Chapter IX: Conjunctions

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as, "Thou _and_ he are happy, _because_ you are good."--_Murray_.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.--Our connective words are of four kinds; namely, relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs,[312] conjunctions, and prepositions. These have a certain resemblance to one another, so far as they are all of them _connectives_; yet there are also characteristical differences by which they may in general be easily distinguished. Relative pronouns represent antecedents, and stand in those relations which we call cases; conjunctive adverbs assume the connective power in addition to their adverbial character, and consequently sustain a double relation; conjunctions, (except the introductory correspondents,) join words or sentences together, showing their relation either to each other or to something else; prepositions, though naturally subject themselves to something going before, assume the government of the terms which follow them, and in this they differ from all the rest.

OBS. 2.--Conjunctions do not express any of the real objects of the understanding, whether things, qualities, or actions, but rather the several modes of connexion or contrast under which these objects are contemplated. Hence conjunctions were said by Aristotle and his followers to be in themselves "devoid of signification;" a notion which Harris, with no great propriety, has adopted in his faulty definition[313] of this part of speech. It is the office of this class of particles, to link together words, phrases, or sentences, that would otherwise appear as loose shreds, or unconnected aphorisms; and thus, by various forms of dependence, to give to discourse such continuity as may fit it to convey a connected train of thought or reasoning. The skill or inability of a writer may as strikingly appear in his management of these little connectives, as in that of the longest and most significant words in the language.

"The current is often evinced by the straws,
And the course of the wind by the flight of a feather;
So a speaker is known by his _ands_ and his _ors_,
Those stitches that fasten his patchwork together."--_Robert F. Mott_.

OBS. 3.--Conjunctions sometimes connect entire sentences, and sometimes particular words or phrases only. When one whole sentence is closely linked with an other, both become clauses or members of a more complex sentence; and when one word or phrase is coupled with an other, both have in general a common dependence upon some other word in the same sentence. In etymological parsing, it may be sufficient to name the conjunction as such, and repeat the definition above; but, in syntactical parsing, the learner should always specify the terms connected. In many instances, however, he may conveniently abbreviate his explanation, by parsing the conjunction as connecting "what precedes and what follows;" or, if the terms are transposed, as connecting its own clause to the second, to the third, or to some other clause in the context.

OBS. 4.--However easy it may appear, for even the young parser to _name the terms_ which in any given instance are connected by the conjunction, and of course to know for himself _what these terms are_,--that is, to know what the conjunction does or does not, connect,--it is certain that a multitude of grammarians and philosophers, great and small, from Aristotle down to the latest modifier of Murray, or borrower from his text, have been constantly contradicting one an other, if not themselves, in relation to this matter. Harris avers, that "the Conjunction connects, _not Words, but Sentences_;" and frames his definition accordingly. See _Hermes_, p. 237. This doctrine is true of some of the conjunctions, but it is by no means true of them all. He adds, in a note, "Grammarians have usually considered the Conjunction as connecting rather single Parts of Speech, than whole Sentences, and that too with the addition of like with like, Tense with Tense, Number with Number, Case with Case, &c. This _Sanctius_ justly explodes."--_Ib._, p. 238. If such has been the usual doctrine of the grammarians, they have erred on the one side, as much as our philosopher, and his learned authorities, on the other. For, in this instance, Harris's quotations of Latin and Greek writers, prove only that Sanctius, Scaliger, Apollonius, and Aristotle, held the same error that he himself had adopted;--the error which Latham and others now inculcate, that, "There are always _two propositions_ where there is one Conjunction."--_Fowler's E. Gram._, 8vo, 1850, p. 557.

OBS. 5.--The common doctrine of L. Murray and others, that, "Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns," is not only badly expressed, but is pointedly at variance with their previous doctrine, that, "Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite only words; as in the following instances: 'Duty _and_ interest forbid vicious indulgences;' 'Wisdom _or_ folly governs us.' Each of these forms of expression," they absurdly say, "contains two sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 124; _Smith's_, 95; _Fisk's_, 84; _Ingersoll's_, 81. By "_the same moods, tenses_, or _cases_," we must needs here understand some _one mood, tense_, or _case_, in which the connected words _agree_; and, if the conjunction has any thing to do with this agreement, or sameness of mood, tense, or case, it must be because words only, and not sentences, are connected by it. Now, _if, that, though, lest, unless_, or any other conjunction that introduces the subjunctive, will almost always be found to connect different moods, or rather to subjoin one sentence to another in which there is a different mood. On the contrary, _and, as, even, than, or_, and _nor_, though they may be used to connect sentences, do, in very many instances, connect words only; as, "The _king and queen_ are an amiable pair."--_Murray._ "And a being of _more than human_ dignity stood before me."--_Dr. Johnson._ It cannot be plausibly pretended, that _and_ and _than_, in these two examples, connect clauses or sentences. So _and_ and _or_, in the examples above, connect the nouns only, and not "sentences:" else our common rules for the agreement of verbs or pronouns with words connected, are nothing but bald absurdities. It is idle to say, that the construction and meaning are not _what they appear to be_; and it is certainly absurd to contend, that conjunctions always connect sentences; or always, words only. One author very strangely conceives, that, "Conjunctions may be said either always to connect words only, or always to connect sentences, _according to the view which may be taken of them_ in analyzing."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 77.

OBS. 6.--"Several words belonging to other parts of speech, are occasionally used as conjunctions. Such are the following: _provided, except_, verbs; _both_, an adjective; _either, neither, that_, pronouns; _being, seeing_, participles; _before, since, for_, prepositions. I will do it, _provided_ you lend some help. Here _provided_ is a conjunction, that connects the two sentences. 'Paul said, _Except_ these abide in the ship, ye cannot be saved.' Here _except_ is a conjunction. _Excepting_ is also used as a participle and conjunction. '_Being_ this reception of the gospel was so anciently foretold.'--_Bishop Pearson._ '_Seeing_ all the congregation are holy.'--_Bible_. Here _being_ and _seeing_ are used as conjunctions."--_Alexander's Gram_:, p. 50. 'The foregoing remark, though worthy of some attention, is not altogether accurate. _Before_, when it connects sentences, is not a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb. _Provided_, as cited above, resembles not the verb, but the perfect participle. _Either_ and _neither_, when they are not conjunctions, are pronominal adjectives, rather than pronouns. And, to say, that, "words _belonging to other parts of speech_, are used as _conjunctions_," is a sort of solecism, which leaves the learner in doubt to what class they _really_ belong. _Being_, and _being that_, were formerly used in the sense of _because, since, or seeing that_; (Lat. _cum, quoniam_, or _quando_;) but this usage is now obsolete. So there is an uncommon or obsolete use of _without_, in the sense of _unless_, or _except_; (Lat. _nisi_;) as, "He cannot rise _without_ he be helped." _Walker's Particles_, p. 425. "Non potest _nisi_ adjutus exsurgere."--_Seneca._

CLASSES.

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, _copulative_ and _disjunctive_; and a few of each class are particularly distinguished from the rest, as being _corresponsive_.

I. A _copulative conjunction_ is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition: as, "He _and_ I shall not dispute; _for, if_ he has any choice, I shall readily grant it."

II. A _disjunctive conjunction_ is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning: as, "_Though_ he were dead, _yet_ shall he live."--_St. John's Gospel_. "Be not faithless, _but_ believing."--_Id._

III. The _corresponsive conjunctions_ are those which are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to the other: as, "John came _neither_ eating _nor_ drinking."--_Matt._, xi, 18. "But _if_ I cast out devils by the Spirit of God, _then_ the kingdom of God is come unto you."--_Ib._, xii, 28.

OBS.--Not all terms which stand in the relation of correspondents, or corresponsives, are therefore to be reckoned _conjunctions_; nor are both words in each pair always of the same part of speech: some are adverbs; one or two are adjectives; and sometimes a conjunction answers to a preceding adverb. But, if a word is seen to be the mere precursor, index, introductory sign, or counterpart, of a conjunction, and has no relation or import which should fix it in any other of the ten classes called parts of speech, it is, clearly, a conjunction,--a _corresponding_ or _corresponsive_ conjunction. It is a word used _preparatively_, "to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected."

LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

1. The Copulatives; _And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so_.

2. The Disjunctives; _Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas_.

3. The Corresponsives; _Both--and; as--as; as--so; if--then; either--or_; _neither--nor; whether--or; though_, or _although--yet_.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.--By some writers, the words, _also, since, too, then, therefore_, and _wherefore_, are placed among the copulative conjunctions; and _as, so, still, however_, and _albeit_, among the disjunctive; but Johnson and Webster have marked most of these terms as _adverbs_ only. It is perhaps of little moment, by which name they are called; for, in some instances, conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs do not differ very essentially. _As, so, even, then, yet_, and _but_, seem to belong sometimes to the one part of speech, and sometimes to the other. I call them adverbs when they chiefly express time, manner, or degree; and conjunctions when they appear to be mere connectives. _As, yet_, and _but_, are generally conjunctions; but _so, even_, and _then_, are almost always adverbs. _Seeing_ and _provided_, when used as connectives, are more properly conjunctions than any thing else; though Johnson ranks them with the adverbs, and Webster, by supposing many awkward ellipses, keeps them with the participles. Examples: "For these are not drunken, as ye suppose, _seeing_ it is but the third hour of the day."--_Acts_, ii, 15. "The senate shall have power to adjourn themselves, _provided_ such adjournment shall not exceed two days at a time."--_Constitution of New Hampshire_.

OBS. 2.--_Since_, when it governs a noun after it, is a preposition: as, "Hast thou commanded the morning _since thy days_?"--_Job_. _Albeit_ is equivalent in sense to _although_, and is properly a conjunction; but this old compound is now nearly or quite obsolete. _As_ is sometimes a relative pronoun, sometimes a conjunctive adverb, and sometimes a copulative conjunction. Example of the last: "We present ourselves _as_ petitioners." If _as_ is ever disjunctive, it is not so here; nor can we parse it as an adverb, because it comes between two words that are essentially in apposition. The equivalent Latin term _quasi_ is called an adverb, but, in such a case, not very properly: as, "Et colles _quasi_ pulverem pones;"--"And thou shalt make the hills _as_ chaff."--_Isaiah_, xli, 15. So _even_, which in English is frequently a sign of emphatic repetition, seems sometimes to be rather a conjunction than an adverb: as, "I, _even_ I, am the Lord."--_Isaiah_, xliii, 11.

OBS. 3.--_Save_ and _saving_, when they denote exception, are not adverbs, as Johnson denominates them, or a verb and a participle, as Webster supposes them to be, or prepositions, as Covell esteems them, but disjunctive conjunctions; and, as such, they take the same case after as before them; as, "All the conspirators, _save_ only _he_, did that they did, in envy of great Cæsar."--_Shak._ "All this world's glory seemeth vain, and all their shows but shadows, _saving she_."--_Spenser_. "Israel burned none of them, _save Hazor_ only."--_Joshua_. xi, 13. "And none of them was cleansed, _saving Naaman_ the Syrian."--_Luke_, iv, 27. _Save_ is not here a transitive verb, for Hazor was not _saved_ in any sense, but utterly destroyed; nor is Naaman here spoken of as _being saved by an other leper_, but as being cleansed when others were not. These two conjunctions are now little used; and therefore the propriety of setting the nominative after them and treating them as conjunctions, is the more apt to be doubted. The Rev. Matt. Harrison, after citing five examples, four of which have the nominative with _save_, adds, without naming the part of speech, or assigning any reason, this decision, which I think erroneous: "In all these passages, _save_ requires after it the objective case." His five examples are these: "All, _save_ I, were at rest, and enjoyment."-- _Frankenstein_. "There was no stranger with us, in the house, _save we_ two."--_1 Kings_, iii, 18.

"And nothing wanting is, _save she_, alas!"
--DRUMMOND _of Hawthornden_.

"When all slept sound, _save she_, who bore them both."
--ROGERS, _Italy_, p. 108.

"And all were gone, _save him_, who now kept guard."
--_Ibid._, p. 185.

OBS. 4.--The conjunction _if_ is sometimes used in the Bible to express, not a supposition of what follows it, but an emphatic negation: as, "I have sworn in my wrath, _if_ they shall enter into my rest."--_Heb._, iv, 3. That is, _that they shall not enter_. The same peculiarity is found in the Greek text, and also in the Latin, and other versions. _Or_, in the obsolete phrase, "_or ever_," is not properly a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb of time, meaning _before_. It is supposed to be a corruption of _ere_: as, "I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, _or ever_ the earth was."--_Prov._, viii, 23. "And we, _or ever_ he come near, are ready to kill him."--_Acts_, xxiii, 15. This term derives no support from the original text.

OBS. 5.--There are some peculiar phrases, or combinations of words, which have the force of conjunctions, and which it is not very easy to analyze satisfactorily in parsing: as, "And _for all_ there were so many, yet was not the net broken."--_John_, xxi, 11. Here _for all_ is equivalent to _although_, or _notwithstanding_; either of which words would have been more elegant. _Nevertheless_ is composed of three words, and is usually reckoned a conjunctive adverb; but it might as well be called a disjunctive conjunction, for it is obviously equivalent to _yet, but_, or _notwithstanding_; as, "I am crucified with Christ: _nevertheless_ I live; _yet not_ I, _but_ Christ liveth in me."--_Gal._, ii, 20. Here, for _nevertheless_ and _but_, we have in the Greek the same particle [Greek: de]. "Each man's mind has some peculiarity, _as well as_ his face."--_Locke_. "Relative pronouns, _as well as_ conjunctions, serve to connect sentences."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 124. Here the first _as_ corresponds to the second, but _well_ not being used in the literal sense of an adverb, some judicious grammarians take the whole phrase as a conjunction. It is, however, susceptible of division: as, "It is adorned with admirable pieces of sculpture, _as well_ modern _as_ ancient."--_Addison_.

OBS. 6.--So the phrases, _for as much as, in as much as, in so much that_, if taken collectively, have the nature of conjunctions; yet they contain within themselves correspondent terms and several different parts of speech. The words are sometimes printed separately, and sometimes partly together. Of late years, _forasmuch, inasmuch, insomuch_, have been usually compounded, and called adverbs. They might as well, perhaps, be called conjunctions, as they were by some of our old grammarians; for two conjunctions sometimes come together: as, "Answering their questions, _as if_[314] it were a matter that needed it."--_Locke_. "These should be at first gently treated, _as though_ we expected an imposthumation,"--_Sharp_. "But there are many things which we must acknowledge to be true, _notwithstanding that_ we cannot comprehend them."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 211. "There is no difference, _except that_ some are heavier than others."--"We may be playful, _and yet_ innocent; grave, _and yet_ corrupt."--_Murray's Key_, p. 166.

OBS. 7.--Conjunctions have no grammatical modifications, and are consequently incapable of any formal agreement or disagreement with other words; yet their import as connectives, copulative or disjunctive, must be carefully observed, lest we write or speak them improperly. Example of error: "Prepositions are _generally set before_ nouns _and_ pronouns."--_Wilbur's Gram._, p. 20. Here _and_ should be _or_; because, although a preposition usually governs a noun _or_ a pronoun, it seldom governs both at once. And besides, the assertion above seems very naturally to mean, that nouns and pronouns _are generally preceded_ by prepositions--as gross an error as dullness could invent! L. Murray also says of prepositions: "They are, _for the most_ part, put before nouns _and_ pronouns."--_Gram._, p. 117. So Felton: "They generally stand before nouns _and_ pronouns."--_Analytic and Prac. Gram._, p. 61. The blunder however came originally from Lowth, and out of the following admirable enigma: "Prepositions, _standing by themselves in construction_, are put before nouns _and_ pronouns; _and_ sometimes after verbs; but _in this sort of composition_ they are _chiefly prefixed_ to verbs: as, _to outgo, to overcome_."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 66.

OBS. 8.--The opposition suggested by the disjunctive particle _or_, is sometimes merely nominal, or verbal: as, "That object is a triangle, _or_ figure contained under three right lines."--_Harris_. "So if we say, that figure is a sphere, _or_ a globe, _or_ a ball."--_Id., Hermes_, p. 258. In these cases, the disjunction consists in nothing but an alternative of words; for the terms connected describe or name the same thing. For this sense of _or_, the Latins had a peculiar particle, _sive_, which they called _Subdisjunctiva_, a _Subdisjunctive_: as, "Alexander _sive_ Paris; Mars _sive_ Mavors."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 258. In English, the conjunction _or_ is very frequently equivocal: as, "They were both more ancient than Zoroaster _or_ Zerdusht."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 250; _Murray's Gram._, p. 297. Here, if the reader does not happen to know that _Zoroaster_ and _Zerdusht_ mean the same person, he will be very likely to mistake the sense. To avoid this ambiguity, we substitute, (in judicial proceedings,) the Latin adverb _alias, otherwise_; using it as a conjunction subdisjunctive, in lieu of _or_, or the Latin _sive_: as, "Alexander, _alias_ Ellick."--"Simson, _alias_ Smith, _alias_ Baker."--_Johnson's Dict._

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS IX.--ETYMOLOGICAL.

_In the Ninth Praxis, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the_ ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, _and_ CONJUNCTIONS.

_The definitions to be given in the Ninth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction,--and one for a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:--

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it."--_Maxims_.

_If_ is a copulative conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. 2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition.

_Thou_ is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

_Hast done_ is an irregular active-transitive verb, from _do, did, doing, done_; found in the indicative mood, perfect tense, second person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_ or _to be acted upon_. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

_A_ is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.

_Good_ is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared irregularly, _good, better, best_. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form.

_Deed_ is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle or preposition.

_Boast_ is a regular active-intransitive verb, from _boast, boasted, boasting, boasted_; found in the imperative mood, present tense, second person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_ or _to be acted upon_. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming _d_ or _ed_. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

_Not_ is an adverb or manner, expressing negation. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, _How?_ or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show _how_ a subject is regarded. _Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

_It_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.--PARSING.

"In all gratifications, disgust ever lies nearest to the highest pleasures; and therefore let us not marvel, if this is peculiarly the case in eloquence. By glancing at either poets or orators, we may easily satisfy ourselves, that neither a poem nor an oration which aims continually at what is fine, showy, and sparkling, can please us long. Wherefore, though we may wish for the frequent praise of having expressed ourselves well and properly, we should not covet repeated applause for being bright and splendid."--CICERO, _de Oratore_.

"The foundation of eloquence, as well as of every other high attainment, is practical wisdom. For it happens in oratory, as in life, that nothing is more difficult, than to discern what is proper and becoming. Through lack of such discernment, gross faults are very often committed. For neither to all ranks, fortunes, and ages, nor to every time, place, and auditory, can the same style either of language or of sentiment be adapted. In every part of a discourse, as in every part of life, we must consider what is suitable and decent; and this must be determined with reference both to the matter in question, and to the personal character of those who speak and those who hear."--CICERO, _Orator ad Brutum_.

"So spake th' Omnipotent, and with his words
All seem'd well pleas'd; all seem'd, but were not all."--_Milton_.

LESSON II.--PARSING.

"A square, though not more regular than a hexagon or an octagon, is more beautiful than either: for what reason, but that a square is more simple, and the attention is less divided?"--_Kames, El. of Crit._, i, 175.

"We see the material universe in motion; but matter is inert; and, so far as we know, nothing can move it but mind: therefore God is a spirit. We do not mean that his nature is the same as that of our soul; for it is infinitely more excellent. But we mean, that he possesses intelligence and active power in supreme perfection; and, as these qualities do not belong to matter, which is neither active nor intelligent, we must refer them to that which is not matter, but mind."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, p. 210.

"Men are generally permitted to publish books, and contradict others, and even themselves, as they please, with as little danger of being confuted, as of being understood."--_Boyle_.

"Common reports, if ridiculous rather than dangerous, are best refuted by neglect."--_Kames's Thinking_, p. 76. "No man is so foolish, but that he may give good counsel at a time; no man so wise, but he may err, if he take no counsel but his own."--_Ib._, p. 97.

"Young heads are giddy, and young hearts are warm,
And make mistakes for manhood to reform."--_Cowper_.

LESSON III.--PARSING.

"The Nouns denote substances, and those either natural, artificial, or abstract. They moreover denote things either general, or special, or particular. The Pronouns, their substitutes, are either prepositive, or subjunctive."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 85.

"In a thought, generally speaking, there is at least one capital object considered as acting or as suffering. This object is expressed by a substantive noun: its action is expressed by an active verb; and the thing affected by the action is expressed by an other substantive noun: its suffering, or passive state, is expressed by a passive verb; and the thing that acts upon it, by a substantive noun. Beside these, which are the capital parts of a sentence, or period, there are generally underparts; each of the substantives, as well as the verb, may be qualified: time, place, purpose, motive, means, instrument, and a thousand other circumstances, may be necessary to complete the thought."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, ii, 34.

"Yet those whom pride and dullness join to blind,
To narrow cares and narrow space confined,
Though with big titles each his fellow greets,
Are but to wits, as scavengers to streets."--_Mallet_.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING CONJUNCTIONS.

"A Verb is so called from the Latin _verbum_, or _word._"--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 56.

[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the conjunction _or_, connecting _verbum_ and _word_, supposes the latter to be _Latin_. But, according to Observation 7th, on the Classes of Conjunctions, "The import of connectives, copulative or disjunctive, must be carefully observed, lest we write or speak them improperly." In this instance, _or_ should be changed to _a_; thus, "A _Verb_ is so called from the Latin _verbum, a word_" that is, "which means, _a word_."]

"References are often marked by letters and figures."--_Gould's Adam's Gram._, p. 283. (1.) "A Conjunction is a word which joins words and sentences together."--_Lennie's E. Gram._, p. 51; _Bullions's_, 70; _Brace's_, 57. (2.) "A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences together."--_Smith's New Gram._, p. 37. (3.) "A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences."--_Maunders Gram._, p. 1. (4.) "Conjunctions are words used to join words and sentences."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 3. (5.) "A Conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences."-- _M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 36; _Hart's_, 92; _Day's_, 10. (6.) "A Conjunction joins words and sentences together."--_Mackintosh's Gram._, p. 115; _Hiley's_, 10 and 53. (7.) "The Conjunction joins words and sentences together."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 2d Edition, p. 28. (8.) "Conjunctions connect words and sentences to each other."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 35. (9.) "Conjunctions connect words and sentences."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 80; _Wells's_, 1st Ed., 159 and 168. (10.) "The conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 49. (11.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences together."-- _Fowler's E. Gram._, §329. (12.) "Connectives are words which unite words and sentences in construction."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 123; _Improved Gram._, 81. "English Grammar is miserably taught in our district schools; the teachers know but little or nothing about it."--_Taylor's District School_, p. 48. "Least, instead of preventing, you draw on Diseases."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 40. "The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 33; _Ingersoll's_, 33; _Lennie's_, 6; _Bullions's_, 8; _Fisk's_, 53, and others. "When nouns naturally neuter are converted into masculine and feminine."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 38. "This form of the perfect tense represents an action completely past, and often at no great distance, but not specified."--_Ib._, p. 74. "The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c."--_Ib._, p. 123. "The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning in different degrees."--_Ib._, p. 123. "Whether we open the volumes of our divines, philosophers, historians, or artists, we shall find that they abound with all the terms necessary to communicate their observations and discoveries."--_Ib._, p. 138. "When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun."--_Ib._, p. 152: _R. G. Smith, Alger, Gomly, Merchant, Picket, et al._ "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 154. "Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pronouns."--_Ib._, p. 179. "And the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times."--_Ib._, p. 72. "If this rule should not appear to apply to every example, which has been produced, nor to others which might be adduced."--_Ib._, p. 216. "An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention."--_Ib._, p. 248; _Hart's Gram._, 175. "An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 267. "The word was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, the subject may still be a secret."--_Ib._, p. 213. "A word it was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, as to its precise and definite idea, this may still be a secret."--_Harris's Three Treatises_, p. 5. "It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs from that of every other country in Europe."--_Smollett's Voltaire_, ix, 306. "So gradually as to allow its being engrafted on a subtonic."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 255. "Where the Chelsea or Maiden bridges now are."--_Judge Parker_. "Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs."--_Smith's Productive Gram._, p. 92. "I could not have told you, who the hermit was, nor on what mountain he lived."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 32. "_Am_, or _be_ (for they are the same) naturally, or in themselves signify _being_."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 113. "Words are distinct sounds, by which we express our thoughts and ideas."--_Infant School Gram._, p. 13. "His fears will detect him, but he shall not escape."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 64. "_Whose_ is equally applicable to persons or things."--WEBSTER _in Sanborn's Gram._, p. 95. "One negative destroys another, or is equivalent to an affirmative."-- _Bullions, Eng. Gram._, p. 118.

"No sooner does he peep into
The world, but he has done his do."--_Hudibras_.