Chapter I: Sentences (2)

OBS. 28.--The distinction, or real difference, between those simple sentences in which two or more nominatives or verbs are taken conjointly, and those compound sentences in which there is an ellipsis of some of the nominatives or verbs, is not always easy to be known or fixed; because in many instances, a supposed _ellipsis_, without at all affecting the sense, may obviously change the construction, and consequently the nature of the sentence. For example: "And they all forsook him, and [they all] fled."--_Mark_, xiv, 50. Some will say, that the words in brackets are here _understood_. I may deny it, because they are needless; and nothing needless can form a true ellipsis. To the supplying of useless words, if we admit the principle, there may be no end; and the notion that conjunctions join sentences only, opens a wide door for it. For example: "And that man was perfect and upright, and one that feared God, and eschewed evil."--_Job_, i, 1. No additional words will make this clause any plainer, and none are really necessary to the construction; yet some grammarians will parse it with the following impletions, or more: "And that man was _a_ perfect _man_, and _he was an_ upright _man_, and _he was_ one _man_ that feared God, and _that_ eschewed evil _things_." It is easy to see how this liberty of interpretation, or of interpolation, will change simple sentences to compound sentences, as well as alter the nature and relation of many particular words; and at the same time, it takes away totally those peculiarities of construction by which Dr. Adam and others would recognize a sentence as being compound. What then? are there not two kinds of sentences? Yes, truly; but these authors are wrong in their notions and definitions of both. Joint nominatives or joint verbs may occur in either; but they belong primarily to some simple sentences, and only for that reason are found in any that are compound. A sentence, too, may possibly be made compound, when a simple one would express the whole meaning as well or better; as, "And [David] smote the Philistines from Geba _until thou come_ to Gazer."--_2 Sam._, v, 25. Here, if we omit the words in Italics, the sentence will become simple, not elliptical.

THE ANALYZING OF SENTENCES.

To analyze a sentence, is, to resolve it into some species of constituent parts, but most properly into words, its first significant elements, and to point out their several relations and powers in the given connexion.

The component parts of a sentence are _members, clauses, phrases_, or _words_. Some sentences, which are short and simple, can only be divided into their words; others, which are long and complex, may be resolved into parts again and again divisible.

Of analysis applicable to sentences, there are several different methods; and, so far as their difference may compatibly aid the application of different principles of the science of grammar, there may be an advantage in the occasional use of each.

FIRST METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

_Sentences not simple may be reduced to their constituent members, clauses, or simple sentences; and the means by which these are united, may be shown. Thus_:--

EXAMPLE ANALYZED.

"Even the Atheist, who tells us that the universe is self-existent and indestructible--even he, who, instead of seeing the traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties, sees nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty dimensions of materialism--even he, who would despoil creation of its God, cannot look upon its golden suns, and their accompanying systems, without the solemn impression of a magnificence that fixes and overpowers him."--DR. CHALMERS, _Discourses on Revelation and Astronomy_, p. 231.

ANALYSIS.--This is a compound sentence, consisting of three complex members, which are separated by the two dashes. The three members are united in one sentence, by a suspension of the sense at each dash, and by two virtual repetitions of the subject, "_Atheist_" through the pronoun "_he_," put in the same case, and representing this noun. The sense mainly intended is not brought out till the period ends. Each of the three members is complex, because each has not only a relative clause, commencing with "_who_," but also an antecedent word which makes sense with "_cannot look_," &c. The first of these relative clauses involves also a subordinate, supplementary clause,--"_the universe is self-existent and indestructible_"--introduced after the verb "_tells_" by the conjunction "_that_." The last phrase, "_without the solemn impression_," &c., which is subjoined by "_without_" to "_cannot look_," embraces likewise a subordinate, relative clause,--"_that fixes and overpowers him_,"--which has two verbs; the whole, antecedent and all, being but an adjunct of an adjunct, yet an essential element of the sentence.

SECOND METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

_Simple sentences, or the simple members of compound sentences, may be resolved into their PRINCIPAL and their SUBORDINATE PARTS; the subject, the verb, and the case put after or governed by the verb, being first pointed out as THE PRINCIPAL PARTS; and the other words being then detailed as ADJUNCTS to these, according to THE SENSE, or as adjuncts to adjuncts. Thus_:--

EXAMPLE ANALYZED.

"Fear naturally quickens the flight of guilt. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive, with his utmost efforts; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course."--DR. JOHNSON, _Rasselas_, p. 23.

ANALYSIS.--The first period here is a simple sentence. Its principal parts are--_Fear, quickens, flight_; _Fear_ being the subject, _quickens_ the verb, and _flight_ the object. _Fear_ has no adjunct; _naturally_ is an adjunct of _quickens_; _the_ and _of guilt_ are adjuncts of _flight_. The second period is composed of several clauses, or simple members, united. The first of these is also a simple sentence, having, three principal parts--_Rasselas, could catch_, and _fugitive_; the subject, the verb, and its object, in their order. _Not_ is added to _could catch_, reversing the meaning; _the_ is an adjunct to _fugitive_; _with_ joins its phrase to _could not catch_; but _his_ and _utmost_ are adjuncts of _efforts_. The word _but_ connects the two chief members as parts of one sentence. "_Resolving to weary_" is an adjunct to the pronoun _he_, which stands before _pressed_. "_By perseverance_," is an adjunct to _weary_. _Him_ is governed by _weary_, and is the antecedent to _whom_. "_Whom he could not surpass in speed_," is a relative clause, or subordinate simple member, having three principal parts--_he, could surpass_, and _whom. Not_ and _in speed_ are adjuncts to the verb _could surpass_. "_He pressed on_" is an other simple member, or sentence, and the chief clause here used, the others being subjoined to this. Its principal parts are two, _he_ and _pressed_; the latter taking the particle _on_ as an adjunct, and being intransitive. The words dependent on the nominative _he_, (to wit, _resolving_, &c.,) have already been mentioned. _Till_ is a conjunctive adverb of time, connecting the concluding clause to _pressed on_. "_The foot of the mountain stopped his course_," is a subordinate clause and simple member, whose principal parts are--the subject _foot_, the verb _stopped_, and the object _course_. The adjuncts of _foot_ are _the_ and _of the mountain_; the verb in this sentence has no adjunct but _course_, which is better reckoned a principal word; lastly, _his_ is an adjunct to _course_, and governed by it.

THIRD METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

_Sentences may be partially analyzed by a resolution into their SUBJECTS and their PREDICATES, a method which some late grammarians have borrowed from the logicians; the grammatical subject with its adjuncts, being taken for the logical subject; and the finite verb, which some call the grammatical predicate[330] being, with its subsequent case and the adjuncts of both, denominated the predicate, or the logical predicate. Thus_:--

EXAMPLE ANALYZED.

"Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment, that we are always impatient of the present. Attainment is followed by neglect, and possession, by disgust. Few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking. From the first hint that wakens the fancy, to the hour of actual execution, all is improvement and progress, triumph and felicity."--DR. JOHNSON, _Rambler_.

ANALYSIS.--Here the first period is a compound sentence, containing two clauses,--which are connected by _that_. In the first clause, _emptiness_ is the grammatical subject, and "_the emptiness of human enjoyment_" is the logical. _Is_ some would call the grammatical predicate, and "Such is," or _is such_, the logical; but the latter consists, as the majority teach, of "the copula" _is_, and "the attribute," or "predicate," _such_. In the second clause, (which explains the import of "_Such_,") the subject is _we_; which is unmodified, and in which therefore the logical form and the grammatical coincide and are the same. _Are_ may here be called the grammatical predicate; and "_are always impatient of the present_," the logical. The second period, too, is a compound sentence, having two clauses, which are connected by _and_. _Attainment_ is the subject of the former; and, "_is followed by neglect_" is the predicate. In the latter, _possession_ alone is the subject; and, "[_is followed_] _by disgust_," is the predicate; the verb _is followed_ being understood at the comma. The third period, likewise, is a compound, having three parts, with the two connectives _than_ and _which_. Here we have _moments_ for the first grammatical subject, and _Few moments_ for the logical; then, _are_ for the grammatical predicate, and _are more pleasing_ for the logical: or, if we choose to say so, for "the copula and the attribute." "_Than those_," is an elliptical member, meaning, "than _are_ those _moments_," or, "than those _moments are pleasing_;" both subject and predicate are wholly suppressed, except that _those_ is reckoned a part of the logical subject. _In which_ is an adjunct of _is concerting_, and serves well to connect the members, because _which_ represents _those_, i.e. _those moments._ _Mind_, or _the mind_, is the next subject of affirmation; and _is concerting_, or, "_is concerting measures for a new undertaking_," is the predicate or matter affirmed. Lastly, the fourth period, like the rest, is compound. The phrases commencing with _From_ and _to_, describe a period of time, and are adjuncts of the verb _is._ The former contains a subordinate relative clause, of which _that_ (representing _hint_) is the subject, and _wakens_, or _wakens the fancy_, the predicate. Of the principal clause, the word _all_, taken as a noun, is the subject, whether grammatical or logical; and "the copula," or "grammatical predicate," _is_, becomes, with its adjuncts and the nominatives following, the logical predicate.

FOURTH METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

_All syntax is founded on the_ RELATION _of words one to an other, and the_ CONNEXION _of clauses and phrases, according to_ THE SENSE. _Hence sentences may be, in some sort, analyzed, and perhaps profitably, by the tracing of such relation or connexion, from link to link, through a series of words, beginning and ending with such as are somewhat remote from each other, yet within the period. Thus_:--

EXAMPLES ANALYZED.

1. "Swift would say, 'The thing has not life enough in it to keep it sweet;' Johnson, 'The creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction.'"--MATT. HARRISON, _on the English Language_, p. 102. ANALYSIS.--What is the general sense of this passage? and what, the chain of connexion between the words _Swift_ and _putrefaction_? The period is designed to show, that Swift preferred words of Saxon origin; and Johnson, of Latin. It has in contrast two coördinate members, tacitly connected: the verb _would say_ being understood after _Johnson_, and perhaps also the particle _but_, after the semicolon. _Swift_ is the subject of _would say_; and _would say_ introduces the clause after it, as what would be said. _The_ relates to _thing_; _thing_ is the subject of _has_; _has_, which is qualified by _not_, governs _life_; _life_ is qualified by the adjective _enough_, and by the phrase, _in it_; _enough_ is the prior term of _to_; _to_ governs _keep_; _keep_ governs _it_, which stands for _the thing_; and _it_, in lieu of _the thing_, is qualified by _sweet_. The chief members are connected either by standing in contrast as members, or by _but_, understood before _Johnson._ _Johnson_ is the subject of _would say_, understood: and this _would say_, again introduces a clause, as what would be said. _The_ relates to _creature_; _creature_ is the subject of _possesses_; _possesses_, which is qualified by _not_, governs _vitality_; _vitality_ is qualified by _sufficient_; _sufficient_ is the prior term of _to_; _to_ governs _preserve_; _preserve_ governs _it_, and is the prior term of _from_; and _from_ governs _putrefaction._

2. "There is one Being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security, which nothing about us can give, and which nothing about us can take away."--GREENWOOD; _Wells's School Gram._, p. 192.[331]

ANALYSIS.--What is the general structure of this passage? and what, the chain of connexion "between the words _away_ and _is?"_ The period is a complex sentence, having four clauses, all connected together by relatives; the second, by _whom_, to the first and chief clause, _"There is one Being;"_ the third and the fourth, to the second, by _which_ and _which_; but the last two, having the same antecedent, _security_, and being coördinate, are also connected one to the other by _and._ As to "the chain of connexion," _Away_ relates to _can take_; _can take_ agrees with its nominative _nothing_, and governs _which_; _which_ represents _security_; _security_ is governed by _finding_; _finding_ is governed by _of_; _of_ refers back to _conviction_; _conviction_ is governed by _with_; _with_ refers back to _can look_; _can look_ agrees with _we_, and is, in sense, the antecedent of _to_; _to_ governs _whom_; _whom_ represents _Being_; and _Being_ is the subject of _is._

FIFTH METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

_The best and most thorough method of analysis is that of_ COMPLETE SYNTACTICAL PARSING; _a method which, for the sake of order and brevity, should ever be kept free from all mixture of etymological definitions or reasons, but which may be preceded or followed by any of the foregoing schemes of resolution, if the teacher choose to require any such preliminary or subsidiary exposition. This method is fully illustrated in the Twelfth Praxis below._

OBSERVATIONS ON METHODS OF ANALYSIS.

OBS. 1.--The almost infinite variety in the forms of sentences, will sometimes throw difficulty in the way of the analyzer, be his scheme or his skill what it may. The last four or five observations of the preceding series have shown, that the distinction of sentences as _simple_ or _compound_, which constitutes the chief point of the First Method of Analysis above, is not always plain, even to the learned. The definitions and examples which I have given, will make it _generally_ so; and, where it is otherwise, the question or puzzle, it is presumed, cannot often be of much practical importance. If the difference be not obvious, it can hardly be a momentous error, to mistake a phrase for an elliptical clause, or to call such a clause a phrase.

OBS. 2.--The Second Method above is, I think, easier of application than any of the rest; and, if other analysis than the regular method of parsing seem desirable, this will probably be found as useful as any. There is, in many of our popular grammars, some recognition of the principles of this analysis--some mention of "the _principal parts_ of a sentence," in accordance with what are so called above,--and also, in a few, some succinct account of the parts called "_adjuncts_;" but there seems to have been no prevalent practice of applying these principles, in any stated or well-digested manner. Lowth, Murray, Alger, W. Allen, Hart, Hiley, Ingersoll, Wells, and others, tell of these "PRINCIPAL PARTS;"--Lowth calling them, "the _agent_, the _attribute_, and the _object_;" (_Gram._, p. 72;)--Murray, and his copyists, Alger, Ingersoll, and others, calling them, "the _subject_, the _attribute_, and the _object_;"--Hiley and Hart calling them, "the _subject_ or _nominative_, the _attribute_ or _verb_, and the _object_;"--Allen calling them, "the _nominative_, the _verb_, and (if the verb is active,) the _accusative_ governed by the verb;" and also saying, "The nominative is sometimes called the _subject_; the verb, the _attribute_; and the accusative, the _object_;"--Wells calling them, "the _subject_ or _nominative_, the _verb_, and the _object_;" and also recognizing the "_adjuncts_," as a species which "embraces all the words of a simple sentence [,] except the _principal parts_;"--yet not more than two of them all appearing to have taken any thought, and they but little, about the formal _application_ of their common doctrine. In Allen's English Grammar, which is one of the best, and likewise in Wells's, which is equally prized, this reduction of all connected words, or parts of speech, into "the principal parts" and "the adjuncts," is fully recognized; the adjuncts, too, are discriminated by Allen, as "either primary or secondary," nor are their more particular species or relations overlooked; but I find no method prescribed for the analysis intended, except what Wells adopted in his early editions but has since changed to an other or abandoned, and no other allusion to it by, Allen, than this Note, which, with some appearance of intrusion, is appended to his "Method of Parsing the Infinitive Mood:"--"The pupil _may now begin_ to analyse [_analyze_] the sentences, by distinguishing the principal words and their adjuncts."--_W. Allen's E. Gram._, p. 258.

OBS. 3.--These authors in general, and many more, tell us, with some variation of words, that the agent, subject, or nominative, is that of which something is said, affirmed, or denied; that the attribute, verb, or predicate, is that which is said, affirmed, or denied, of the subject; and that the object, accusative, or case sequent, is that which is introduced by the finite verb, or affected by the action affirmed. Lowth says, "In English the nominative case, denoting the agent, usually goes before the verb, or attribution; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active."--_Short Introd._, p. 72. Murray copies, but not literally, thus: "The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the verb [,] or attribute; and the word _or phrase_, denoting the object, follows the verb: as, 'A wise man governs his passions.' Here, a _wise man_ is the subject; _governs_, the attribute, or thing affirmed; and _his passions_, the object."--_Murray's Octavo_, p. 142; _Duodecimo_, 116. To include thus the adjuncts with their principals, as the logicians do, is _here_ manifestly improper; because it unites what the grammatical analyzer is chiefly concerned to separate, and tends to defeat the main purpose for which "THE PRINCIPAL PARTS" are so named and distinguished.

OBS. 4.--The Third Method of Analysis, described above, is an attempt very briefly to epitomize the chief elements of a great scheme,--to give, in a nutshell, the substance of what our grammarians have borrowed from the logicians, then mixed with something of their own, next amplified with small details, and, in some instances, branched out and extended to enormous bulk and length. Of course, they have not failed to set forth the comparative merits of this scheme in a sufficiently favourable light. The two ingenious gentlemen who seem to have been chiefly instrumental in making it popular, say in their preface, "The rules of syntax contained in this work result directly from the analysis of propositions, and of compound sentences; and for this reason the student should make himself perfectly familiar with the sections relating to _subject_ and _predicate_, and should be able readily to analyze sentences, whether simple or compound, and to explain their structure and connection. * * * This exercise _should always precede_ the more minute and subsidiary labor of parsing. If the latter be conducted, as it often is, independently of previous analysis, the _principal advantage_ to be derived from the study of language, as an intellectual exercise, will inevitably be lost."--_Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard_, p. vi. N. Butler, who bestows upon this subject about a dozen duodecimo pages, says in his preface, "The rules for the analysis of sentences, which is a _very useful and interesting_ exercise, have been taken from Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, some changes and additions being made."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. iv.[332]

OBS. 5.--Wells, in the early copies of his School Grammar, as has been hinted, adopted a method of analysis similar to the _Second_ one prescribed above; yet referred, even from the first, to "Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar," and to "De Sacy's General Grammar," as if these were authorities for what he then inculcated. Subsequently, _he changed his scheme_, from that of _Parts Principal_ and _Adjuncts_, to one of _Subjects_ and _Predicates_, "either grammatical or logical," also "either simple or compound;"--to one resembling Andrews and Stoddard's, yet differing from it, often, as to what constitutes a "grammatical predicate;"--to one resenbling [sic--KTH] the _Third Method_ above, yet differing from it, (as does Andrews and Stoddard's,) in taking the logical subject and predicate before the grammatical. "The chapter on Analysis," said he then, "has been Revised and enlarged with great care, and will be found to embody all the most important principles on this subject [.] _which_ are contained in the works of De Sacy, Andrews and Stoddard, Kühner, Crosby, and Crane. It is gratifying to observe that the attention of teachers is now so generally directed _to this important mode_ of investigating the structure of our language, _in connection with_ the ordinary exercises of _etymological_ and syntactical parsing."--_Wells's School Gram._, New Ed., 1850, p. iv.

OBS. 6.--In view of the fact, that Wells's chief mode of sentential analysis had just undergone an almost total metamorphosis, a change plausible perhaps, but of doubtful utility,--that, up to the date of the words just cited, and afterwards, so far and so long as any copies of his early "Thousands" remain in use, the author himself has earnestly directed attention to a method which he now means henceforth to abandon,--in this view, the praise and gratulation expressed above seem singular. If it has been found practicable, to slide "the attention of teachers," and their approbation too, adroitly over from one "important mode of investigating the structure of our language," to an other;--if "it is gratifying to observe," that the direction thus given to public opinion sustains itself so well, and "is so generally" acquiesced in;--if it is proved, that the stereotyped praise of one system of analysis may, without alteration, be so transferred to an other, as to answer the double purpose of commending and superseding;--it is not improbable that the author's next new plates will bear the stamp of yet _other_ "most important principles" of analysis. This process is here recommended to be used "_in connection with_ the ordinary exercises of _etymological_ and syntactical parsing,"--exercises, which, in Wells's Grammar, are generally, and very improperly, commingled; and if, to these, may be profitably conjoined either his present or his former scheme of analysis, it were well, had he somewhere put them together and shown how.

OBS. 7.--But there are other passages of the School Grammar, so little suited to this notion of "_connection_" that one can hardly believe the word ought to be taken in what seems its only sense. "Advanced classes should attend less to the common _Order of Parsing_, and more to the _Analysis_ of language."--_Wells's Grammar_, "3d Thousand," p. 125; "113th Thousand," p. 132. This implies, what is probably true of the etymological exercise, that parsing is more rudimental than the other forms of analysis. It also intimates, what is not so clear, that pupils rightly instructed must advance from the former to the latter, as to something more worthy of their intellectual powers. The passage is used with reference to either form of analysis adopted by the author. So the following comparison, in which Parsing is plainly disparaged, stands permanently at the head of "the chapter on Analysis," to commend first one mode, and then an other: "It is particularly desirable that pupils _should pass as early as practicable from the formalities_ of common PARSING, to the _more important_ exercise of ANALYZING critically the structure of language. The mechanical routine of technical parsing is peculiarly liable to become monotonous and dull, while the _practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence_, is adapted to call the mind of the learner into constant and vigorous action, and can hardly fail of exciting the deepest interest,"--_Wells's Gram._, 3d Th., p. 181; 113th Th., p. 184.

OBS. 8.--An ill scheme of _parsing_, or an ill use of a good one, is almost as unlucky in grammar, as an ill method of _ciphering_, or an ill use of a good one, would be in arithmetic. From the strong contrast cited above, one might suspect that, in selecting, devising, or using, a technical process for the exercising of learners in the principles of etymology and syntax, this author had been less fortunate than the generality of his fellows. Not only is it implied, that parsing is no critical analysis, but even what is set _in opposition_ to the "mechanical routine," may very well serve for _a definition_ of Syntactical Parsing--"_the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence_!" If this "practice," well ordered, can be at once interesting and profitable to the learner, so may parsing. Nor, after all, is even this author's mode of parsing, defective though it is in several respects, less "important" to the users of his book, or less valued by teachers, than the analysis which he sets above it.

OBS. 9.--S. S. Greene, a public teacher in Boston, who, in answer to a supposed "demand for a _more philosophical plan_ of teaching the English language," has entered in earnest upon the "Analysis of Sentences," having devoted to one method of it more than the space of two hundred duodecimo pages, speaks of analysis and of parsing, thus: "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the parts which compose it, is called _analysis_."--_Greene's Analysis_, p. 14. "Parsing consists in naming a part of speech, giving its modifications, relation, agreement or dependence, and the rule for its construction. _Analysis_ consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence. Analysis _should precede_ parsing."--_Ib._, p. 26. "A large proportion of the elements of sentences are not single words, but combinations or groups of words. These groups perform the office of the _substantive_, the _adjective_, or the _adverb_, and, in some one of these relations, enter in as the component parts of a sentence. The pupil who learns to determine the elements of a sentence, _must, therefore, learn the force of these combinations before_ he separates them into the single words which compose them. _This advantage_ is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing."--_Ib._, p. 3.

OBS. 10.--On these passages, it may be remarked in the first place, that the distinction attempted between analysis and parsing is by no means clear, or well drawn. Nor indeed could it be; because parsing is a species of analysis. The first assertion would be just as true as it is now, were the former word substituted for the latter: thus, "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the _parts_ which compose it, is called _parsing_." Next, the "_Parsing_" spoken of in the second sentence, is _Syntactical_ Parsing only; and, without a limitation of the species, neither this assertion nor the one concerning precedence is sufficiently true. Again, the suggestion, that, "_Analysis_ consists in _pointing out_ the words or groups of words which _constitute the elements_ of a sentence," has nothing distinctive in it; and, without some idea of the author's peculiar system of "elements," previously impressed upon the mind, is scarcely, if at all, intelligible. Lastly, that a pupil must _understand_ a sentence,--or, what is the same thing, "_learn the force of the words combined_,"--before he can be sure of parsing each word rightly, is a very plain and certain truth; but what "advantage" over parsing this truth gives to the lesser analysis, which deals with "groups," it is not easy to discover. If the author had any clear idea of "_this advantage_," he has conveyed no such conception to his readers.

OBS. 11.--Greene's Analysis is the most expanded form of the Third Method above.[333] Its nucleus, or germinating kernel, was the old partition of _subject_ and _predicate_, derived from the art of logic. Its chief principles may be briefly stated thus: Sentences, which are simple, or complex, or compound, are made up of _words, phrases_, and _clauses_--three grand classes of elements, called the _first_, the _second_, and the _third_ class. From these, each sentence must have two elements; the _Subject_, or Substantive element, and the _Predicate_, or Predicative element, which are principal; and a sentence _may_ have five, the subordinates being the Adjective element, the Objective element, and the Adverbial element. The five elements have sundry modifications and subdivisions. Each of the five may, like a sentence, be simple, or complex, or compound; and each may be of any of the three grand classes. The development of this scheme forms a volume, not small. The system is plausible, ingenious, methodical, mostly true, and somewhat elaborate; but it is neither very useful nor very accurate. It seems too much like a great tree, beautiful, symmetrical, and full of leaves, but raised or desired only for fruit, yet bearing little, and some of that little not of good quality, but knurly or bitter. The chief end of a grammar, designed for our tongue, is, to show what is, and what is not, good English. To this end, the system in question does not appear to be well adapted.

OBS. 12.--Dr. Bullions, the projector of the "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, all _on the same plan_," inserted in his Latin Grammar, of 1841, a short sketch of the new analysis by "subjects and predicates," "grammatical and logical," the scheme used by Andrews and Stoddard; but his English Grammar, which appeared in 1834, was too early for this "new and improved method of investigating" language. In his later English Grammar, of 1849, however, paying little regard to _sameness of "plan_" or conformity of definitions, he carefully devoted to this matter the space of fifteen pages, placing the topic, not injudiciously, in the first part of his syntax, and referring to it thus in his Preface: "The subject of ANALYSIS, wholly omitted in the former work, is here introduced in its proper place; and to an extent in accordance with its importance."-- _Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 3.

OBS. 13.--In applying any of the different methods of analysis, as a school exercise, it will in general perhaps be best to use each _separately_; the teacher directing which one is to be applied, and to what examples. The selections prepared for the stated praxes of this work, will be found as suitable as any. Analysis of sentences is a central and essential matter in the teaching or the study of grammar; but the truest and the most important of the sentential analyses is _parsing_; which, because it is a method distinguished by a technical name of its own, is not commonly denominated analysis. The relation which other methods should bear to _parsing_, is, as we have seen, variously stated by different authors. _Etymological_ parsing and _Syntactical_ are, or ought to be, distinct exercises. The former, being the most simple, the most elementary, and also requisite to be used before the pupil is prepared for the latter, should, without doubt, take precedence of all the rest, and be made familiar in the first place. Those who say, "_Analysis should precede parsing_," will scarcely find the application of other analysis practicable, till this is somewhat known. But _Syntactical Parsing_ being, when complete in form, the most thorough process of grammatical resolution, it seems proper to have introduced the other methods before it, as above. It can hardly be said that any of these are _necessary_ to this exercise, or to one an other; yet in a full course of grammatical instruction, each may at times be usefully employed.

OBS. 14.--Dr. Bullions suggests, that, "_Analysis_ should precede _Syntactical parsing_, because, till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their relations, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole."--_Analytical and Pract. Gram._, p. 114. This reason is entirely fictitious and truthless; for the _words_ of a sentence are intuitively known to be its "parts and elements;" and, to "_understand_ their relations," is as necessary to one form of analysis as to another; but, "intelligently to _combine_ them," is no part of the parser's duty: this belongs to the _writer_; and where he has not done it, he must be criticised and censured, as one that knows not well what he says. In W. Allen's Grammar, as in Wells's, Syntactical parsing and Etymological are not divided. Wells intersperses his "Exercises in Parsing," at seven points of his Syntax, and places "the chapter on Analysis," at the end of it. Allen treats first of the several parts of grammar, didactically; then presents a series of exercises adapted to the various heads of the whole. At the beginning of these, are fourteen "Methods of Parsing," which show, successively, the properties and construction of his nine parts of speech; and, _at the ninth method_, which resolves _infinitives_, it is proposed that the pupil begin to apply a method of analysis similar to the Second one above.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XII.--SYNTACTICAL.

_The grand clew to all syntactical parsing is THE SENSE; and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the authors meaning, so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous, in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved.

In all complete syntactical parsing, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish the different parts of speech and their classes; to mention their modifications in order; to point out their relation, agreement, or government; and to apply the Rules of Syntax. Thus_:--

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"A young man studious to know his duty, and honestly bent on doing it, will find himself led away from the sin or folly in which the multitude thoughtlessly indulge themselves; but, ah! poor fallen human nature! what conflicts are thy portion, when inclination and habit--a rebel and a traitor--exert their sway against our only saving principle!"--_G. Brown_.

_A_ is the indefinite article: and relates to _man_, or _young man_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_a man--a young man_.

_Young_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, _young, younger, youngest_: and relates to _man_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_young man_.

_Man_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of _will find_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_man will find_.

_Studious_ is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; _studious, more studious, most studious_; or, _studious, less studious, least studious_: and relates to _man_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_man studious_.

_To_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _studious_ and _know_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_studious to know_.

_Know_ is an irregular active-transitive verb, from _know, knew, knowing, known_; found in the infinitive mood, present tense--no person, or number: and is governed by _to_; according to Rule 18th, which says, "The infinitive mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb." Because the meaning is--_to know_.

_His_ is a personal pronoun, representing _man_, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by _duty_; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--_his duty_;--i. e., the young _man's duty_.

_Duty_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by _know_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--to _know_ his _duty_.

_And_ is a copulative conjunction: and connects the phrase which follows it, to that which precedes; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--studious to know his duty, _and_ honestly bent, &c.

_Honestly_ is an adverb of manner: and relates to _bent_; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--_honestly bent_.

_Bent_ is a perfect participle, from the redundant active-transitive verb, _bend, bent_ or _bended, bending, bent_ or _bended_: and relates to _man_; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is--_man bent_. _On_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _bent_ and _doing_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_bent on doing_.

_Doing_ is an imperfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, _do, did, doing, done_: and is governed by on; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is--_on doing_.

_It_ is a personal pronoun, representing _duty_, in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the objective case, being governed by _doing_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_doing it_;--i. e., doing _his duty_.

_Will find_ is an irregular active-transitive verb, from _find, found, finding, found_; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and singular number: and agrees with its nominative _man_; according to Rule 14th, which says, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Because the meaning is--_man will find_.

_Himself_ is a compound personal pronoun, representing man, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender;" and is in the objective case, being governed by _will find_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_will find himself_;--i. e., his own mind or person.

_Led_ is a perfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, _lead, led, leading, led_: and relates to _himself_; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is--_himself led_.

_Away_ is an adverb of place: and relates to _led_; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--_led away_.

_From_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _led_ and _sin or folly_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_led from sin or folly_.

_The_ is the definite article: and relates to _sin_ and _folly_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_the sin or folly_.

_Sin_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by _from_; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_from sin_.

_Or_ is a disjunctive conjunction: and connects _sin_ and _folly_; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--_sin or folly_.

_Folly_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is connected by _or_ to _sin_, and governed by the same preposition _from_; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_from sin or folly_.

_In_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _indulge_ and _which_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_indulge in which_--or, _which they indulge in_.

_Which_ is a relative pronoun, representing _sin or folly_, in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 13th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together:" and is in the objective case, being governed by _in_; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_in which_;--i. e., _in which sin or folly_.

_The_ is the definite article: and relates to _multitude_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_the multitude_.

_Multitude_ is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of _indulge_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_multitude indulge_.

_Thoughtlessly_ is an adverb of manner: and relates to _indulge_; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--_thoughtlessly indulge_.

_Indulge_ is a regular active-transitive verb, from _indulge, indulged, indulging, indulged_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its nominative multitude; according to Rule 15th, which says, "When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." Because the meaning is--_multitude indulge_.

_Themselves_ is a compound personal pronoun, representing _multitude_, in the third person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 11th, which says, "When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number:" and is in the objective case, being governed by _indulge_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_indulge themselves_;--i. e., the individuals of the multitude indulge themselves.

_But_ is a disjunctive conjunction: and connects what precedes and what follows; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--A young man, &c., _but_, ah! &c.

_Ah_ is an interjection, indicating sorrow: and is used independently; according to Rule 24th, which says, "Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words." Because the meaning is--_ah!_--unconnected with the rest of the sentence.

_Poor_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, _poor, poorer, poorest_: and relates to _nature_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_poor human nature_.

_Fallen_ is a participial adjective, compared (perhaps) by adverbs: and relates to _nature_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_fallen nature_.

_Human_ is a common adjective, not compared: and relates to _nature_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_human nature_.

_Nature_ is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is put absolute by direct address; according to Rule 8th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Because the meaning is--_poor fallen human nature!_--the noun being unconnected with any verb.

_What_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared: and relates to _conflicts_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_what conflicts_.

_Conflicts_ is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of _are_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_conflicts are_.

_Are_ is an irregular neuter verb, from _be, was, being, been_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its nominative _conflicts_; according to Rule 14th, which says, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Because the meaning is--_conflicts are_.

_Thy_ is a personal pronoun, representing _nature_, in the second person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by _portion_; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--_thy portion_.

_Portion_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is put after _are_, in agreement with _conflicts_; according to Rule 6th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing." Because the meaning is--_conflicts are thy portion_.

_When_ is a conjunctive adverb of time: and relates to the two verbs, _are_ and _exert_; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is--what conflicts _are_ thy portion, _when_ inclination and habit _exert_, &c.

_Inclination_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is one of the subjects of _exert_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_inclination and habit exert_.

_And_ is a copulative conjunction: and connects _inclination_ and _habit_; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--_inclination and habit_.

_Habit_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is one of the subjects of _exert_; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is--_inclination and habit exert_.

_A_ is the indefinite article: and relates to _rebel_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_a rebel_.

_Rebel_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is put in apposition with _inclination_; according to Rule 3d, which says, "A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Because the meaning is--_inclination, a rebel_.

_And_ is a copulative conjunction: and connects _rebel_ and _traitor_; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is--_a rebel and a traitor_.

_A_ is the indefinite article: and relates to _traitor_; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is--_a traitor_.

_Traitor_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is put in apposition with _habit_; according to Rule 3d, which says, "A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Because the meaning is--_habit, a traitor_.

_Exert_ is a regular active-transitive verb, from _exert, exerted, exerting, exerted_; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its two nominatives _inclination and habit_; according to Rule 16th, which says, "When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Because the meaning is--_inclination and habit exert_.

_Their_ is a personal pronoun, representing _inclination and habit_, in the third person, plural number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 12th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by _sway_; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--_their sway_;--i. e., the sway of inclination and habit.

_Sway_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is governed by _exert_; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_exert sway_.

_Against_ is a preposition: and shows the relation between _exert_ and _principle_; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is--_exert against principle_.

_Our_ is a personal pronoun, representing _the speakers_, in the first person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by _principle_; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is--_our principle_;--i. e., the _speakers_' principle.

_Only_ is a pronominal adjective, not compared: and relates to _principle_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_only principle_.

_Saving_ is a participial adjective, compared by adverbs when it means _frugal_, but not compared in the sense here intended: and relates to _principle_; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is--_saving principle_.

_Principle_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by _against_; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is--_against principle_.

LESSON I.--ARTICLES.

"In English heroic verse, the capital pause of every line, is determined by the sense to be after the fourth, the fifth, the sixth or the seventh syllable."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 105.

"When, in considering the structure of a tree or a plant, we observe how all the parts, the roots, the stem, the bark, and the leaves, are suited to the growth and nutriment of the whole; when we survey all the parts and members of a living animal; or when we examine any of the curious works of art--such as a clock, a ship, or any nice machine; the pleasure which we have in the survey, is wholly founded on this sense of beauty."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 49.

"It never can proceed from a good taste, to make a teaspoon resemble the leaf of a tree; for such a form is inconsistent with the destination of a teaspoon."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 351.

"In an epic poem, a history, an oration, or any work of genius, we always require a fitness, or an adjustment of means to the end which the author is supposed to have in view."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 50.

"Rhetoric, Logic, and Grammar, are three arts that should always walk hand in hand. The first is the art of speaking eloquently; the second, that of thinking well; and the third, that of speaking with propriety."--_Formey's Belles-Lettres_, p. 114.

"Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees,
Rock'd in the cradle of the western breeze."--_Cowper_.

LESSON II.--NOUNS.

"There goes a rumour that I am to be banished. And let the sentence come, if God so will. The other side of the sea is my Father's ground, as well as this side."--_Rutherford_.

"Gentlemen, there is something on earth greater than arbitrary or despotic power. The lightning has its power, and the whirlwind has its power, and the earthquake has its power. But there is something among men more capable of shaking despotic power than lightning, whirlwind, or earthquake; that is--the threatened indignation of the whole civilized world."--_Daniel Webster_.