective noun?" 28. What great difficulty does Murray acknowledge concerning "nouns of multitude?" 29. Does Murray's notion, that collective nouns are of different sorts, appear to be consistent or warrantable? 30. Can words that agree with the same collective noun, be of different numbers? 31. What is observed of collective nouns used partitively? 32. Which are the most apt to be taken plurally, collections of persons, or collections of things? 33. Can a collective noun, as such, take a plural adjective before it? 34. What is observed of the expressions, _these people, these gentry, these folk_? 35. What is observed of sentences like the following, in which there seems to be no nominative: "There _are_ from eight to twelve professors?" 36. What rule does Dr. Webster give for such examples as the following: "There _was_ more than a hundred and fifty thousand pounds?" 37. What grammarians teach, that two or more nouns connected by _and_, "always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be in the plural number?" 38. Does Murray acknowledge or furnish any exceptions to this doctrine? 39. On what principle can one justify such an example as this: "_All work and no play, makes_ Jack a dull boy?" 40. What is remarked of instances like the following: "Prior's _Henry and Emma contains_ an other beautiful example?" 41. What is said of the suppression of the conjunction _and_? 42. When the speaker changes his nominative, to take a stronger one, what concord has the verb? 43. When two or more nominatives connected by _and_ explain a preceding one, what agreement has the verb? 44. What grammarian approves of such expressions as, "Two and two _is_ four?" 45. What is observed of verbs that agree with the nearest nominative, and are understood to the rest? 46. When the nominatives connected are of different persons, of what person is the verb?

LESSON XXIV.--VERBS.

47. What is the syntax of the verb, when one of its nominatives is expressed, and an other or others implied? 48. What is the syntax of the verb, when there are nominatives connected by _as_? 49. What is the construction when two nominatives are connected by _as well as, but_, or _save_? 50. Can words connected by _with_ be properly used as joint nominatives? 51. Does the analogy of other languages with ours prove any thing on this point? 52. What does Cobbett say about _with_ put for _and_? 53. What is the construction of such expressions as this: "A torch, _snuff_ and _all, goes_ out in a moment?" 54. Does our rule for the verb and disjunct nominatives derive confirmation from the Latin and Greek syntax? 55. Why do collective nouns singular, when connected by _or_ or _nor_, admit of a plural verb? 56. In the expression, "_I, thou, or he, may affirm_," of what person and number is the verb? 57. Who says, "the verb agrees with _the last nominative_?" 58. What authors prefer "_the nearest person_," and "_the plural number_?" 59. What authors prefer "the _nearest nominative_, whether singular or plural?" 60. What author declares it improper ever to connect by _or_ or _nor_ any nominatives that require different forms of the verb? 61. What is Cobbett's "_clear principle_" on this head? 62. Can a zeugma of the verb be proved to be right, in spite of these authorities? 63. When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers, connected by _or_ or _nor_, with which of them does it _commonly_ agree? 64. When does it agree with the remoter nominative? 65. When a noun is implied in an adjective of a different number, which word is regarded in the formation of the verb? 66. What is remarked concerning the place of the pronoun of the first person singular? 67. When verbs are connected by _and, or_, or _nor_, do they necessarily agree with the same nominative? 68. Why is the thirteenth rule of the author's Institutes and First Lines not retained as a rule in this work? 69. Are verbs often connected without agreeing in mood, tense, and form?

LESSON XXV.--VERBS.

70. What particular convenience do we find in having most of our tenses composed of separable words? 71. Is the connecting of verbs elliptically, or by parts, anything peculiar to our language? 72. What faults appear in the teaching of our grammarians concerning _do_ used as a "substitute for other verbs?" 73. What notions have been entertained concerning the word _to_ as used before the infinitive verb? 74. How does Dr. Ash parse _to_ before the infinitive? 75. What grammarians have taught that the preposition _to_ governs the infinitive mood? 76. Does Lowth agree with Murray in the anomaly of supposing _to_ a preposition that governs nothing? 77. Why do those teach just as inconsistently, who forbear to call the _to_ a preposition? 78. What objections are there to the rule, with its exceptions, "One verb governs an other in the infinitive mood?" 79. What large exception to this rule has been recently discovered by Dr. Bullions? 80. Are the countless examples of this exception truly elliptical? 81. Is the infinitive ever governed by a preposition in French, Spanish, or Italian? 82. What whimsical account of the English infinitive is given by Nixon? 83. How was the infinitive expressed in the Anglo-Saxon of the eleventh century? 84. What does Richard Johnson infer from the fact that the Latin infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition? 85. What reasons can be adduced to show that the infinitive is not a noun? 86. How can it be proved that _to_ before the infinitive is a preposition? 87. What does Dr. Wilson say of the character and _import_ of the infinitive? 88. To what other terms can the infinitive be connected? 89. What is the infinitive, and for what things may it stand? 90. Do these ten heads embrace all the uses of the infinitive? 91. What is observed of Murray's "_infinitive made absolute_?" 92. What is said of the position of the infinitive? 93. Is the infinitive ever liable to be misplaced?

LESSON XXVI.--VERBS.

94. What is observed of the frequent ellipses of the verb _to be_, supposed by Allen and others? 95. What is said of the suppression of _to_ and the insertion of _be_; as, "To make himself _be_ heard?" 96. Why is it necessary to use the sign _to_ before an abstract infinitive, where it shows no relation? 97. What is observed concerning the distinction of _voice_ in the simple infinitive and the first participle? 98. What do our grammarians teach concerning the omission of _to_ before the infinitive, after _bid, dare, feel_, &c.? 99. How do Ingersoll, Kirkham, and Smith, agree with their master Murray, concerning such examples as, "_Let me go_?" 100. What is affirmed of the difficulties of parsing the infinitive according to the code of Murray? 101. How do Nutting, Kirkham, Nixon, Cooper, and Sanborn, agree with Murray, or with one an other, in pointing out what governs the infinitive? 102. What do Murray and others mean by "_neuter verbs_," when they tell us that the taking of the infinitive without _to_ "extends only to active and neuter verbs?" 103. How is the infinitive used after _bid_? 104. How, after _dare_? 105. How, after _feel_? 106. How, after _hear_? 107. How, after _let_? 108. How, after _make_? 109. How, after _need_? 110. Is _need_ ever an auxiliary? 111. What errors are taught by Greenleaf concerning _dare_ and _need_ or _needs_? 112. What is said of _see_, as governing the infinitive? 113. Do any other verbs, besides these eight, take the infinitive after them without _to_? 114. How is the infinitive used after _have, help_, and _find_? 115. When two or more infinitives occur in the same construction, must _to_ be used with each? 116. What is said of the sign _to_ after _than_ or _as_?

LESSON XXVII.--PARTICIPLES.

1. What questionable uses of participles are commonly admitted by grammarians? 2. Why does the author incline to condemn these peculiarities? 3. What is observed of the multiplicity of uses to which the participle in _ing_ may be turned? 4. What is said of the participles which some suppose to be put absolute? 5. How are participles placed? 6. What is said of the transitive use of such words as _unbecoming_? 7. What distinction, in respect to government, is to be observed between a participle and a participial noun? 8. What shall we do when _of_ after the participial noun is objectionable? 9. What is said of the correction of those examples in which a needless article or possessive is put before the participle? 10. What is stated of the retaining of adverbs with participial nouns? 11. Can words having the form of the first participle be nouns, and clearly known to be such, when they have no adjuncts? 12. What strictures are made on Murray, Lennie, and Bullions, with reference to examples in which an infinitive follows the participial noun? 13. In what instances is the first participle equivalent to the infinitive? 14. What is said of certain infinitives supposed to be erroneously put for participles? 15. What verbs take the participle after them, and not the infinitive? 16. What is said of those examples in which participles seem to be made the objects of verbs? 17. What is said of the teaching of Murray and others, that, "The participle with its adjuncts may be considered as a _substantive phrase_?" 18. How does the English participle compare with the Latin gerund? 19. How do Dr. Adam and others suppose "the gerund in English" to become a "substantive," or noun? 20. How does the French construction of participles and infinitives compare with the English?

LESSON XXVIII.--PARTICIPLES.

21. What difference does it make, whether we use the possessive case before words in _ing_, or not? 22. What is said of the distinguishing or confounding of different parts of speech, such as verbs, participles, and nouns? 23. With how many other parts of speech does W. Allen confound the participle? 24. How is the distinguishing of the participle from the verbal noun inculcated by Allen, and their difference of meaning by Murray? 25. Is it pretended that the authorities and reasons which oppose the mixed construction of participles, are sufficient to prove such usage altogether inadmissible? 26. Is it proper to teach, in general terms, that the noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of a participle should be put in the possessive case? 27. What is remarked of different cases used indiscriminately before the participle or verbal noun? 28. What say Crombie and others about this disputable phraseology? 29. What says Brown of this their teaching? 30. How do Priestley and others pretend to distinguish between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in _ing_? 31. What does Brown say of this doctrine? 32. If when a participle becomes an adjective it drops its regimen, should it not also drop it on becoming a noun? 33. Where the sense admits of a choice of construction in respect to the participle, is not attention due to the analogy of general grammar? 34. Does it appear that nouns before participles are less frequently subjected to their government than pronouns? 35. Why must a grammarian discriminate between idioms, or peculiarities, and the common mode of expression? 36. Is the Latin gerund, like the verbal in _ing_, sometimes active, sometimes passive; and when the former governs the genitive, do we imitate the idiom in English? 37. Is it agreed among grammarians, that the Latin gerund may govern the genitive of the agent? 38. What distinction between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in _ing_ do Crombie and others propose to make? 39. How does this accord with the views of Murray, Lowth, Adam, and Brown?. 40. How does Hiley treat the English participle? 41. What further is remarked concerning false teaching in relation to participles?

LESSON XXIX.--ADVERBS.

1. What is replied to Dr. Adam's suggestion, "Adverbs sometimes qualify substantives?" 2. Do not adverbs sometimes relate to participial nouns? 3. If an adverbial word relates directly to a noun or pronoun, does not that fact constitute it an adjective? 4. Are such expressions as, "the _then_ ministry," "the _above_ discourse," good English, or bad--well authorized, or not? 5. When words commonly used as adverbs assume the construction of nouns, how are they to be parsed? 6. Must not the parser be careful to distinguish adverbs used substantively or adjectively, from such as may be better resolved by the supposing of an ellipsis? 7. How is an adverb to be parsed, when it seems to be put for a verb? 8. How are adverbs to be parsed in such expressions as, "_Away with him?_" 9. What is observed of the relation of conjunctive adverbs, and of the misuse of _when_? 10. What is said in regard to the placing of adverbs? 11. What suggestions are made concerning the word _no_? 12. What is remarked of two or more negatives in the same sentence? 13. Is that a correct rule which says, "Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative?" 14. What is the dispute among grammarians concerning the adoption of _or_ or _nor_ after _not_ or _no_? 15. What fault is found with the opinion of Priestley, Murray, Ingersoll, and Smith, that "either of them may be used with nearly equal propriety?" 16. How does John Burn propose to settle this dispute? 17. How does Churchill treat the matter? 18. What does he say of the manner in which "the use of _nor_ after _not_ has been introduced?" 19. What other common modes of expression are censured by this author under the same head? 20. How does Brown review these criticisms, and attempt to settle the question? 21. What critical remark is made on the misuse of _ever_ and _never_? 22. How does Churchill differ from Lowth respecting the phrase, "_ever so wisely_," or "_never so wisely?_" 23. What is observed of _never_ and _ever_ as seeming to be adjectives, and being liable to contraction? 24. What strictures are made on the classification and placing of the word _only_? 25. What is observed of the term _not but_, and of the adverbial use of _but_? 26. What is noted of the ambiguous use of _but_ or _only_? 27. What notions are inculcated by different grammarians about the introductory word _there_?

LESSON XXX.--CONJUNCTIONS.

1. When two declinable words are connected by a conjunction, why are they of the same case? 2. What is the power, and what the position, of a conjunction that connects sentences or clauses? 3. What further is added concerning the terms which conjunctions connect? 4. What is remarked of two or more conjunctions coming together? 5. What is said of _and_ as supposed to be used to call attention? 6. What relation of case occurs between nouns connected by _as_? 7. Between what other related terms can _as_ be employed? 8. What is _as_ when it is made the subject or the object of a verb? 9. What questions are raised among grammarians, about the construction of _as follow_ or _as follows_, and other similar phrases? 10. What is said of Murray's mode of treating this subject? 11. Has Murray written any thing which goes to show whether _as follows_ can be right or not, when the preceding noun is plural? 12. What is the opinion of Nixon, and of Crombie? 13. What conjunction is frequently understood? 14. What is said of ellipsis after _than_ or _as_? 15. What is suggested concerning the character and import of _than_ and _as_? 16. Does _than_ as well as _as_ usually take the same case after it that occurs before it? 17. Is the Greek or Latin construction of the latter term in a comparison usually such as ours? 18. What inferences have our grammarians made from the phrase _than whom_? 19. Is _than_ supposed by Murray to be capable of governing any other objective than _whom_? 20. What grammarian supposes _whom_ after _than_ to be "in the objective case _absolute_?" 21. How does the author of this work dispose of the example? 22. What notice is taken of O. B. Peirce's Grammar, with reference to his manner of parsing words after _than_ or _as_? 23. What says Churchill about the notion that certain conjunctions govern the subjunctive mood? 24. What is said of the different parts of speech contained in the list of correspondents?

LESSON XXXI.--PREPOSITIONS.

1. What is said of the parsing of a preposition? 2. How can the terms of relation which pertain to the preposition be ascertained? 3. What is said of the transposition of the two terms? 4. Between what parts of speech, as terms of the relation, can a preposition be used? 5. What is said of the ellipsis of one or the other of the terms? 6. Is _to_ before the infinitive to be parsed just as any other preposition? 7. What is said of Dr. Adam's "_To_ taken _absolutely_?" 8. What is observed in relation to the exceptions to Rule 23d? 9. What is said of the placing of prepositions? 10. What is told of two prepositions coming together? 11. In how many and what ways does the relation of prepositions admit of complexity? 12. What is the difference between _in_ and _into_? 13. What notice is taken of the application of _between, betwixt, among, amongst, amid, amidst_? 14. What erroneous remark have Priestley, Murray, and others, about two prepositions "in the same construction?" 15. What false doctrine have Lowth, Murray, and others, about the separating of the preposition from its noun? 16. What is said of the prepositions which follow _averse_ and _aversion, except_ and _exception_? 17. What is remarked concerning the use of _of, to, on_, and _upon_? 18. Can there be an inelegant use of prepositions which is not positively ungrammatical?

LESSON XXXII.--INTERJECTIONS.

1. Are all interjections to be parsed as being put absolute? 2. What is said of _O_ and the vocative case? 3. What do Nixon and Kirkham erroneously teach about cases governed by interjections? 4. What say Murray, Ingersoll, and Lennie, about interjections and cases? 5. What is shown of the later teaching to which Murray's erroneous and unoriginal remark about "_O, oh_, and _ah_," has given rise? 6. What notice is taken of the application of the rule for "_O, oh_, and _ah_," to nouns of the second person? 7. What is observed concerning the further extension of this rule to nouns and pronouns of the third person? 8. What authors teach that interjections are put absolute, and have no government? 9. What is the construction of the pronoun in "_Ah me!_" "_Ah him!_" or any similar exclamation? 10. Is the common rule for interjections, as requiring certain cases after them, sustained by any analogy from the Latin syntax? 11. Can it be shown, on good authority, that _O_ in Latin may be followed by the nominative of the first person or the accusative of the second? 12. What errors in the construction and punctuation of interjectional phrases are quoted from Fisk, Smith, and Kirkham? 13. What is said of those sentences in which an interjection is followed by a preposition or the conjunction _that_? 14. What is said of the place of the interjection? 15. What says O. B. Peirce about the name and place of the interjection? 16. What is offered in refutation of Peirce's doctrine?

[Now parse the six lessons of the _Thirteenth Praxis_; taking, if the teacher please, the Italic or difficult words only; and referring to the exceptions or observations under the rules, as often as there is occasion. Then proceed to the correction of the eighteen lessons of _False Syntax_ contained in Chapter Twelfth, or the General Review.]

LESSON XXXIII.--GENERAL RULE.

1. Why were the general rule and the general or critical notes added to the foregoing code of syntax? 2. What is the general rule? 3. How many are there of the general or critical notes? 4. What says Critical Note 1st of _the parts of speech_? 5. What says Note 2d of _the doubtful reference_ of words? 6. What says Note 3d of _definitions_? 7. What says Note 4th of _comparisons_? 8. What says Note 5th of _falsities_? 9. What says Note 6th of _absurdities_? 10. What says Note 7th of _self-contradiction_? 11. What says Note 8th of _senseless jumbling_? 12. What says Note 9th of _words needless_? 13. What says Note 10th of _improper omissions_? 14. What says Note 11th of _literary blunders_? 15. What says Note 12th of _literary perversions_? 16. What says Note 13th of _literary awkwardness_? 17. What says Note 14th of _literary ignorance_? 18. What says Note 15th of _literary silliness_? 19. What says Note 16th of _errors incorrigible_? 20. In what place are the rules, exceptions, notes, and observations, in the foregoing system of syntax, enumerated and described? 21. What suggestions are made in relation to the number of rules or notes, and the completeness of the system? 22. What is remarked on the place and character of the critical notes and the general rule? 23. What is noted in relation to the unamendable imperfections sometimes found in ancient writings?

[Now correct--(or at least read, and compare with the Key--) the sixteen lessons of _False Syntax_, arranged under appropriate heads, for the application of the General Rule; the sixteen others adapted to the Critical Notes; and the five concluding ones, for which the rules are various.]