Chapter IX: Conjunctions

The syntax of Conjunctions consists, not (as L. Murray and others erroneously teach) in "their power of determining the mood of verbs," or the "cases of nouns and pronouns," but in the simple fact, that they link together such and such terms, and thus "mark the connexions of human thought."--_Beattie_.

RULE XXII.--CONJUNCTIONS.

Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences: as, "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me _and_ thee, _and_ between my herdmen _and_ thy herdmen; _for_ we are brethren."--_Gen._, xiii, 8.

"Ah! _if_ she lend not arms _as well as_ rules.
What can she more _than_ tell us we are fools?"--_Pope._

EXCEPTION FIRST.

The conjunction _that_ sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence which is made the subject or the object of a finite verb;[433] as, "_That_ mind is not matter, is certain."

"_That_ you have wronged me, doth appear in this."--_Shak._

"_That_ time is mine, O Mead! to thee, I owe."--_Young_.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their usual order, the former should generally be parsed as referring to the latter, which is more properly the connecting word; as, "_Neither_ sun _nor_ stars in many days appeared."--_Acts_, xxvii, 20. "_Whether_ that evidence has been afforded [_or_ not,] is a matter of investigation."--_Keith's Evidences_, p. 18.

EXCEPTION THIRD. _Either_, corresponding to _or_, and _neither_, corresponding to _nor_ or _not_, are sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the disjunction or negation at the end of the sentence; as, "Where then was their capacity of standing, _or_ his _either_?"--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 359. "It is _not_ dangerous _neither_."--_Bolingbroke, on Hist._, p. 135. "He is very tall, but _not_ too tall _neither._"--_Spect._, No. 475.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXII.

OBS. 1.--Conjunctions that connect particular _words_, generally join similar parts of speech in a common dependence on some other term. Hence, if the words connected be such as have _cases_, they will of course be in the same case; as, "For _me_ and _thee_"--_Matt._, xvii, 27. "Honour thy _father_ and thy _mother_."--_Ib._, xviii, 19. Here the latter noun or pronoun is connected by _and_ to the former, and governed by the same preposition or verb. Conjunctions themselves have no government, unless the questionable phrase "_than whom_" may be reckoned an exception. See Obs. 17th below, and others that follow it.

OBS. 2.--Those conjunctions which connect _sentences_ or _clauses_, commonly unite one sentence or clause to an other, either as an additional assertion, or as a condition, a cause, or an end, of what is asserted. The conjunction is placed _between_ the terms which it connects, except there is a transposition, and then it stands before the dependent term, and consequently at the beginning of the whole sentence: as, "He taketh away the first, _that_ he may establish the second."--_Heb._, x, 9. "_That_ he may establish the second, he taketh away the first."

OBS. 3.--The term that follows a conjunction, is in some instances a _phrase_ of several words, yet not therefore a whole clause or member, unless we suppose it elliptical, and supply what will make it such: as, "And whatsoever ye do, do it heartily, AS _to the Lord_, AND _not unto men_"--_Col._, iii, 23. If we say, this means, "as _doing it_ to the Lord, and not _as doing it_ unto men," the terms are still mere phrases; but if we say, the sense is, "as _if ye did it_ to the Lord, and not _as if ye did it_ unto men," they are clauses, or sentences. Churchill says, "The office of the conjunction is, to connect one _word_ with an other, or one _phrase_ with an other."--_New Gram._, p. 152. But he uses the term _phrase_ in a more extended sense than I suppose it will strictly bear: he means by it, a _clause_, or _member_; that is, a sentence which forms a part of a greater sentence.

OBS. 4.--What is the office of this part of speech, according to Lennie, Bullions, Brace, Hart, Hiley, Smith, M'Culloch, Webster, Wells, and others, who say that it "joins _words_ and _sentences_ together," (see Errors on p. 434 of this work,) it is scarcely possible to conceive. If they imagine it to connect "_words_" on the one side, to "_sentences_" on the other; this is plainly absurd, and contrary to facts. If they suppose it to join sentence to sentence, by merely connecting word to word, in a joint relation; this also is absurd, and self-contradictory. Again, if they mean, that the conjunction sometimes connects word with word, and sometimes, sentence with sentence; _this sense they have not expressed_, but have severally puzzled their readers by an ungrammatical use of the word "_and_." One of the best among them says, "In _the sentence_, 'He _and_ I must go,' the word _and_ unites _two sentences_, and thus _avoids_ an unnecessary repetition; thus instead of saying, 'He must go,' 'I must go,' we connect _the words He, I_, as the same thing is affirmed of _both_, namely, _must go_."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 53. Here is the incongruous suggestion, that _by connecting words only_, the conjunction in fact _connects sentences_; and the stranger blunder concerning _those words_, that "the same thing is affirmed of _both_, namely, [_that they_] _must go_." Whereas it is plain, that nothing is affirmed of either: for "_He and I must go_," only affirms of _him_ and _me_, that "_we must go_." And again it is plain, that _and_ here connects nothing but the two pronouns; for no one will say, that, "_He and I must go together_" is a compound sentence, capable of being resolved into two simple sentences; and if, "_He and I must go_," is compound because it is equivalent to, "He must go, and I must go;" so is, "_We must go_," for the same reason, though it has but one nominative and one verb. "_He and I_ were present," is rightly given by Hiley as an example of _two pronouns_ connected together by _and_. (See _his Gram._, p. 105.) But, of _verbs_ connected to each other, he absurdly supposes the following to be examples: "He spake, _and_ it was done."--"I know it, _and_ I can prove it."--"Do you say so, _and_ can you prove it?"--_Ib._ Here _and_ connects _sentences_, and not particular _words_.

OBS. 5.--Two or three conjunctions sometimes come together; as, "What rests, _but that_ the mortal sentence pass?"--_Milton_. "_Nor yet that_ he should offer himself often."--_Heb._, ix, 25. These may be severally parsed as "connecting what precedes and what follows," and the observant reader will not fail to notice, that such combinations of connecting particles are sometimes required by the sense; but, since nothing that is needless, is really proper, conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated: as, "_But_ AND _if_ that evil servant say in his heart," &c.--_Matt._, xxiv, 48. Greek, "[Greek: Ean de eipæ o kakos donlos ekeinos,]" &c. Here is no _and_. "_But_ AND _if_ she depart."--_1 Cor._, vii, 11. This is almost a literal rendering of the Greek, "[Greek: Ean de kai choristhæ.]"--yet either _but_ or _and_ is certainly useless. "In several cases," says Priestley, "we content ourselves, now, with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors _did_ [say _used_]. Example: '_So_ AS _that_ his doctrines were embraced by great numbers.' _Universal Hist._, Vol. 29, p. 501. _So that_ would have been much easier, and better."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 139. Some of the poets have often used the word _that_ as an expletive, to fill the measure of their verse; as,

"When _that_ the poor have cried, Cæsar hath wept."--_Shakspeare_.

"If _that_ he be a dog, beware his fangs."--_Id._

"That made him pine away and moulder,
As though _that_ he had been no soldier."--_Butler's Poems_, p. 164.

OBS. 6.--W. Allen remarks, that, "_And_ is sometimes introduced to engage our attention to a following word or phrase; as, 'Part pays, _and_ justly, the deserving steer.' [_Pope._] 'I see thee fall, _and_ by Achilles' hand.' [_Id._]"--_Allen's E. Gram._, p. 184. The like idiom, he says, occurs in these passages of Latin: "'Forsan et hæc olim meminisse juvabit.' _Virg_. 'Mors _et_ fugacem persequitur virum.' _Hor_."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 184. But it seems to me, that _and_ and _et_ are here regular connectives. The former implies a repetition of the preceding verb: as, "Part pays, _and justly pays_, the deserving steer."--"I see thee fall, _and fall by Achilles' hand_." The latter refers back to what was said before: thus, "Perhaps it will _also_ hereafter delight you to recount these evils."--"_And_ death pursues the man that flees." In the following text, the conjunction is more like an expletive; but even here it suggests an extension of the discourse then in progress: "Lord, _and_ what shall this man do?"--_John_, xxi, 21. "[Greek: Kurie, outos de ti;]"--"Domine, hic _autem_ quid?"--_Beza_.

OBS. 7.--The conjunction _as_ often unites words that are in _apposition_, or in _the same case_; as, "He offered _himself_ AS a _journeyman_."--"I assume _it_ AS a _fact_."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 94. "In an other example of the same kind, the _earth_, AS a common _mother_, is animated to give refuge against a father's unkindness."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol ii, p. 168. "And then to offer _himself_ up AS a _sacrifice_ and _propitiation_ for them."--_Scougal_, p. 99. So, likewise, when an intransitive verb takes the same case after as before it, by Rule 6th; as, "_Johnson_ soon after engaged AS _usher_ in a school."--_L. Murray_. "_He_ was employed AS _usher_." In all these examples, the case that follows _as_, is determined by that which precedes. If after the verb "_engaged_" we supply _himself, usher_ becomes objective, and is in apposition with the pronoun, and not in agreement with _Johnson_: "He engaged _himself_ as _usher_." One late writer, ignorant or regardless of the analogy of General Grammar, imagines this case to be an "objective governed by the conjunction _as_," according to the following rule: "The conjunction _as_, when it takes the meaning of _for_, or _in the character of_, governs the objective case; as, Addison, _as_ a _writer_ of prose, is highly distinguished."--_J. M. Putnam's Gram._, p. 113. S. W. Clark, in his grammar published in 1848, sets _as_ in his list of _prepositions_, with this example: "'That England can spare from her service such men _as_ HIM.'--_Lord Brougham_."--_Clark's Practical Gram._, p. 92. And again: "When the second term of a _Comparison of equality_ is a Noun, or Pronoun, the _Preposition_ AS is commonly used. Example--'He hath died to redeem such a rebel _as_ ME.'--_Wesley_." Undoubtedly, Wesley and Brougham here erroneously supposed the _as_ to connect _words only_, and consequently to require them to be in the same case, agreeably to OBS. 1st, above; but a moment's reflection on the sense, should convince any one, that the construction requires the nominative forms _he_ and _I_, with the verbs _is_ and _am_ understood.

OBS. 8.--The conjunction _as_ may also be used between an adjective or a participle and the noun to which the adjective or participle relates; as, "It does not appear that brutes have the least reflex sense of _actions_ AS _distinguished_ from events; or that will and design, which constitute the very nature of _actions_ AS _such_, are at all an object of their perception."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 277.

OBS. 9.--_As_ frequently has the force of a _relative pronoun_, and when it evidently sustains the relation of a case, it ought to be called, and generally _is_ called, a pronoun, rather than a conjunction; as, "Avoid such _as are_ vicious,"--_Anon_. "But as many _as received_ him," &c.--_John_, i, 12. "We have reduced the terms into as small a number _as was_ consistent with perspicuity and distinction."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. ix. Here _as_ represents a noun, and while it serves to connect the two parts of the sentence, it is also the subject of a verb. These being the true characteristics of a relative pronoun, it is proper to refer the word to that class. But when a clause or a sentence is the antecedent, it is better to consider the _as_ a conjunction, and to supply the pronoun _it_, if the writer has not used it; as, "He is angry, _as [it] appears_ by this letter." Horne Tooke says, "The truth is, that AS is _also an article_; and (however and whenever used in English) means the same as _It_, or _That_, or _Which_."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 223. But what definition he would give to _"an article_," does not appear.

OBS. 10.--In some examples, it seems questionable whether _as_ ought to be reckoned a pronoun, or ought rather to be parsed as a conjunction after which a nominative is understood; as, "He then read the conditions _as follow_."--"The conditions are _as follow_."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 106. "The principal evidences on which this assertion is grounded, are _as follow_."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 166. "The Quiescent verbs are _as follow_."--_Pike's Heb. Lex._, p. 184. "The other numbers are duplications of these, and proceed _as follow_"--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang._, Vol. ii, p. 35. "The most eminent of the kennel are bloodhounds, which lead the van, and are _as follow_."--_Steele, Tattler_, No. 62. "His words are _as follow_."--_Spect._, No. 62. "The words are _as follow_."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 513. "The objections that are raised against it as a tragedy, are _as follow_."--_Gay, Pref. to What d' ye call it_. "The particulars are _as follow_."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 93. "The principal interjections in English are _as follow_."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 81. In all these instances, one may suppose the final clause to mean, "as _they here_ follow;"--or, supposing _as_ to be a pronoun, one may conceive it to mean, "_such_ as follow." But some critical writers, it appears, prefer the singular verb, "_as follows_" Hear Campbell: "When a verb is used _impersonally_, it ought undoubtedly to be in the singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or understood: and when no nominative in the sentence can regularly be construed with the verb, it ought to be considered as impersonal. For this reason, analogy as well as usage _favour_ [say _favours_] this mode of expression, 'The conditions of the agreement were _as follows_;' and not '_as follow_.' A few late writers have inconsiderately adopted this last form through a mistake of the construction. For the same reason we ought to say, 'I shall consider his censures so far only as _concerns_ my friend's conduct;' and not 'so far as _concern_.'"--_Philosophy of Rhet._, p. 229. It is too much to say, at least of one of these sentences, that there is no nominative with which the plural verb can be regularly construed. In the former, the word _as_ may be said to be a plural nominative; or, if we will have this to be a conjunction, the pronoun _they_, representing _conditions_, may be regularly supplied, as above. In the latter, indeed, _as_ is not a pronoun; because it refers to "_so far_," which is not a noun. But the sentence is _bad English_; because the verb _concern_ or _concerns_ is improperly left without a nominative. Say therefore, 'I shall consider his censures so far only as _they concern_ my friend's conduct;'--or, 'so far only as _my friend's conduct is concerned_.' The following is an other example which I conceive to be wrong; because, with an adverb for its antecedent, _as_ is made a nominative: "They ought therefore to be uttered _as quickly as is_ consistent with distinct articulation."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 76. Say rather, "They ought therefore to be uttered _with as much rapidity_ as is consistent with distinct articulation."

OBS. 11.--Lindley Murray was so much puzzled with Tooke's notion of _as_, and Campbell's doctrine of the _impersonal verb_, that he has expressly left his pupils to hesitate and doubt, like himself, whether one ought to say "_as follows_" or "_as follow_," when the preceding noun is plural; or--to furnish an alternative, (if they choose it,) he shows them at last how they may _dodge the question_, by adopting some other phraseology. He begins thus: "_Grammarians_ differ in opinion, respecting the propriety of the following modes of expression: 'The arguments advanced were nearly _as follows_;' 'the positions were, _as appears_, incontrovertible.'"-- _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 146. Then follows a detail of suggestions from Campbell and others, all the quotations being anonymous, or at least without definite references. Omitting these, I would here say of the two examples given, that they are not parallel instances. For, "_as follows_," refers to what the arguments were,--to the things themselves, considered plurally, and immediately to be exhibited; wherefore the expression ought rather to have been, "_as follow_," or, "_as they here follow_." But, "_as appears_" means "_as it appears_," or "_as the case now appears_;" and one of these plain modes of expression would have been much preferable, because the _as_ is here evidently nothing but a conjunction.

OBS. 12.--"The diversity of sentiment on this subject," says L. Murray, "and the respectability of the different opponents, will naturally induce _the readers_ to pause and reflect, before they decide."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 147. The equivalent expressions by means of which he proposes to evade at last the dilemma, are the following: "The arguments advanced were nearly such as follow;"--"The arguments advanced were nearly of the following nature;"--"The following are nearly the arguments which were advanced;"-- "The arguments advanced were nearly those which follow:"--"These, or nearly these, were the arguments advanced;"--"The positions were such as appear incontrovertible;"--"It appears that the positions were incontrovertible;" --"That the positions were incontrovertible, is apparent;"--"The positions were apparently incontrovertible;"--"In appearance, the positions were incontrovertible."--_Ibid._ If to shun the expression will serve our turn, surely here are ways enough! But to those who "pause and reflect" with the intention _to decide_, I would commend the following example: "Reconciliation was offered, on conditions as moderate as _were_ consistent with a permanent union."--_Murray's Key_, under Rule 1. Here Murray supposes "_was_" to be wrong, and accordingly changes it to "_were_," by the Rule, "A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person." But the amendment is a pointed rejection of Campbell's "impersonal verb," or verb which "has no nominative;" and if the singular is not right here, the rhetorician's respectable authority vouches only for a catalogue of errors. Again, if this verb must be _were_ in order to agree with its nominative, it is still not clear that _as_, is, or ought to be, the nominative; because the meaning may perhaps be better expressed thus:--"on conditions as moderate _as any that were_ consistent with a permanent union."

OBS. 13.--A late writer expresses his decision of the foregoing question thus: "Of all the different opinions on a grammatical subject, which have arisen in the literary world, there scarcely appears one more indefensible than that of supposing _as follows_ to be an impersonal verb, and to be correctly used in such sentences as this. 'The conditions were _as follows_.' Nay, we are told that, "A few late writers have adopted this form, 'The conditions were as follow,' _inconsiderately_;" and, to prove this charge of inconsiderateness, the following sentence is brought forward: 'I shall consider his censure [_censures_ is the word used by Campbell and by Murray] so far only _as concern_ my friend's conduct.' which should be, it is added, '_as concerns_, and not _as concern_.' If analogy, simplicity, or syntactical authority, is of any value in our resolution of the sentence, 'The conditions were as follows,' the word _as_ is as evident a relative as language can afford. It is undoubtedly equivalent to _that_ or _which_, and relates to its antecedent _those_ or _such_ understood, and should have been the nominative to the verb _follow_; the sentence, in its present form, being inaccurate. The second sentence is by no means a parallel one. The word _as_ is a conjunction; and though it has, as a relative, a reference to its antecedent _so_, yet in its capacity of a mere conjunction, it cannot possibly be the nominative case to any verb. It should be, '_it concerns_.' Whenever _as_ relates to an _adverbial_ antecedent; as in the sentence, '_So_ far _as_ it concerns me,' it is merely a conjunction; but when it refers to an _adjective_ antecedent; as in the sentence, 'The business is _such as_ concerns me;' it must be a relative, and susceptible of case, whether its antecedent is expressed or understood; being, in fact, the nominative to the verb _concerns_."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 145. It will be perceived by the preceding remarks, that I do not cite what is here said, as believing it to be in all respects well said, though it is mainly so. In regard to the point at issue, I shall add but one critical authority more: "'The circumstances were as _follows_.' Several grammarians and critics have approved this phraseology: I am inclined, however, to concur with those who prefer '_as follow_.'"--_Crombie, on Etym. and Synt._, p. 388.

OBS. 14.--The conjunction _that_ is frequently understood; as, "It is seldom [_that_] their counsels are listened to."--_Robertson's Amer._, i, 316. "The truth is, [_that_] grammar is very much neglected among us."--_Lowth's Gram., Pref._, p. vi. "The Sportsman believes [_that_] there is Good in his Chace [chase.]"--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 296.

"Thou warnst me [_that_] I have done amiss;
I should have earlier looked to this."--_Scott_.

OBS. 15.--After _than_ or _as_, connecting the terms of a comparison, there is usually an ellipsis of some word or words. The construction of the words employed may be seen, when the ellipsis is supplied; as, "They are stronger _than we_" [are.]--_Numb._, xiii. 31. "Wisdom is better _than weapons_ of war" [are.]--_Eccl._, ix, 18. "He does nothing who endeavours to do more _than_ [what] _is allowed_ to humanity."--_Dr. Johnson_. "My punishment is greater _than_ [what] _I can bear_."--_Gen._, iv, 13. "Ralph gave him more _than I_" [gave him.]--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 351. "Ralph gave him more _than_ [he gave] _me_."_--Ibid._ "Revelation, surely, was never intended for such _as he_" [is.]--_Campbell's Four Gospels_, p. iv. "Let such as _him_ sneer if they will."--_Liberator_, Vol. ix, p. 182. Here _him_ ought to be _he_, according to Rule 2d, because the text speaks of such as _he is_ or _was_. "'You were as innocent of it _as me_:' 'He did it _as well as me_.' In both places it ought to be _I_: that is, _as I was, as I did_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 352.

"Rather let such poor souls _as you_ and _I_
Say that the holidays are drawing nigh."--_Swift_.

OBS. 16.--The doctrine above stated, of ellipses after _than_ and _as_, proceeds on the supposition that these words _are conjunctions_, and that they connect, not particular words merely, but sentences, or clauses. It is the common doctrine of nearly all our grammarians, and is doubtless liable to fewer objections than any other theory that ever has been, or ever can be, devised in lieu of it. Yet _as_ is not always a conjunction; nor, when it is a conjunction, does it always connect sentences; nor, when it connects sentences, is there always an ellipsis; nor, when there is an ellipsis, is it always quite certain what that ellipsis is. All these facts have been made plain, by observations that have already been bestowed on the word: and, according to some grammarians, the same things may severally be affirmed of the word _than_. But most authors consider _than_ to be always a conjunction, and generally, if not always, to connect _sentences_. Johnson and Webster, in their dictionaries, mark it for an _adverb_; and the latter says of it, "This word signifies also _then_, both in English and Dutch."--_Webster's Amer. Dict._, 8vo, _w. Than_. But what he means by "_also_," I know not; and surely, in no English of this age, is _than_ equivalent to _then_, or _then_ to _than_. The ancient practice of putting _then_ for _than_, is now entirely obsolete;[434] and, as we have no other term of the same import, most of our expositors merely explain _than_ as "a particle used in comparison."--_Johnson, Worcester, Maunder_. Some absurdly define it thus: "THAN, _adv_. Placed in comparison."--_Walker_, (Rhym. Dict.,) _Jones, Scott_. According to this definition, _than_ would be a _participle_! But, since an express comparison necessarily implies a connexion between different terms, it cannot well be denied that _than_ is a connective word; wherefore, not to detain the reader with any profitless controversy, I shall take it for granted that this word is always a conjunction. That it always connects sentences, I do not affirm; because there are instances in which it is difficult to suppose it to connect anything more than particular words: as, "Less judgement _than_ wit is more sail _than_ ballast."--_Penn's Maxims_. "With no less eloquence _than_ freedom. 'Pari eloquentiâ _ac_ libertate.' _Tacitus_."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 200. "Any comparison between these two classes of writers, cannot be other _than_ vague and loose."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 347. "This _far more than_ compensates all those little negligences."--_Ib._, p. 200.

"Remember Handel? Who that was not born
Deaf as the dead to harmony, forgets,
Or can, _the more than Homer_ of his age?"--_Cowper_.

OBS. 17.--When any two declinable words are connected by _than_ or _as_, they are almost always, according to the true idiom of our language, to be put in the _same case_, whether we suppose an ellipsis in the construction of the latter, or not; as, "My _Father_ is greater than _I_."--_Bible_. "What do _ye_ more than _others_?"--_Matt._, v, 47. "More _men_ than _women_ were there."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 114. "Entreat _him_ as a _father_, and the younger _men_ as _brethren_."--_1 Tim._, v, 1. "I would that all _men_ were even as _I_ myself."--_1 Cor._, vii, 7. "Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me more than these?"--_John_, xxi, 15. This last text is manifestly _ambiguous_; so that some readers will doubt whether it means--"more than _thou lovest these_," or--"more than _these love me_." Is not this because there is an _ellipsis_ in the sentence, and such a one as may be variously conceived and supplied? The original too is ambiguous, but not for the same reason: "[Greek: Simon Iona, agapas me pleion touton];"--And so is the Latin of the Vulgate and of Montanus: "Simon Jona, diligis me _plus his_?" Wherefore Beza expressed it differently: "Simon _fili Jonæ_, diligis me plus _quâm hi_?" The French Bible has it: "Simon, fils de Jona, m'aimes-tu plus que _ne font_ ceux-ci?" And the expression in English should rather have been, "Lovest thou me more than _do_ these?"

OBS. 18.--The comparative degree, in Greek, is said to govern the genitive case; in Latin, the ablative: that is, the genitive or the ablative is sometimes put after this degree without any connecting particle corresponding to _than_, and without producing a compound sentence. We have examples in the phrases, "[Greek: pleion touton]" and "_plus his_," above. Of such a construction our language admits no real example; that is, no exact parallel. But we have an imitation of it in the phrase _than whom_, as in this hackneyed example from Milton:

"Which, when Beëlzebub perceived, _than whom_,
Satan except, none higher sat," &c.--_Paradise Lost_, B. ii, l. 300.

The objective, _whom_, is here preferred to the nominative, _who_, because the Latin ablative is commonly rendered by the former case, rather than by the latter: but this phrase is no more explicable according to the usual principles of English grammar, than the error of putting the objective case for a version of the ablative absolute. If the imitation is to be judged allowable, it is to us _a figure of syntax_--an obvious example of _Enallagè_, and of that form of Enallagè, which is commonly called _Antiptosis_, or the putting of one case for an other.

OBS. 19.--This use of _whom_ after _than_ has greatly puzzled and misled our grammarians; many of whom have thence concluded that _than_ must needs be, at least in this instance, a _preposition_,[435] and some have extended the principle beyond this, so as to include _than which, than whose_ with its following noun, and other nominatives which they will have to be objectives; as, "I should seem guilty of ingratitude, _than which_ nothing is more shameful." See _Russell's Gram._, p. 104. "Washington, _than whose fame_ naught earthly can be purer."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 204. "You have given him more than _I_. You have sent her as much as _he_."--_Buchanan's Eng. Syntax_, p. 116. These last two sentences are erroneously called by their author, "_false syntax_;" not indeed with a notion that _than_ and _as_ are prepositions, but on the false supposition that the preposition _to_ must necessarily be understood between them and the pronouns, as it is between the preceding verbs and the pronouns _him_ and _her_. But, in fact, "You have given him more than _I_," is perfectly good English; the last clause of which plainly means--"more than I _have given him_." And, "You have sent her as much as _he_," will of course be understood to mean--"as much as he _has sent her_;" but here, because the auxiliary implied is different from the one expressed, it might have been as well to have inserted it: thus, "_You have_ sent her as much as _he has_." "She reviles you as much as _he_," is also good English, though found, with the foregoing, among Buchanan's examples of "false syntax."

OBS. 20.--Murray's twentieth Rule of syntax avers, that, "When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter noun or pronoun is _not governed_ by the conjunction _than_ or _as_, but agrees with the verb," &c.--_Octavo Gram._, p. 214; _Russell's Gram._, 103; _Bacon's_, 51; _Alger's_, 71; _Smith's_, 179; _Fisk's_, 138. To this rule, the great Compiler and most of his followers say, that _than whom_ "is an exception." or "_seems to form_ an exception;" to which they add, that, "the phrase is, however, avoided by the best modern writers."--_Murray_, i, 215. This latter assertion Russell conceives to be untrue: the former he adopts; and, calling _than whom_ "an exception to the general rule," says of it, (with no great consistency,) "Here the conjunction _than_ has certainly the force of a preposition, and supplies its place by governing the relative."--_Russell's Abridgement of Murray's Gram._, p. 104. But this is hardly an instance to which one would apply the maxim elsewhere adopted by Murray: "_Exceptio probat regulam_."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 205. To ascribe to a conjunction the governing power of a preposition, is a very wide step, and quite too much like straddling the line which separates these parts of speech one from the other.

OBS. 21.--Churchill says, "If there be no ellipsis to supply, as sometimes happens when a pronoun relative occurs after _than_; the relative is to be put in the _objective case absolute_: as, 'Alfred, _than whom_ a greater king never reigned, deserves to be held up as a model to all future sovereigns.'"--_New Gram._, p. 153. Among his Notes, he has one with reference to this "_objective case absolute_," as follows: "It is not governed by the conjunction, for on no other occasion does a conjunction govern any case; or by any word understood, for we can insert no word, or words, that will reconcile the phrase with any other rule of grammar: and if we employ a pronoun personal instead of the relative, as _he_, which will admit of being resolved elliptically, it must be put in the nominative case."--_Ib._, p. 352. Against this gentleman's doctrine, one may very well argue, as he himself does against that of Murray, Russell, and others; that on no other occasion do we speak of putting "the objective case absolute;" and if, agreeably to the analogy of our own tongue, our distinguished authors would condescend to say _than who_,[436] surely nobody would think of calling this an instance of the nominative case absolute,--except perhaps one swaggering _new theorist_, that most pedantic of all scoffers, Oliver B. Peirce.

OBS. 22.--The sum of the matter is this: the phrase, _than who_, is a more regular and more analogical expression than _than whom_; but both are of questionable propriety, and the former is seldom if ever found, except in some few grammars; while the latter, which is in some sort a Latinism, may be quoted from many of our most distinguished writers. And, since that which is irregular cannot be parsed by rule, if out of respect to authority we judge it allowable, it must be set down among the _figures_ of grammar; which are, all of them, intentional deviations from the ordinary use of words. One late author treats the point pretty well, in this short hint: "After the conjunction _than_, contrary to analogy, _whom_ is used in stead of _who_."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 106. An other gives his opinion in the following note: "When _who_ immediately follows _than_, it is used _improperly_ in the objective case; as, 'Alfred, _than whom_ a greater king never reigned;'--_than whom_ is not grammatical. It ought to be, _than who_; because _who_ is the nominative to _was_ understood.--_Than whom_ is as bad a phrase as 'he is taller _than him_.' It is true that some of our best writers have used _than whom_; but it is also true, that they have used _other_ phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical; then why not reject this too?"--_Lennie's Grammar_, Edition of 1830, p. 105.

OBS. 23.--On this point. Bullions and Brace, two American copyists and plagiarists of Lennie, adopt opposite notions. The latter copies the foregoing note, without the last sentence; that is, without admitting that "_than whom_" has ever been used by good writers. See _Brace's Gram._, p. 90. The former says, "The relative _usually_ follows _than_ in the objective case, _even when the nominative goes before_; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.' This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably, _than_, at first had the force of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, of 1843, p. 112. Again: "_A relative_ after _than_ is put in the objective case; as, 'Satan, than _whom_ none higher sat.' This anomaly has not been satisfactorily explained. In this case, some regard _than_ as a preposition. _It_ is probably only a case of simple _enallagé_"--_Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, of 1849, p. 191. Prof. Fowler, in his great publication, of 1850, says of this example, "The expression should be, Satan, than _who_ None higher sat."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, §482, Note 2. Thus, by one single form of _antiptosis_, have our grammarians been as much divided and perplexed, as were the Latin grammarians by a vast number of such changes; and, since there were some among the latter, who insisted on a total rejection of the figure, there is no great presumption in discarding, if we please, the very little that remains of it in English.

OBS. 24.--Peirce's _new theory_ of grammar rests mainly on the assumption, that no correct sentence ever is, or can be, in any wise, _elliptical_. This is one of the "Two GRAND PRINCIPLES" on which the author says his "work is based."--_The Grammar_, p. 10. The other is, that grammar cannot possibly be taught without a thorough reformation of its nomenclature, a reformation involving a change of most of the names and technical terms heretofore used for its elucidation. I do not give precisely his own words, for one half of this author's system is expressed in such language as needs to be translated _into English_ in order to be generally understood; but this is precisely his meaning, and in words more intelligible. In what estimation he holds these two positions, may be judged from the following assertion: "_Without these grand points_, no work, whatever may be its pretensions, can be A GRAMMAR of the LANGUAGE."--_Ib._ It follows that no man who does not despise every other book that is called a grammar, can entertain any favourable opinion of Peirce's. The author however is tolerably consistent. He not only scorns to appeal, for the confirmation of his own assertions and rules, to the judgement or practice of any other writer, but counsels the learner to "spurn the idea of quoting, either as proof or for defence, the authority of any man." See p. 13. The notable results of these important premises are too numerous for detail even in this general pandect. But it is to be mentioned here, that, according to this theory, a nominative coming after _than_ or _as_, is in general to be accounted a _nominative absolute_; that is, a nominative which is independent of any verb; or, (as the ingenious author himself expresses it,) "A word in the subjective case following another subjective, and immediately preceded by _than, as_, or _not_, may be used _without an_ ASSERTER immediately depending on it for sense."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 195. See also his "_Grammatical Chart_, Rule I, Part 2."

OBS. 25.--"Lowth, Priestley, Murray, and most grammarians say, that hypothetical, conditional, concessive, or exceptive conjunctions; as, _if, lest, though, unless, except_; _require_, or _govern_ the subjunctive mood. But in this they are certainly wrong: for, as Dr. Crombie rightly observes, the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, because the mood expresses contingency, _not because it follows the conjunction_: for these writers themselves allow, that the same conjunctions are to be followed by the indicative mood, when the verb is not intended to express a contingency. In the following sentence: '_Though_ he _be_ displeased at it, I will bolt my door; and _let_ him break it open _if_ he _dare_:' may we not as well affirm, that _and_ governs the imperative mood, as that _though_ and _if_ govern the subjunctive?"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 321.

OBS. 26.--In the list of _correspondents_ contained in Note 7th below, there are some words which ought not to be called _conjunctions_, by the parser; for the relation of a word as the proper correspondent to an other word, does not necessarily determine its part of speech. Thus, _such_ is to be parsed as an adjective; _as_, sometimes as a pronoun; _so_, as a conjunctive adverb. And _only, merely, also_, and _even_, are sometimes conjunctive adverbs; as, "_Nor_ is this _only_ a matter of convenience to the poet, it is _also_ a source of gratification to the reader."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 166. _Murray's, Gram._, i, 362. Professor Bullions will have it, that these adverbs may relate to _nouns_--a doctrine which I disapprove. He says "_Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also_, and perhaps _a few others_, are sometimes _joined to substantives_; as, 'Not _only_ the men, but the women _also_ were present.'"--_English Gram._, p. 116. _Only_ and _also_ are here, I think, conjunctive adverbs; but it is not the office of adverbs to qualify nouns; and, that these words are adjuncts to the nouns _men_ and _women_, rather than the verb _were_, which is once expressed and once understood, I see no sufficient reason to suppose. Some teachers imagine, that an adverb of this kind qualifies the _whole clause_ in which it stands. But it would seem, that the relation of such words to verbs, participles, or adjectives, according to the common rule for adverbs, is in general sufficiently obvious: as, "The perfect tense not _only refers_ to what is past, but _also conveys_ an allusion to the present time."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 70. Is there any question about the true mode of parsing "_only_" and "_also_" here? and have they not in the other sentence, a relation similar to what is seen here?

NOTES TO RULE XXII.

NOTE I.--When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it. Thus, in stead of saying, "He has made alterations and additions to the work," say, "He has made alterations _in_ the work, and additions _to it_;" because the relation between _alterations_ and _work_ is not well expressed by _to_.

NOTE II.--In general, any two terms which we connect by a conjunction, should be the same in kind or quality, rather than different or heterogeneous. Example: "The assistance was welcome, and seasonably afforded."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 249. Better: "The assistance was welcome, and _it was_ seasonably afforded." Or: "The assistance was _both seasonable and welcome_."

NOTE III.--The conjunctions, copulative or disjunctive, affirmative or negative, must be used with a due regard to their own import, and to the true idiom of the language. Thus, say, "The general bent _or_ turn of the language _is_ towards the other form;" and not, with Lowth and Churchill, "The general bent _and_ turn of the language _is_ towards the other form."--_Short Introd._, p. 60; _New Gram._, p. 113. So, say, "I cannot deny _that_ there are perverse jades;" and not, with Addison, "I cannot deny _but_ there are perverse jades."--_Spect._, No. 457. Again, say, "I feared _that_ I should be deserted;" not, "_lest_ I should be deserted."

NOTE IV.--After _else, other,[437] otherwise, rather_, and all English _comparatives_, the latter term of an exclusive comparison should be introduced by the conjunction _than_--a word which is appropriated to this use solely: as, "Style is nothing _else than_ that sort of expression which our thoughts most readily assume."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 92. "What we call fables or parables are no _other than_ allegories."--_Ib._, p. 151; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 243. "We judge _otherwise_ of them _than_ of ourselves."--_R. Ainsworth_. "The premeditation should be of things _rather than_ of words."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 262. "Is not the life _more than_ meat?"--_Com. Bible_. "Is not life a _greater_ gift _than_ food?"--_Campbell's Gospels_.

NOTE V.--Relative pronouns, being themselves a species of connective words, necessarily exclude conjunctions; except there be two or more relative clauses to be connected together; that is, one to the other. Example of error: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, _and which_, in my opinion, he possesses beyond _all poets_, is tenderness."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 439. Better: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, _an excellence_ which, in my opinion, he possesses beyond all _other_ poets, is tenderness."

NOTE VI.--The word _that_, (as was shown in the fifth chapter of Etymology,) is often made a pronoun in respect to what precedes it, and a conjunction in respect to what follows it--a construction which, for its anomaly, ought to be rejected. For example: "_In the mean time_ THAT the Muscovites were complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories."--_Life of Charles XII_. Better thus: "_While_ the Muscovites were _thus_ complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories."

NOTE VII.--The words in each of the following pairs, are the proper _correspondents_ to each other; and care should be taken, to give them their right place in the sentence:

1. To _though_, corresponds _yet_; as, "_Though_ he were dead, _yet_ shall he live."--_John_, xi, 25. 2. To _whether_, corresponds _or_; as, "_Whether_ it be greater _or_ less."--_Butler's Analogy_, p. 77.

3. To _either_, corresponds _or_; as, "The constant indulgence of a declamatory manner, is not favourable _either_ to good composition, _or_ [to] good delivery."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 334.

4. To _neither_, corresponds _nor_; as, "John the Baptist came _neither_ eating bread _nor_ drinking wine."--_Luke_, vii, 33. "Thou shalt _neither_ vex a stranger _nor_ oppress him."--_Exod._, xxii, 21.

5. To _both_, corresponds _and_; as, "I am debtor _both_ to the Greeks _and_ to the Barbarians, _both_ to the wise _and_ to the unwise."--_Rom._, i, 14.

6. To _such_, corresponds _as_; (the former being a pronominal adjective, and the latter a relative pronoun;) as, "An assembly _such as_ earth saw never."--_Cowper_.

7. To _such_, corresponds _that_; with, a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "The difference is _such that_ all will perceive it."

8. To _as_, corresponds _as_; with an adjective or an adverb, to express equality of degree: as, "And he went out from his presence a leper _as_ white _as_ snow."--_2 Kings_. v. 27.

9. To _as_, corresponds _so_; with two verbs, to express proportion or sameness: as, "_As_ two are to four, _so_ are six to twelve."--"_As_ the tree falls, _so_ it must lie."

10. _So_ is used before _as_; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the degree by comparison: as, "How can you descend to a thing _so_ base _as_ falsehood?"

11. _So_ is used before _as_; with a negative preceding, to deny equality of degree: as, "No lamb was e'er _so_ mild _as_ he."--_Langhorne_. "Relatives are not _so_ useful in language _as_ conjunctions."--BEATTIE: _Murray's Gram._, p. 126.

12. To _so_, corresponds _as_; with an infinitive following, to express a consequence: as, "We ought, certainly, to read blank verse _so as_ to make every line sensible to the ear"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 332.

13. To _so_, corresponds _that_; with a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "No man was _so_ poor _that_ he could not make restitution."--_Milman's Jews_, i, 113. "_So_ run _that_ ye may obtain."--_1 Cor._, ix, 24.

14. To _not only_, or _not merely_, corresponds _but, but also_, or _but even_; as, "In heroic times, smuggling and piracy were deemed _not only_ not infamous, _but_ [even] absolutely honourable."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 15. "These are questions, _not_ of prudence _merely, but_ of morals _also_."--_Dymond's Essay_, p. 82.

NOTE VIII.--"When correspondent conjunctions are used, the verb, or phrase, that precedes the first, applies [also] to the second; but no word following the former, can [by virtue of this correspondence,] be understood after the latter."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 353. Such ellipses as the following ought therefore in general to be avoided: "Tones are different both from emphasis and [_from_] pauses."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, i, 250. "Though both the intention and [_the_] purchase are now past."--_Ib._, ii, 24.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXII.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.--TWO TERMS WITH ONE.

"The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second."--_Inst._, p. 171.

[FORMULE,--Not proper, because the preposition _to_ is used with joint reference to the two adjectives _different_ and _inferior_, which require different prepositions. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 22d, "When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it." The sentence may be corrected thus: "The first proposal was essentially different from the second, and inferior _to it_."]

"A neuter verb implies the state a subject is in, without acting upon, or being acted upon, by another."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 30. "I answer, you may and ought to use stories and anecdotes."--_Student's Manual_, p. 220. "ORACLE, n. Any person or place where certain decisions are obtained."--_Webster's Dict._ "Forms of government may, and must be occasionally, changed."--_Ld. Lyttelton_. "I have, and pretend to be a tolerable judge."--_Spect._, No. 555. "Are we not lazy in our duties, or make a Christ of them?"--_Baxter's Saints' Rest_. "They may not express that idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles, or is a-kin to it."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 94. "We may, we ought therefore to read them with a distinguishing eye."--_Ib._, p. 352. "Compare their poverty, with what they might, and ought to possess."--_Sedgwick's Econ._, p. 95. "He is a much better grammarian than they are."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 211. "He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio."--ADDISON, ON MEDALS: _in Priestly's Gram._, p. 200. "Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old, or even older than tradition?"--_Bolingb. Phil. Es._, iv, §19. "The court of Chancery frequently mitigates, and breaks the teeth of the common law."--_Spectator_, No. 564; _Ware's Gram._, p. 16. "Antony, coming along side of her ship, entered it without seeing or being seen by her."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 160. "In candid minds, truth finds an entrance, and a welcome too."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 168. "In many designs, we may succeed and be miserable."--_lb._, p. 169. "In many pursuits, we embark with pleasure, and land sorrowfully."--_Ib._, p. 170. "They are much greater gainers than I am by this unexpected event."--_lb._, p. 211.

UNDER NOTE II.--HETEROGENEOUS TERMS.

"Athens saw them entering her gates and fill her academies."--_Chazotte's Essay_, p. 30. "We have neither forgot his past, nor despair of his future success."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 121. "Her monuments and temples had long been shattered or crumbled into dust."--_Lit. Conv._, p. 15. "Competition is excellent, and the vital principle in all these things."--DR. LIEBER: _ib._, p. 64. "Whether provision should or not be made to meet this exigency."--_Ib._, p. 128. "That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted."--_Murray's Gram._, i. 206. "It would be much more eligible, to contract or enlarge their extent, by explanatory notes and observations, than by sweeping away our ancient landmarks, and setting up others."--_Ib._, i. p. 30. "It is certainly much better, to supply the defects and abridge superfluities, by occasional notes and observations, than by disorganizing, or altering a system which has been so long established."--_Ib._, i, 59. "To have only one tune, or measure, is not much better than having none at all"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 126. "Facts too well known and obvious to be insisted on."--_Ib._, p. 233. "In proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen, and of a sublime kind."--_Ib._, p. 41. "If the description be too general, and divested of circumstances."--_Ibid._ "He gained nothing further than to be commended."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 210. "I cannot but think its application somewhat strained, and out of place."--VETHAKE: _Lit. Conv._, p. 29. "Two negatives in the same clause, or referring to the same thing, destroy each other, and leave the sense affirmative."--_Maunders Gram._, p. 15. "Slates are stone and used to cover roofs of houses."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p. 47. "Every man of taste, and possessing an elevated mind, ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he possesses."--_Influence of Literature_. Vol. ii, p, 122. "They very seldom trouble themselves with Enquiries, or making useful observations of their own."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 376.

"We've both the field and honour won;
The foe is profligate, and run."--_Hudibras_, p. 93.

UNDER NOTE III.--IMPORT OF CONJUNCTIONS.

"_The_ is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 6; _Bullions's_, 8; _Brace's_, 9. "The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 33; _Ingersoll's_, 33; _Lowth's_, 14; _Fisk's_, 53; _Merchant's_, 24; and others. "Conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mode or tense."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 137. "Conjunctions connect verbs in the same style, and usually in the same mode, tense, or form."--_Ib._ "The ruins of Greece and Rome are but the monuments of her former greatness."--_Day's Gram._, p. 88. "In many of these cases, it is not improbable, but that the articles were used originally."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 152. "I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 85. "I question not but my reader will be as much pleased with it."--_Spect._, No. 535. "It is ten to one but my friend Peter is among them."--_Ib._, No. 457. "I doubt not but such objections as these will be made."--_Locke, on Education_, p. 169. "I doubt not but it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. vi. "It is not improbable, but that, in time, these different constructions may be appropriated to different uses."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 156. "But to forget or to remember at pleasure, are equally beyond the power of man."--_Idler_, No. 72. "The nominative case follows the verb, in interrogative and imperative sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 290. "Can the fig-tree, my brethren, bear olive berries? either a vine, figs?"--_James_, iii, 12. "Whose characters are too profligate, that the managing of them should be of any consequence."--_Swift, Examiner_, No. 24. "You that are a step higher than a philosopher, a divine; yet have too much grace and wit than to be a bishop."--_Pope, to Swift_, Let. 80. "The terms rich or poor enter not into their language."--_Robertson's America_, Vol. i, p. 314. "This pause is but seldom or ever sufficiently dwelt upon."--_Music of Nature_, p. 181. "There would be no possibility of any such thing as human life and human happiness."--_Butler's Anal._, p. 110. "The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace."--_Matt._, xx, 21.

UNDER NOTE IV.--OF THE CONJUNCTION THAN.

"A metaphor is nothing else but a short comparison."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 243; _Gould's_, 236. "There being no other dictator here but use."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 167. "This Construction is no otherwise known in English but by supplying the first or second Person Plural."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, p. xi. "Cyaxares was no sooner in the throne, but he was engaged in a terrible war."--_Rollin's Hist._, ii, 62. "Those classics contain little else but histories of murders."--_Am. Museum_, v, 526. "Ye shall not worship any other except God."--_Sale's Koran_, p. 15. "Their relation, therefore, is not otherwise to be ascertained but by their place."-- _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 260. "For he no sooner accosted her, but he gained his point."--_Burder's Hist._, i, 6. "And all the modern writers on this subject have done little else but translate them."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 336. "One who had no other aim, but to talk copiously and plausibly."-- _Ib._, p. 317. "We can refer it to no other cause but the structure of the eye."--_Ib._, p. 46. "No more is required but singly an act of vision."-- _Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 171. "We find no more in its composition, but the particulars now mentioned."--_ Ib._, i, 48. "He pretends not to say, that it hath any other effect but to raise surprise."--_Ib._, ii, 61. "No sooner was the princess dead, but he freed himself."--_Johnson's Sketch of Morin_. "_Ought_ is an imperfect verb, for it has no other modification besides this one."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 113. "The verb is palpably nothing else but the tie."--_Neef's Sketch_, p. 66. "Does he mean that theism is capable of nothing else except being opposed to polytheism or atheism?"--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 104. "Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being opposed to polytheism, or atheism?"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 307. "There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, but by means of something already known"--DR. JOHNSON: _Murray's Gram._, i, 163; _Ingersoll's_, 214. "O fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted!"-- _Milton's Poems_, p, 132. "Architecture and gardening cannot otherwise entertain the mind, but by raising certain agreeable emotions or feelings."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 318. "Or, rather, they are nothing else but nouns."--_British Gram._, p. 95.

"As if religion were intended
For nothing else but to be mended."--_Hudibras_, p. 11.

UNDER NOTE V.--RELATIVES EXCLUDE CONJUNCTIONS.

"To prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 214. "Has this word which represents an action an object after it, and on which it terminates?"--_Osborn's Key_, p. 3. "The stores of literature lie before him, and from which he may collect, for use, many lessons of wisdom."-- _Knapp's Lectures_, p. 31. "Many and various great advantages of this Grammar, and which are wanting in others, might be enumerated."-- _Greenleaf's Gram._, p. 6. "About the time of Solon, the Athenian legislator, the custom is said to have been introduced, and which still prevails, of writing in lines from left to right."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 19. "The fundamental rule of the construction of sentences, and into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to communicate, in the clearest and most natural order, the ideas which we mean to transfuse into the minds of others."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 120; _Jamieson's_, 102. "He left a son of a singular character, and who behaved so ill that he was put in prison."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 221. "He discovered some qualities in the youth, of a disagreeable nature, and which to him were wholly unaccountable."--_Ib._, p. 213. "An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we want ['desire' _M_.] to fix the hearer's attention."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 331; _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 248. "But we have duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure, and which make different impressions on the ear."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 259.

UNDER NOTE VI.--OF THE WORD THAT.

"It will greatly facilitate the labours of the teacher, at the same time that it will relieve the pupil of many difficulties."--_Frost's El. of E. Gram._, p. 4. "At the same time that the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned, it will be a proper time to study the whole Grammar in course."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, Revised Ed., p. viii. "On the same ground that a participle and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense."--BEATTIE: _Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 76. "On the same ground that the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the English tongue."--_Ib._, p. 101. "The five examples last mentioned, are corrected on the same principle that the preceding examples are corrected."--_Ib._, p. 186; _Ingersoll's Gram._, 254. "The brazen age began at the death of Trajan, and lasted till the time that Rome was taken by the Goths."--_Gould's Lat. Gram._, p. 277. "The introduction to the Duodecimo Edition, is retained in this volume, for the same reason that the original introduction to the Grammar, is retained in the first volume."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. iv. "The verb must also be of the same person that the nominative case is."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 16. "The adjective pronoun _their_, is plural for the same reason that _who_ is."--_Ib._, p. 84. "The Sabellians could not justly be called Patripassians, in the same sense that the Noetians were so called."--_Religious World_, Vol. ii, p. 122. "This is one reason that we pass over such smooth language, without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 298. "The first place that both armies came in sight of each other was on the opposite banks of the river Apsus."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 118. "At the very time that the author gave him the first book for his perusal."--_Campbell's Rhetoric, Preface_, p. iv. "Peter will sup at the time that Paul will dine."--_Fosdick's De Sacy_, p. 81. "Peter will be supping at the time that Paul will enter."--_Ibid._ "These, at the same time that they may serve as models to those who may wish to imitate them, will give me an opportunity to cast more light upon the principles of this book."--_Ib._, p. 115.

"Time was, like thee, they life possest,
And time shall be, that thou shalt rest."
--PARNELL; _Mur. Seq._, p. 241.

UNDER NOTE VII.--OF THE CORRESPONDENTS.

"Our manners should neither be gross, nor excessively refined."--_Merchant's Gram._, p. 11. "A neuter verb expresses neither action or passion, but being, or a state of being."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 342. "The old books are neither _English_ grammars, or _grammars_, in any sense of the English Language."--_Ib._, p. 378. "The author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 7. "The writer could not treat some topicks as extensively as was desirable."--_Ib._, p. 10. "Which would be a matter of such nicety, as no degree of human wisdom could regulate."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 26. "No undertaking is so great or difficult which he cannot direct."--_Duncan's Cic._, p. 126. "It is a good which neither depends on the will of others, nor on the affluence of external fortune."--_Harris's Hermes_, 299; _Murray's Gram._, i, 289. "Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by his misconduct."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 150; _Ingersoll's_, 238. "Neither do they extend as far as might be imagined at first view."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 350. "There is no language so poor, but it hath two or three past tenses."--_Ib._, p. 82. "As far as this system is founded in truth, language appears to be not altogether arbitrary in its origin."--_Ib._, p. 56. "I have not that command of these convulsions as is necessary."--_Spect._, No. 474. "Conversation with such who know no arts which polish life."--_Ib._, No. 480. "And which can be neither very lively or very forcible."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 78. "To that degree as to give proper names to rivers."--_Dr. Murray's Hist of Lang._, i, 327. "In the utter overthrow of such who hate to be reformed."--_Barclay's Works_, i, 443. "But still so much of it is retained, as greatly injures the uniformity of the whole."--_Priestley's Gram., Pref._, p. vii. "Some of them have gone to that height of extravagance, as to assert," &c.--_Ib._, p. 91. "A teacher is confined--not more than a merchant, and probably not as much."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 27. "It shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come."--_Matt._, xii, 32. "Which no body presumes, or is so sanguine to hope."--_Swift, Drap. Let._ v. "For the torrent of the voice, left neither time or power in the organs, to shape the words properly."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 118. "That he may neither unnecessarily waste his voice by throwing out too much, or diminish his power by using too little."--_Ib._, p. 123. "I have retained only such which appear most agreeable to the measures of Analogy."--_Littleton's Dict., Pref._ "He is both a prudent and industrious man."--_Day's Gram._, p. 70. "Conjunctions either connect words or sentences."--_Ib._, pp. 81 and 101.

"Such silly girls who love to chat and play,
Deserve no care, their time is thrown away."--_Tobitt's Gram._, p. 20.

"Vice is a monster of so frightful mien,
As to be hated needs but to be seen."--POPE: _Mur. Gram._, ii, 17.

"Justice must punish the rebellious deed:
Yet punish so, as pity shall exceed."--DRYDEN: _in Joh. Dict._

UNDER NOTE VIII.--IMPROPER ELLIPSES.

"_That, whose_, and _as_ relate to either persons or things."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 93. "_Which_ and _what_, as adjectives, relate either to persons or things."--_Ib._, p. 70. "Whether of a public or private nature."-- _Adam's Rhet._, i, 43. "Which are included both among the public and private wrongs."--_Ib._, i, 308. "I might extract both from the old and new testament numberless examples of induction."--_Ib._, ii, 66. "Many verbs are used both in an active and neuter signification."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 30; _Alger's_, 26; _Guy's_, 21; _Murray's_, 60. "Its influence is likely to be considerable, both on the morals, and taste of a nation."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 373. "The subject afforded a variety of scenes, both of the awful and tender kind."--_Ib._, p. 439. "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and the performance of our duty."--_Murray's Key_, ii, 166; _Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 10. "Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and adjectives."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 55; _Merchant's_, 43; _Flint's_, 22. "Adjective Pronouns have the nature both of the adjective and the pronoun."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 15. "Pronominal adjectives are a kind of compound part of speech, partaking the nature both of pronouns and adjectives."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 36. "Nouns are used either in the singular or plural number."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 11. "The question is not, whether the nominative or accusative ought to follow the particles _than_ and _as_; but, whether these particles are, in such particular cases, to be regarded as conjunctions or prepositions."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 204. "In English many verbs are used both as transitives and intransitives."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 83. "He sendeth rain both on the just and unjust."--_Guy's Gram._, p. 56. "A foot consists either of two or three syllables."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 118. "Because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions."--_Murray's Gram._, i, 116. "Surely, Romans, what I am now about to say, ought neither to be omitted nor pass without notice."--_Duncan's Cicero_, p. 196. "Their language frequently amounts, not only to bad sense, but _non_-sense."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 14. "Hence arises the necessity of a social state to man both for the unfolding, and exerting of his nobler faculties."--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 147. "Whether the subject be of the real or feigned kind."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 454. "Not only was liberty entirely extinguished, but arbitrary power felt in its heaviest and most oppressive weight."--_Ib._, p. 249. "This rule is applicable also both to verbal Critics and Grammarians."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 144. "Both the rules and exceptions of a language must have obtained the sanction of good usage."--_Ib._, p. 143.