Chapter VII: Wild Tribes of Central America (4)

They manufacture strong cords from the bark of the mahoe-tree, which is taken off in long strips, beaten with sticks, cleaned, and then twisted. A finer description of thread is made from a species of pita, of which the leaves undergo a somewhat similar process in preparation as flax, being steeped in water for several days, then dried in the sun and afterwards beaten, producing fine silky threads, from which their hammocks and finer kinds of nets for catching small fish are made. From the same plant they make excellent baskets and matting; the materials are first dyed in different colors, prettily mixed and woven together so closely as to hold water. They are of a soft texture and exceedingly durable. The Dorachos are famed for the manufacture of pottery, water-bottles, and other household utensils, elegantly shaped and prettily painted. Cotton cloths are woven by women, and considering the rude and simple implements they work with, the fineness of texture and blending of colors present a marvel of skill and patience. The process of weaving is thus described by Wafer: "The Women make a Roller of Wood, about three Foot long, turning easily about between two Posts. About this they place Strings of Cotton, of 3 or 4 yards long, at most, but oftner less, according to the use the Cloth is to be put to, whether for a Hammock, or to tie about their Waists, or for Gowns, or for Blankets to cover them in their Hammocks, as they lie in them in their Houses; which are all the Uses they have for Cloth: And they never weave a piece of Cotton with a design to cut it, but of a size that shall just serve for the particular use. The Threads thus coming from the Roller are the Warp; and for the Woof, they twist Cotton-yarn about a small piece of _Macaw_-wood, notch'd at each end; And taking up every other Thread of the Warp with the Fingers of one Hand, they put the Woof through with the other Hand, and receive it out on the other side: and to make the Threads of the Woof lie close in the Cloth, they strike them at every turn with a long and thin piece of _Macaw_-wood like a Ruler, which lies across between the Threads of the Warp for that purpose."[1024]

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN BOATS AND NAVIGATION.]

The canoes and rafts of the Isthmians are admirably adapted to the navigation of their rivers and gulfs, and the men who manage them are skillful boatmen. The canoes vary in size; some are dug out from the single trunk of a tree, others are constructed of bark. The largest are thirty-five feet in length by three in breadth, and are capable of carrying many persons, besides a considerable amount of cargo. They are so lightly built that little difficulty is experienced in passing them over obstructions, and those of smaller size are often carried on the head. They draw very little water, and are propelled with paddles by two persons, one in the stern, the other in the bow. When passing over rapids, palancas, or poles, are used, with crotchets attached, which answer the purpose of a boat-hook in laying hold of the bank or overhanging branches of trees, where the depth of water prevents the pole reaching the bottom. The rafts are made from an exceedingly light and soft timber similar to cork-wood. Three or four logs are bound together with ropes and across them are laid smaller timbers of the same wood, fastened down with hard wooden pegs that are easily driven through. The rafts are chiefly employed for fishing or crossing large rivers. Canoes are, however, quite as frequently used for fishing purposes.[1025]

The native products are gold, pearls, tortoise-shell, ivory-nuts, cacao, caoutchouc, corozo-nuts, cocoa-nuts, dried venison, lard, and deer-skins; these are offered in considerable quantities to foreigners, and in exchange they receive salt and ironware, besides various trinkets and such domestic utensils as they are in need of. The value of the pearls was lessened on account of their practice of throwing oysters into the fire in order to open them, which partially destroyed their lustre. The natives of the coast carry into the interior dried fish and salt, which they barter for gold dust and other products. At Pueblo Nuevo sarsaparilla forms a principal article of trade. The native traders are very shrewd, and as a rule practice fair dealing. On his march through the country, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa found the people in possession of large quantities of gold, jewelry, and pearls. Everywhere along his route he received presents of gold; indeed, in some places he found this metal in greater abundance than food.[1026]

The streams of this region are subject to frequent swellings, caused by heavy rains. After the subsiding of these floods, the natives procure gold from the river-beds; they also burn the grass in the mountains and pick up the metal left exposed on the surface in large quantities. In the district of Veragua and in Darien they have workers in gold, crucibles for melting metals, and implements of silversmiths. They understand the alloying of gold, from which they make vases and many kinds of ornaments in the shape of birds and different varieties of animals. The relics which from time to time have been exhumed in Chiriquí and other parts of the Isthmus, prove that the natives had an excellent knowledge of the art of working and also of sculpturing in gold and stone. Painting and glazing on jars and other descriptions of pottery was an art in which the men of Chiriquí were famous.[1027] The Isthmians possessed only a very slight knowledge of the computation of time. They calculate the hour of the day by the height of the sun in the heavens, and have no division of time into years, months, or weeks. Their enumeration is limited to twenty, and beyond that they count by twenties to one hundred; their knowledge of numbers does not go further.[1028]

[Sidenote: ARTS AND GOVERNMENT.]

In the provinces of Cueba, Comagre, and other parts of Darien the eldest son succeeded to the government upon the death of his father. As soon as the funeral ceremonies were over, the heir received the congratulations of the attendant nobles, the highest and most aged of whom conducted him to a chamber and laid him in a hammock. His subjects then came to offer their submission accompanied with presents, which consisted of large stores of edibles and fruits of every kind. They greeted him with triumphal songs in which they recounted the deeds of his ancestors, as well as those of other lords of the land, telling him who were his friends and who his enemies. Much wine was consumed and the rejoicing lasted several days. Afterwards ambassadors were dispatched to inform all the neighboring caciques of the new accession, desiring their good will and friendship for the future. In the province of Panamá upon the death of the lord, the eldest brother succeeded him, and if there were no brothers the succession went to a nephew by the sister's side. The chiefs held undisputed authority over their people and were implicitly obeyed. They received no tribute but required personal service for house-building, hunting, fishing, or tilling the ground; men so employed were fed and maintained by the chief. In Cueba the reigning lord was called _quebi_, in other parts he was called _tiba_. The highest in rank after the _tiba_ had the title of _sacos_, who commanded certain districts of the country. _Piraraylos_ were nobles who had become famous in war. Subject to the sacos were the _cabras_ who enjoyed certain lands and privileges not accorded to the common people. Any one wounded in battle, when fighting in presence of the _tiba_, was made a cabra and his wife became an _espave_ or principal woman. A constable could not arrest or kill a cabra; this could be done only by the tiba; once struck by the tiba, however, any person might kill him, for no sooner was he wounded by his chief than his title and rank dropped from him. Constables were appointed whose duty it was to arrest offenders and execute judgment on the guilty. Justice was administered without form by the chief in person who decided all controversies. The cases must be stated truthfully, as the penalty for false testimony was death. There was no appeal from the decision of the chief. Theft was punishable with death and anyone catching a thief in flagrante delicto, might cut off the offender's hands and hang them to his neck. Murder was also punished by death; the penalty for adultery was death to both parties. In Darien, he who defloured a virgin had a brier thrust up his virile member, which generally caused death. The facts had to be proved on oath, the form of taking which was to swear by their tooth. As I have said, a constable could not arrest or kill a noble; consequently if one committed a crime punishable with death, the chief must kill him with his own hand, and notice was given to all the people by beating the large war drum so that they should assemble and witness the execution. The chief then in presence of the multitude recited the offence, and the culprit acknowledged the justice of the sentence. This duty fulfilled, the chief struck the culprit two or three blows on the head with a macana until he fell, and if he was not killed, any one of the spectators gave him the finishing stroke. Criminals who were executed were denied the right of burial. The Caribs had no chiefs, every man obeyed the dictates of his own passions, unrestrained by either government or laws.[1029]

[Sidenote: PUNISHMENTS AND SLAVERY.]

Slavery was in force among the various nations inhabiting the Isthmus, and every principal man retained a number of prisoners as bondsmen; they were called _pacos_, and, as I have already mentioned, were branded or tattooed with the particular mark of the owner on the face or arm, or had one of their front teeth extracted. When traveling, the slaves had to carry their lord's effects, and a dozen or more were detailed to carry his litter or hammock, which was slung on a pole and borne on the shoulders of two men at a time, who were relieved at intervals by two others, the change being made without stopping. On his march across the Isthmus in 1513, Vasco Nuñez found some negro slaves belonging to the cacique of Quarecas, but the owner could give no information relative to them, except that there were more of that color near the place, with whom they were continually at war.[1030]

[Sidenote: FAMILY RELATIONS OF THE ISTHMIANS.]

Caciques and lords married as many wives as they pleased. The marriage of the first wife was celebrated with a great banquet, at the close of which the bride was handed over to her husband. Subsequent wives were not married with ceremonies or rejoicings, but took the place of concubines, and were subject to the orders of the first wife. The number of wives was limited only by the wealth of the lord. Vasco Nuñez took prisoner the cacique Tumanamá with all his family, among which were eighty wives. The children of the first wife were legitimate, while those of others were bastards and could not inherit. Marriage was not contracted with strangers or people speaking a different language, and the tiba and lords only married with the daughters of noble blood. Divorces were brought about by mutual consent and for slight causes, and sometimes wives were exchanged. If a woman was barren, they promptly agreed upon a separation, which took place when the woman had her menstrual period, in order that there might be no suspicion of pregnancy. When a maiden reached the age of puberty, she was kept shut up, sometimes for a period of two years. In some parts of Darien, when a contract of marriage was made, all the neighbors brought presents of maize or fruits, and laid them at the door of the bride's father; when the offerings were all made, each one of the company was given a calabash of liquor; then followed speeches and dancing, and the bridegroom's father presented his son to the bride, and joined their hands; after which the bride was returned to her father, who kept her shut up in a house with him for seven days. During that time all the friends assisted in clearing a plantation and building a house for the couple, while the women and children planted the ground. The seven days having elapsed, another merrymaking took place, at which much liquor was drunk. The bridegroom took the precaution to put away all weapons which were hung to the ridge-pole of his house, in order to prevent any serious fighting during their drunken orgies, which lasted several days, or until all the liquor was consumed. If a man had several wives, he often kept each one in a separate house, though sometimes they all lived together; a woman who was pregnant always occupied a house to herself.[1031] Women are easily delivered, and the young infant is tied to a board on its back or between two pillows, and is kept so confined until able to walk, the board being removed only to wash the child. Male children are early accustomed to the use of weapons, and when able to carry a few provisions for themselves, they accompany their fathers on hunting expeditions. Girls are brought up to household duties, cooking, weaving, and spinning. Prostitution was not infamous; noble ladies held as a maxim, that it was plebeian to deny anything asked of them, and they gave themselves up to any person that wooed them, willingly, especially to principal men. This tendency to licentiousness carried with it extremes in the use of abortives whereby to avoid the consequence of illicit pleasures, as well that they might not be deprived of them, as to keep their breasts from softening; for, said they, old women should bear children, not young ones, who have to amuse themselves. Sodomy was practiced by the nations of Cueba, Careta, and other places. The caciques and some of the head men kept harems of youths, who, as soon as destined to the unclean office, were dressed as women, did women's work about the house, and were exempt from war and its fatigues. They went by the name of _camayoas_, and were hated and detested by the women.[1032]

[Sidenote: INTOXICATING LIQUORS.]

Their public amusements were called _areitos_, a species of dance very nearly resembling some in the northern provinces of Spain. They took place upon occasions of a marriage or birth, or when they were about to go forth on a hunting expedition, or at the time of harvest. One led the singing, stepping to the measure, and the rest followed, imitating the leader. Others again engaged in feats of arms and sham battles, while singers and improvisatori related the deeds of their ancestors and historical events of the nation. The men indulged freely in fermented liquors and wines, the drinking and dancing lasting many hours and sometimes whole days, until drunk and exhausted they fell to the ground. Actors in appropriate costumes counterfeited the various pursuits of fishing, hunting, and agriculture, while others, in the guise of jesters and fools, assisted in enlivening the scene. Their principal musical instruments were drums and small whistles made of reeds; they had also javelins with holes pierced in them near the end, so that when cast into the air a loud whistling noise was produced.[1033] They have various kinds of wines and liquors both sweet and sour. One is obtained from a species of palm-tree, by tapping the trunk near the top, and inserting a leaf into the cut. The liquor drawn off soon ferments, and in two or three days is fit to drink; or it is boiled with water and mixed with spices. Another kind called _chicha_ is made from maize; a quantity of the grain is soaked in water, then taken out and left to sprout, when it is bruised and placed in a large vessel filled with water, where it is allowed to remain until it begins to turn sour. A number of old women then collect and chew some of the grain, which they spit out into large gourds until they have a sufficient quantity; this, as soon as it ferments, is added to the water in the vessel, and in a short time the whole undergoes fermentation. When the liquor is done working it is drawn off from the sediment, and a strongly intoxicating liquor is thus produced, which is their favorite beverage. They have another method of making chicha, by boiling the sprouted grain in water till the quantity is considerably reduced; it is then removed from the fire and left to settle and cool. In two days it becomes clear and fit to drink, but after five or six days it begins to acidify so that only a moderate quantity is made at a time. Different varieties of wines and liquors are made from dates, bananas, pineapples, and other fruits, and we are told that the first Spanish explorers of the country found large quantities of fermented liquors buried beneath the ground under their house-tree, because if stored in their houses the liquor became turbid from constant agitation. The cellar of the king Comagre is described as being filled with great vessels of earth and wood, containing wine and cider. Peter Martyr, in his account of the visit of Vasco Nuñez and his company to the king, says "they drunke wines of sundry tastes both white and black." Tobacco is much used by the Isthmians; the natives of Costa Rica roll the leaf up in the form of a cigar, and tie it with grass threads; they inhale the smoke, and, retaining it for a short time, pass it out through the mouth and nostrils. The cigar used by the natives of the isthmus of Panamá is much larger. Mr Wafer thus describes their manner of making and smoking it: "Laying two or three Leaves upon one another, they roll up all together side-ways into a long Roll, yet leaving a little hollow. Round this they roll other Leaves one after another, in the same manner but close and hard, till the Roll be as big as ones Wrist, and two or three Feet in length. Their way of Smoaking when they are in Company together is thus: A Boy lights one end of a Roll and burns it to a Coal, wetting the part next it to keep it from wasting too fast. The End so lighted he puts into his Mouth, and blows the Smoak through the whole length of the Roll into the Face of every one of the Company or Council, tho' there be 2 or 300 of them. Then they, sitting in their usual Posture upon Forms, make, with their Hands held hollow together, a kind of Funnel round their Mouths and Noses. Into this they receive the Smoak as 'tis blown upon them, snuffing it up greedily and strongly as long as ever they are able to hold their Breath, and seeming to bless themselves, as it were, with the Refreshment it gives them." After eating heartily, more especially after supper, they burn certain gums and herbs and fumigate themselves to produce sleep.[1034]

The Isthmians are good walkers, their tread firm, but light and soft as a cat, and they are exceedingly active in all their movements. When traveling they are guided by the sun, or ascertain their course by observing the bark of the trees; the bark on the south side being always the thickest. When fatigued by travel they scarify their legs with a sharpened reed or snakes' teeth. They are very expert swimmers and the dwellers on the coast pass much of their time in the water. In salutation they turn their backs to each other. No one will accept a gift from a stranger unless with the especial permission of the chief.[1035]

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN SORCERERS.]

They believe largely in spirits and divinations, and have sorcerers called _piaces_ who are held in much respect and awe. The piaces profess to have the power of foretelling the future and raising spirits. When putting in practice their arts they retire to a solitary place, or shut themselves up in a house, where, with loud cries and unearthly sounds they pretend to consult the oracle. Boys destined to be piaces are taken at the age of ten or twelve years to be instructed in the office; they are selected for the natural inclination or the peculiar aptitude and intelligence which they display for the service. Those so chosen are confined in a solitary place where they dwell in company with their instructors. For two years they are subjected to severe discipline, they must not eat flesh nor anything having life, but live solely on vegetables, drink only water, and not indulge in sexual intercourse. During the probationary term neither parents nor friends are permitted to see them; at night only are they visited by professional masters, who instruct them in the mysteries of the necromantic arts. In the province of Cueba masters in these arts are called _tequinas_. It is asserted of the piaces that they could foretell an eclipse of the moon three months before the time. The people were much troubled with witches, who were supposed to hold converse with evil spirits, and inflicted many ills especially upon children.[1036]

[Sidenote: MEDICAL PRACTICE.]

The Isthmians are a healthful and long-lived race. The ills most common to them are fevers and venereal disease. The latter, as Oviedo affirms, was introduced into Europe from Hayti, or Española, where it was prevalent as well as throughout Tierra Firme. This is a subject that has given rise to much contention among authors, but the balance of testimony seems to indicate that the venereal disease in Europe was not of American origin, although the disease probably existed in America before the coming of Europeans. The remedies employed by the Isthmians for the complaint were _guayacan_ wood, and other medicinal herbs known to them. They are much troubled with a minute species of tick-lice that cover their limbs in great numbers, from which they endeavor to free themselves by applying burning straw. Another insect, more serious in its consequences and penetrating in its attacks, is the _chegoe_, or _pulex penetrans_; it burrows under the skin, where it lays its eggs, and if not extracted will in time increase to such an extent as to endanger the loss of the limb. The natives remove it with any sharp-pointed instrument. They are liable to be bitten by venomous snakes, which are numerous in the country and frequently cause death. Whenever one is bitten by such a reptile, the sufferer immediately ties above the wounded part a ligature made from plants well known to the natives, and which they usually carry with them; this enables him to reach a village, where he procures assistance, and by means of herbal applications is often cured. Some of them are subject to a skin disease somewhat similar in its appearance to ringworm; it spreads over the whole body until eventually the skin peels off. Those who are thus afflicted are called _carates_. These people are generally very hardy and strong, with great powers of endurance. The piaces, as medicine-men, consult their oracles for the benefit of all those who require their services. The sucking cure obtains in these parts as well as northward. When summoned to attend a patient, if the pain or disease is slight, the medicine-man takes some herbs in his mouth, and applying his lips to the part affected, pretends to suck out the disorder; suddenly he rushes outside with cheeks extended, and feigns to spit out something, cursing and imprecating at the same time; he then assures his patient that he has effected a cure by extracting the cause of the pain. When the sickness is of a more serious nature, more elaborate enchantments are enacted, ending in the practitioner sucking it out from the sick person's body, not, however, without undergoing infinite trouble, labor, and contortions, till at last the piace thrusts a small stick down his own throat, which causes him to vomit, and so he casts up that which he pretends to have drawn out from the sufferer. Should his conjurations and tricks not prove effectual, the physician brings to his aid certain herbs and decoctions, with which he is well acquainted; their knowledge of medicine is, however, more extensive in the treatment of external than of internal diseases. The compensation given to the piace is in proportion to the gravity of the case, and the ability of the individual to reward him. In cases of fever, bleeding is resorted to; their mode of practicing phlebotomy is peculiar and attended with much unnecessary suffering. The operator shoots a small arrow from a bow into various parts of the patient's body until a vein be accidentally opened; the arrow is gauged a short distance from the point to prevent its penetrating too far.[1037] Oviedo tells us that in the province of Cueba the practice of sucking was carried on to a fearful extent, and with dire consequences. The persons, men and women, who indulged in the habit were called by the Spaniards _chupadores_. They belonged to a class of sorcerers, and the historian says they went about at night visiting certain of the inhabitants, whom they sucked for hours, continuing the practice from day to day, until finally the unfortunate recipients of their attentions became so thin and emaciated that they often died from exhaustion.[1038]

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN GRAVES AND MOURNING.]

[Sidenote: FUNERAL RITES ON THE ISTHMUS.]

Among certain nations of Costa Rica when a death occurs the body is deposited in a small hut constructed of plaited palm-leaves; food, drink, as well as the weapons and implements that served the defunct during life are placed in the same hut. Here the body is preserved for three years, and upon each anniversary of the death it is redressed and attended to amidst certain ceremonies. At the end of the third year it is taken out and interred. Among other tribes in the same district, the corpse after death is covered with leaves and surrounded with a large pile of wood which is set on fire, the friends dancing and singing round the flames until all is consumed, when the ashes are collected and buried in the ground. In Veragua the Dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the principal men constructed with flat stones laid together with much care, and in which were placed costly jars and urns filled with food and wines for the dead; those for plebeians were merely trenches, in which were deposited with the occupant some gourds of maize and wine and the place filled with stones. In some parts of Panamá and Darien only the chiefs and lords received funeral rites. Among the common people a person feeling his end approaching either went himself or was led to the woods by his wife, family, and friends, who, supplying him with some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water, there left him to die alone, or to be assisted by wild beasts. Others with more respect for their dead, buried them in sepulchres made with niches where they placed maize and wine and renewed the same annually. With some, a mother dying while suckling her infant, the living child was placed at her breast and buried with her in order that in her future state she might continue to nourish it with her milk. In some provinces when the cacique became sick, the priests consulted their oracles as to his condition and if they received for answer that the illness was mortal, one half of his jewelry and gold was cast into the river as a sacrifice to the god they reverenced, in the belief that he would guide him to his final rest; the other half was buried in the grave. The relatives of the deceased shaved the head as a sign of mourning and all his weapons and other property were consumed by fire in order that nothing should remain as a remembrance of him. In Panamá, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique died, those of his concubines that loved him enough, those that he loved ardently and so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed themselves and were interred with him. This they did in order that they might wait upon him in the land of spirits. They held the belief that those who did not accompany him then, would, when they died a natural death, lose the privilege of being with him afterwards, and in fact that their souls would die with them. The privilege of attending on the cacique in his future state was believed to be only granted to those who were in his service during his lifetime, hence such service was eagerly sought after by natives of both sexes, who made every exertion to be admitted as servants in his house. At the time of the interment, those who planted corn for him during his lifetime had some maize and an implement of husbandry buried with them in order that they might commence planting immediately on arrival in the other world. In Comagre and other provinces the bodies of the caciques were embalmed by placing them on a cane hurdle, hanging them up by cords, or placing them on a stone, or log; and round or below the body they made a slow fire of herbs at such a distance as to dry it gradually until only skin and bone remained. During the process of embalming, twelve of the principal men sat round the body, dressed in black mantles which covered their heads, letting them hang down to their feet; at intervals one of them beat a drum and when he ceased he chanted in monotonous tones, the others responding. Day and night the twelve kept watch and never left the body. When sufficiently dried it was dressed and adorned with many ornaments of gold, jewels, and feathers, and set up in an apartment of the palace where were kept ranged round the walls the remains of his ancestors, each one in his place and in regular succession. In case a cacique fell in battle and his body could not be recovered, or was otherwise lost, the place he would have occupied in the row was always left vacant. Among other tribes the body after being dried by fire was wrapped in several folds of cloth, put in a hammock, and placed upon a platform in the air or in a room. The manner in which the wives, attendants, and servants put themselves to death was, with some, by poison; in such case, the multitude assembled to chant the praises of their dead lord, when those who were to follow drank poison from gourds, and dropped dead instantly. In some cases they first killed their children. With others the funeral obsequies of a principal chief were conducted differently. They prepared a large grave twelve or fifteen feet square and nine or ten feet deep; round the sides they built a stone bench and covered it with painted cloth; in the middle of the grave they placed jars and gourds filled with maize, fruit, and wines, and a quantity of flowers. On the bench was laid the dead chief dressed, ornamented, and jeweled, while around him sat his wives gaily attired with ear-rings and bracelets. All being prepared the assembled multitude raised their voices in songs declaring the bravery and prowess of the deceased; they recounted his liberality and many virtues and highly extolled the affection of his faithful wives who desired to accompany him. The singing and dancing usually lasted two days and during its continuance wine was freely served to the performers and also to the women who were awaiting their fate. At the expiration of such time they became entirely inebriated and in a senseless condition, when the final act was consummated by throwing dead and doomed into the grave, and filling it with logs, branches, and earth. The spot was afterwards held in sacred remembrance and a grove of trees planted round it. At the end of a year funeral honors were celebrated in memory of the dead. A host of friends and relatives of equal rank with the deceased were invited to participate, who upon the day appointed brought quantities of food and wine such as he whose memory they honored delighted in, also weapons with which he used to fight, all of which were placed in a canoe prepared for the purpose; in it was also deposited an effigy of the deceased. The canoe was then carried on men's shoulders round the court of the palace or house, in presence of the deceased, if he was embalmed, and afterwards brought out to the centre of the town where it was burned with all it contained,--the people believing that the fumes and smoke ascended to the soul of the dead and was pleasing and acceptable to him.[1039] If the body had been interred they opened the sepulchre; all the people with hair disheveled uttering loud lamenting cries while the bones were being collected, and these they burned all except the hinder part of the skull, which was taken home by one of the principal women and preserved by her as a sacred relic.

[Sidenote: ISTHMIAN CHARACTER.]

The character of the Costa Ricans has ever been that of a fierce and savage people, prominent in which qualities are the Guatusos and Buricas, who have shown themselves strongly averse to intercourse with civilization. The Talamancas are a little less untameable, which is the best, or perhaps the worst, that can be said. The Terrabas, also a cruel and warlike nation, are nevertheless spoken of by Fray Juan Domingo Arricivita as endowed with natural docility. The natives of Boca del Toro are barbarous and averse to change. In Chiriquí they are brave and intelligent, their exceeding courage having obtained for them the name of _Valientes_ or _Indios Bravos_ from the early discoverers; they are also noted for honesty and fair dealing. The same warlike and independent spirit and fearlessness of death prevails among the nations of Veragua, Panamá, and Darien. The inhabitants of Panamá and Cueba are given to lechery, theft, and lying; with some these qualities are fashionable; others hold them to be crimes. The Mandingos and natives of San Blas are an independent and industrious people, possessing considerable intelligence, and are of a docile and hospitable disposition. The inhabitants of Darien are kind, open-hearted, and peaceable, yet have always been resolute in opposing all interference from foreigners; they are fond of amusements and inclined to indolence; the latter trait is not, however, applicable to all, a noticeable exception being the Cunas and Chocos of the Atrato Valley, who are of a gentle nature, kind, hospitable, and open-hearted when once their confidence is gained; they are likewise industrious and patient, and M. Lucien de Puydt says of the former: "Theft is altogether unknown amongst the Cunas." Colonel Alcedo, speaking of their neighbors, the Idibaes, calls them treacherous, inconstant, and false. In the interior and mountain districts the inhabitants are more fierce than those from the coast; the former are shy and retiring, yet given to hospitality. On the gulf of Urabá the people are warlike, vainglorious, and revengeful.[1040]

Thus from the icy regions of the north to the hot and humid shores of Darien I have followed these Wild Tribes of the Pacific States, with no other object in view than faithfully to picture them according to the information I have been able to glean. And thus I leave them, yet not without regret: for notwithstanding all that has been said I cannot but feel how little we know of them. Of their mighty unrecorded past, their interminable intermixtures, their ages of wars and convulsions, their inner life, their aspirations, hopes, and fears, how little do we know of all this! And now as the eye rests upon the fair domain from which they have been so ignobly hurried, questions like these arise: How long have these backings and battlings been going on? What purpose did these peoples serve? Whence did they come and whither have they gone?--questions unanswerable until Omniscience be fathomed and the beginning and end made one.

TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.

The WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, the last groupal division of this work, extend from the western boundary of Guatemala, south and eastward, to the Rio Atrato. I have divided the group into three subdivisions, namely: the _Guatemalans_, the _Mosquitos_, and the _Isthmians_.

The GUATEMALANS, for the purposes of this delineation, embrace those nations occupying the present states of Guatemala, Salvador, and portions of Nicaragua.

The _Lacandones_ are a wild nation inhabiting the Chammá mountains on the boundary of Guatemala and Chiapas. 'Mountains of Chammá, inhabited by the wild Indians of Lacandón ... a distinction ought to be drawn between the Western and Eastern Lacandónes. All the country lying on the W., between the bishopric of Ciudad Real and the province of Vera Paz, was once occupied by the Western Lacandónes.... The country of the Eastern Lacandónes may be considered as extending from the mountains of Chammá, a day and a half from Cobán, along the borders of the river de la Pasion to Petén, or even further.' _Escobar_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., pp. 93-4. Upon the margin of the Rio de la Passion. _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 271. 'Un tribu de Mayas sauvages appelés Lacandons, qui habitent un district immense dans le centre du continent, embrasse toute la partie occidentale du Peten; erre sur les bords supérieurs de l'Usumasinta et le pays qui se trouve au sud de l'endroit d'où j'écris.' _Galindo_, in _Antiq. Mex._, tom. i., div. ii., p. 67. 'The vast region lying between Chiapa, Tabasco, Yucatan, and the republic of Guatemala ... is still occupied by a considerable body of Indians, the Lacandones and others.' _Squier_, in _Hist. Mag._, vol. iv., p. 65, 'The vast region embracing not less than from 8000 to 10,000 square miles, surrounding the upper waters of the river Usumasinta, in which exist the indomitable Lacandones.' _Id._, p. 67. 'Mais la contrée qui s'étendait au nord de Cahabon, siége provisoire des Dominicains, et qui comprenait le pays de Dolores et celui des Itzas, était encore à peu près inconnue. Là vivaient les Choles, les belliqueux et féroces Mopans, les Lacandons et quelques tribus plus obscures, dont l'histoire a négligé les noms.' _Morelet_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., p. 78, tom. i., p. 318. 'They are reduced to-day to a very insignificant number, living on and near Passion river and its tributaries.' _Berendt_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 425. 'In the north of Vera Paz, to the west of Peten, and all along the Usumacinta, dwell numerous and warlike tribes, called generally Lacandones.' _Boyle's Ride_, vol. i., pref., p. xvi.; _Fossey_, _Mexique_, p. 471; _Pimentel_, _Mem. sobre la Raza Indígena_, p. 197.

[Sidenote: THE MAMES OF GUATEMALA.]

The _Mames_ 'occupied the existing district of Güegüetenango, a part of Quezaltenango, and the province of Soconusco, and in all these places the Mam or Pocoman language is vernacular. It is a circumstance not a little remarkable, that this idiom is also peculiar to places very distant from the country of the Mams: viz. in Amatitan, Mixco, and Petapa, in the province of Sacatepeques; Chalchuapa, in St. Salvador; Mita, Jalapa, and Xilotepeque, in Chiquimula.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 169. 'El Mame ó Pocoman le usan los mames ó pocomanes, que parecen no ser mas que dos tribus de una misma nacion, la cual formaba un estado poderoso en Guatemala. Se extendió por el distritó de Huehuetenango, en la provincia de este nombre, y por parte de la de Quetzaltenango, así como por el distrito de Soconusco en Chiapas. En todos estos lugares se hablaba mame ó pocoman, lo mismo que en Amatitlan, Mixco y Petapa, de la provincia de Zacatepec ó Guatemala; en Chalchuapa, perteneciente á la de San Salvador; y en Mita, Jalapa y Jiloltepec, de la de Chiquimula.' _Balbi_, in _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., p. 81. 'Leur capitale était Gueguetenango, au nord-est de la ville actuelle de Guatemala, et les villes de Masacatan, Cuilco, Chiantla et Istaguacan étaient enclavées dans leur territoire.' _Squier_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1857, tom. cliii., p. 177. 'A l'ouest, jusqu'aux frontières de Chiapas, s'étendaient les Mams, proprement dits Mam-Yoc, dans leurs histoires, partagés en plusieurs familles également puissantes qui gouvernaient souverainement cette contrée, alors désignée sous le nom commun d'Otzoya (de otzoy, sortes d'écrevisses d'or): c'étaient d'un côté les Chun-Zak-Yoc, qui avaient pour capitale Qulaha, que son opulence et son étendue avaient fait surnommer Nima-Amag ou la Grande-Ville, dite depuis Xelahun-Quieh, ou Xelahuh, et Quezaltenango; les Tzitzol, dont la capitale était peut-être Chinabahul ou Huehuetenango, les Ganchebi (see note below under Ganchebis) et les Bamaq. Ceux-ci, dont nous avons connu les descendants, étaient seigneurs d'Iztlahuacan (San-Miguel-Iztlahuacan), dont le plateau est encore aujourd'hui parsemé de ruines au milieu desquelles s'élève l'humble bourgade de ce nom: au dessus domine, à une hauteur formidable, Xubiltenam (ville du Souffle).... Ganchebi, écrit alternativement Canchebiz, Canchevez et Ganchebirse. Rien n'indique d'une manière précise où régnait cette famille: mais il se pourrait que ce fût à Zipacapan ou à Chivun, dont les ruines existent à trois lieues au sud de cette dernière localité; là était l'ancien Oztoncalco.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_, introd., pp. 264-5. 'Habitaban el Soconusco, desde tiempos remotos, y era un pueblo autócton; los olmecas que llegaron de la parto de México, les redujeron á la servidumbre, y una fraccion de los vencidos emigró hasta Guatemala.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, p. 168. The Mamey, Achi, Cuaahtemalteca, Hutateca, and Chirichota 'en la de los Suchitepeques y Cuaahtemala.' _Palacio_, in _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. vi., p. 7. Mame 'Parlé dans les localités voisines de Huehuetenango.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _MS. Troano_, tom. ii., p. viii. 'On retrouve encore aujourd'hui leurs restes parmi les Indiens de la province de Totonicapan, aux frontières de Chiapas et des Lacandons, an nord-ouest de l'état de Guatémala. La place forte de Zakuléu (c'est-à-dire, Terre blanche, mal à propos orthographié Socoléo), dont on admire les vastes débris auprès de la ville de Huéhuétenango, resta, jusqu'au temps de la conquête espagnole, la capitale des Mems. Cette race avait été antérieurement la maîtresse de la plus grande partie de l'état de Guatémala.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., pp. 119-20.

The _Pokomams_, or Pokonchis, lived in the district of Vera Paz in Guatemala, 'sous le nom d'Uxab et de Pokomam, une partie des treize tribus de Tecpan, dont la capitale était la grande cité de Nimpokom, était maîtresse de la Verapaz et des provinces situées au sud du Motagua jusqu'à Palin' (2 leagues N. W. of Rabinal). _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_, introd., p. 264. Ils 'paraissent avoir occupé une grande partie des provinces guatémaliennes.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., pp. 84, 506. 'Toute la rive droite du Chixoy (Lacandon ou haut Uzumacinta), depuis Coban (écrit quelquefois Coboan) jusqu'au fleuve Motagua, les montagnes et les vallées de Gagcoh (San-Cristoval), de Taltic, de Rabinal et d'Urran, une partie des départements actuels de Zacatépec, de Guatémala et de Chiquimulà, jusqu'au pied des volcans de Hunahpu (volcans d'Eau et de Feu), devinrent leur proie.' _Id._, pp. 121-2. 'Le pocomchi, le pokoman, le cakchi, semés d'Amatitan à Coban.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _MS. Troano_, tom. ii., introd., p. viii. In 'La Verapaz, la poponchi, caechi y colchi.' _Palacio_, in _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. vi., p. 7. 'La lengua pocomana se habla en Amatitán, Petapa, San Chrisobal, Pinula, y Hermita ó Llano de la Culebra de Guatemala.' _Hervás_, _Catálogo_, tom. i., p. 305. 'A la nacion Poconchi pertenecen los lugares ó misiones ... llamadas Santa Cruz, San Christobal, Taktik, Tucurú, y Tomasiú.' _Ib._

The _Quichés_ inhabit the centre of the state of Guatemala. 'Quiché then comprehended the present districts of Quiché, Totonicapan, part of Quezaltenango, and the village of Rabinal; in all these places the Quiché language is spoken. For this reason, it may be inferred with much probability, that the greater part of the province of Sapotitlan, or Suchiltepeques, was a colony of the Quichées, as the same idiom is made use of nearly throughout the whole of it.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 168. 'Les Quichés, or Utletecas, habitaient la frontière du sud, les chefs de Sacapulus et Uspatan à l'est, et les Lacandones indépendants au nord. Ils occupaient probablement la plus grande partie du district actuel de Totonicapan et une portion de celui de Quesaltenango.' _Squier_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1857, tom. cliii., p. 177. 'Leurs postes principaux furent établis sur les deux côtés du Chixoy, depuis Zacapulas jusqu'à Zactzuy.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., pp. 131-2; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, pp. 286, 288, 291.

The _Cakchiquels_ are south of the Quichés. 'The territory of the Kachiqueles was composed of that which now forms the provinces of Chimaltenango and Sacatepeques, and the district of Sololá; and as the Kachiquel language is also spoken in the villages of Patulul, Cotzumalguapan, and others along the same coast, it is a plausible supposition that they were colonies settled by the Kachiquels, for the purpose of cultivating the desirable productions of a warmer climate than their own.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 169. 'La capitale fut, en dernier lieu, Iximché ou Tecpan-Guatemala, lors de la déclaration de l'indépendence de cette nation.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Popol Vuh_, introd., p. 270. 'Der westliche Theil der Provinz [Atitan] mit 16 Dörfern in 4 Kirchspielen, von Nachkommen der Kachiquelen und Zutugilen bewohnt.' _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 338. 'Los paises de la nacion Cakchiquila son Chimaltenango, Zumpango, Tejar, Santo Domingo, San Pedro las Huertas, San Gaspar, San Luis de las Carretas, y otros diez lugares, todos pertenecientes á las misiones de los PP. dominicos; y á las de los PP. observantes de san Francisco pertenecen Isapa, Pason, Tepan-guatemalan Comalapa, San Antonio, San Juan del Obispo, y otros quince lugares á lo menos de la misma nacion Cakchiquila, cuyas poblaciones estan al rededor de Guatemala.' _Hervás_, _Catálogo_, tom. i., p. 305.

The _Zutugils_ dwelt near the lake of Atitlan. 'The dominion of the Zutugiles extended over the modern district of Atitan, and the village of San Antonio, Suchiltepeques.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, p. 169. 'La capital de los cachiqueles era Patinamit ó Tecpanguatemala, ciudad grande y fuerte; y la de los zutuhiles, Atitan, cerca de la laguna de este nombre y que se tenia por inexpugnable.' _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., pp. 121-2.

The _Chortis_ live on the banks of the Motagua River. The Chiquimula 'Indians belong to the Chorti nation.' _Gavarrete_, in _Panamá Star and Herald_, Dec. 19, 1867; _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 48.

[Sidenote: GUATEMALANS.]

Brasseur de Bourbourg describes quite a number of very ancient nations, of some of which he endeavors to fix the localities, and which I insert here. Dan or Tamub founded a monarchy on the Guatemalan plateau. Their 'capitale, Amag-Dan, existait, suivant toute apparence, entre les monts Tohil et Mamah, à trois lieues à peine au nord d'Utlatlan.' _Popol Vuh_, introd., pp. 148, 262. 'Ilocab étendait sa domination à l'ouest et au sud de Tamub, et la cité d'Uquincat, siége principale de cette maison, occupait un plateau étroit, situé entre les mêmes ravins qui ceignent un peu plus bas les ruines d'Utlatlan.' 'La ville d'Uquincat (forme antique). Avec le filet (à mettre le maïs), était sur un plateau au nord-ouest de ceux d'Utlatlan, dont elle n'était séparée que par ses ravins; on en voit encore les ruines connues aujourd'hui sous le nom de P'-Ilocab, en Ilocab.' _Id._, p. 263. Agaab, 'dont les possessions s'étendaient sur les deux rives du Chixoy ou Lacandon.' 'C'était une nation, puissante dont les principales villes existaient à peu de distance de la rive gauche du fleuve Chixoy ou Lacandon (Rio Grande de Sacapulas). L'une d'elles était Carinal, dont j'ai visité le premier, en 1856, les belles ruines, situées sur les bords du Pacalag, rivière qui se jette dans le Lacandon, presque vis-à-vis l'embouchure de celle de Rabinal, dans la Vérapaz.' _Ib._ Cabinal, 'la capitale était à Zameneb, dans les montagnes de Xoyabah ou Xolabah, [Entre les rochers].' _Id._, p. 270. Ah-Actulul, 'sept tribus de la nation Ah-Actulul, qui s'étaient établies sur des territoires dépendants de la souveraineté d'Atitlan.' 'Ces sept tribus sont: Ah-Tzuque, Ah-Oanem, Manacot, Manazaquepet, Vancoh, Yabacoh et Ah-Tzakol-Quet ou Queh.--Ac-Tulul peut-être pour Ah-Tulul.' _Id._, p. 274. 'Ah-Txiquinaha, ceux ou les habitants de Tziquinaha (Nid d'oiseau), dont la capitale fut Atitlan, sur le lac du même nom.' _Id._, p. 296. Acutee, 'nom aussi d'une ancienne tribu dont on retrouve le souvenir dans Chuvi-Acutec, au-dessus d'Acutec, sur le territoire de Chalcitan, près de Malacatan et de Huehuetenango.' _Id._, pp. 342-3. Cohah, 'nom d'une tribu antique dans l'orient des Quichés.' _Id._, p. 353.

The _Chontales_ dwell in the mountain districts N.E. of Lake Nicaragua, besides having miscellaneous villages in Guerrero, Oajaca, Tabasco, Guatemala, and Honduras. 'En el Departamento de Tlacolula ... y se encuentran chontales en Guerrero, en Tabasco y en Guatemala.' _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 186-7. In San Salvador, Choluteca, Honduras, Nicaragua. _Palacio_, in _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. vi., pp. 7, 26, 35. 'Quiéchápa 20 Leguas südöstlich von Oajáca und 10 Leguas südwestlich von Nejápa.... An den Gränzen des Landes der Chontáles.' ... 'Tlapalcatepéc. Hauptort im Lande der Chontáles.' _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. 172-3, 175, 192. 'Les Chontáles s'étaient vus en possession de toute la contrée qui s'étend entre la mer et la chaîne de Quyecolani ... étaient en possession non seulement de Nexapa, mais encore de la portion la plus importante de la montagne de Quiyecolani.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., pp. 3, 47. 'Au nord-ouest du grand lac, les Chondals occupaient le district montagneux appelé encore aujourd'hui Chontales, d'après eux.' _Holinski_, _La Californie_, p. 290. 'Inhabitants of the mountainous regions to the north-east of the lake of Nicaragua.' _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, p. 52. 'Au nord des lacs, les Chontales barbares habitaient la cordillère.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., p. 110. 'The Chontals covered Chontales, northward of Lake Nicaragua, and lying between the tribes already given, and those on the Caribbean Sea.' _Stout's Nicaragua_, p. 114. 'Bewohner der Gebirgsgegenden nordöstlich vom See von Nicaragua.' _Froebel_, _Aus Amer._, tom. i., p. 285. 'In Nicaragua die Chontales im Hochlande im N. des Managua-Sees.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 246. 'Deste lugar [Yztepeque] comiençan los Chontales.' _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x. 'The Chondals or Chontals, the third great division mentioned by Oviedo, occupied the wide, mountainous region, still bearing the name of Chontales, situated to the northward of Lake Nicaragua, and midway between the nations already named and the savage hordes bordering the Caribbean Sea.' _Squier's Nicaragua_, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 311. 'On the northern shores of the Lake of Nicaragua.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 48. 'The Lencas ... under the various names of Chontals, and perhaps Xicaques and Payas, occupying what is now the Department of San Miguel in San Salvador, of Comayagua, Choluteca, Tegucigalpa, and parts of Olancho and Yoro in Honduras, including the islands of Roatan, Guanaja, and their dependencies.' _Squier's Cent. Amer._, p. 252.

The _Pipiles_ 'n'y occupaient guère quelques cantons sur les côtes de l'océan Pacifique, dans la province d'Itzcuintlan et ne s'internaient que vers les frontières de l'état de San-Salvador, le long des rives du rio Paxa.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., p. 120. 'Welche den ganzen westlichen Theil des heutigen Staates von S. Salvador südlich vom Rio Lampa, das sogen. Reich Cozcotlan bewohnten.' _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, pp. 322, 326. 'Are settled along the coasts of the Pacific, from the province of Escuintla to that of St. Salvador.... In a short time these Pipiles multiplied immensely, and spread over the provinces of Zonzonate, St. Salvador, and St. Miguel.' _Juarros' Hist. Guat._, pp. 202, 224. Among 'los Izalcos y costa de Guazacapan ... San Salvador ... Honduras ... Nicaragua.' _Palacio_, in _Pacheco_, _Col. Doc. Inéd._, tom. vi., p. 7.

_Nonohualcas._ 'Á la falda de un alto volcan (San Vicente) están cuatro lugares de indios, que llaman los Nunualcos.' _Id._, p. 25.

_Tlascaltecs._ 'In mehreren Puncten San Salvadors, wie z. B. in Isalco, Mexicanos, Nahuisalco leben noch jetzt Indianer vom Stamme der Tlaskalteken.' _Scherzer_, _Wanderungen_, p. 456.

[Sidenote: NATIONS OF NICARAGUA.]

The _Cholutecs_ 'occupied the districts north of the Nagrandans, extending along the Gulf of Fonseca into what is now Honduras territory.' _Stout's Nicaragua_, p. 114. 'The Cholutecans, speaking the Cholutecan dialect, situated to the northward of the Nagrandans, and extending along the Gulf of Fonseca, into what is now the territory of Honduras. A town and river in the territory here indicated, still bear the name of Choluteca, which however is a Mexican name.' _Squier's Nicaragua_, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 310. These Soconusco exiles settled 'dans les terres qui s'étendent au nord et à l'ouest du golfe de Conchagua, aux frontières de Honduras et de Nicaragua.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. ii., p. 79. 'Beyond them (Nagrandans) on the gulf of Fonseca, a nation called the Cholutecans had their seats.' _Froebel's Cent. Amer._, p. 53.

_Maribios_, a tribe formerly inhabiting the mountain region about Leon. 'Ihre Wohnsitze bildeten die Provinz Maribichoa.' _Froebel_, _Aus Amer._, tom. i., p. 333.