Chapter I: II III IV (6)

II.—Fat from freshly slaughtered cattle after thorough washing is placed in clean water and surrounded with ice, where it is allowed to remain until all animal heat has been removed. It is then cut into small pieces by machinery and cooked at a temperature of about 150° F. (65.6° C.) until the fat in liquid form has separated from the tissue, then settled until it is perfectly clear. Then it is drawn into the graining vats and allowed to stand for a day, when it is ready for the presses. The pressing extracts the stearine, leaving a product commercially known as oleo oil which, when churned with cream or milk, or both, and with usually a proportion of creamery butter, the whole being properly salted, gives the new food product, oleomargarine.

III.—In making butterine use neutral lard, which is made from selected leaf lard in a very similar manner to oleo oil, excepting that no stearine is extracted. This neutral lard is cured in salt brine for from 48 to 70 hours at an ice-water temperature. It is then taken and, with the desired proportion of oleo oil and fine butter, is churned with cream and milk, producing an article which when properly salted and packed is ready for the market. In both cases coloring matter is used, which is the same as that used by dairymen to color their butter. At certain seasons of the year—viz., in cold weather, a small quantity of sesame oil or salad oil made from cottonseed oil is used to soften the texture of the product.

IV.—“Ankara” is a substance which in general appearance resembles a good article of butter, being rather firmer at ordinary temperatures than that substance, approaching the consistency of cocoa butter. It is quite odorless, but in taste it resembles that of a fair article of butter and, what is more, its behavior under heat is very similar to that of butter—it browns and forms a sort of spume like that of fat. Ankara consists of a base of cocoa butter, carrying about 10 per cent of milk, colored with yolk of egg. While not derived from milk, on the one hand, nor does it come from a single vegetable or animal fat on the other, {143} ankara may be considered as belonging to the category of the margarines. Ankara is obtained in the market in the form of cakes or tablets of 2 pounds in weight.

V.—Fresh butter, 150 parts, by weight; animal fat, 80 parts, by weight; sunflower oil, 40 parts, by weight; cocoanut oil, 30 parts, by weight.

VI.—Fresh butter, 100 parts, by weight; animal fat, 100 parts, by weight; sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoanut oil, 20 parts, by weight.

VII.—Fresh butter, 50 parts, by weight; animal fat, 150 parts, by weight; sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoanut oil, 20 parts, by weight.

It is seen that these three varieties contain respectively 50, 33, and about 16 per cent of cow’s butter. The appearance of the mixture is nearly perfect.

Formulas V to VII are for a Russian artificial butter called “Perepusk.”

«To Impart the Aroma and Taste of Natural Butter to Margarine.»—In order to give margarine the aroma and flavor of cow butter, add to it a fatty acid product, which is obtained by saponification of butter, decomposition of the soap, and distillation in the vacuum at about 140° F. The addition of the product is made upon emulsification of the fats with milk. The margarine will keep for months.

«Harmless Butter Color.»—Alum, pulverized finely, 30 parts; extract of turmeric, 1 part. With the extract dampen the powder as evenly as possible, then spread out and dry over some hot surface. When dry, again pulverize thoroughly. Protect the product from the light. As much of the powder as will lie on the point of a penknife is added to a churnful of milk, or cream, before churning, and it gives a beautiful golden color, entirely harmless. To make the extract of turmeric add 1 part of powdered turmeric to 5 parts of alcohol, and let macerate together for fully a week.

«To Sweeten Rancid Butter.»—I.—Wash the butter first with fresh milk and afterwards with spring water, carefully working out the residual water.

II.—Add 25 to 30 drops of lime chloride to every 2 pounds of butter, work the mass up thoroughly, then wash in plenty of fresh, cold water, and work out the residual water.

III.—Melt the butter in a water bath, along with some freshly burned animal charcoal, coarsely powdered and carefully sifted to free it from dust. After this has remained in contact for a few minutes, the butter is strained through a clean flannel. If the rancid odor is not completely removed, complete the process.

«An English Margarine.»—A mixture of edible fats of suitable consistency, e. g., oleo oil, 5 parts; neutral lard, 7 parts; and butter, 1 part; is mixed with albuminous “batter,” 4 parts, with the addition of 1 part of salt as a preservative. If the albuminous constituent be composed of the whites and yolks of eggs beaten to a foam the product will have the consistency and color of butter. The molten fats are added to the egg batter and the whole is stirred at a temperature sufficient to produce coagulation of the albumen (150–200° F.). The mass is then cooled gradually with continuous stirring, and the salt is worked in.

«Olive-Oil Paste.»—If an ounce of peeled garlic be rubbed up into a pulp, in a clean Wedgwood mortar, and to this be added from 3 to 4 ounces of good olive oil, with constant rubbing up with the pestle, the oil becomes converted into a pasty mass, like butter. It is possible that the mucilage obtainable from other bulbs of the _Lilium_ tribe would prove equally efficient in conferring semi-solidity on the oil, without imparting any strong smell. The above composition is largely used by the Spanish peasantry, instead of butter, which runs liquid in the Spanish summer. It is known as “aleoli.” The more easily solidified portion of olive oil is stearine, and this may be cheaply prepared from mutton fat. If added, in certain proportions, to olive oil, it would certainly raise its melting point.

«BUTTERMILK, ARTIFICIAL.»

Buttermilk powder, 10 parts; vinegar, 1 part; syrup of buckthorn, 1 part. Dissolve the powder in the water and add the vinegar and syrup. The powder is prepared as follows: Sodium chloride, 50 parts; milk sugar, 100 parts; potassium nitrate, 5 parts; alum, 5 parts. Mix.

BUTTER, ARTIFICIAL: TESTS FOR: See Foods.

BUTTER COLORANT: See Foods.

BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL AGATE: See Agate.

CADMIUM ALLOYS: See Alloys. {144}

«CALCIUM CARBIDE:»

«Preservation and Use of Calcium Carbide.»—Calcium carbide is readily attacked by the air and the moisture contained in the generators and consequently decomposes during the storing, with formation of acetylene gas. Aside from the loss, this decomposition is also attended with dangers. One of the oldest methods of preservation is the saturation of the carbide with petroleum. In using such carbide a layer of petroleum forms on the surface of the water in the generator, which prevents the water from evaporating, thus limiting the subsequent generation of acetylene from the remaining carbide. Instead of petroleum many other substances have been proposed which answer the purpose equally well, e. g., toluol, oils, solid bodies, which previously have to be liquefied, such as stearine, paraffine, rosin, etc.

Of a different nature is a medium offered by Létang of Paris. He employs sugar or saccharine bodies to which he adds, if necessary, a little petroleum, turpentine, vaseline, or varnish of any kind, as well as chalk, limestone, talc, sulphur, or sand. The carbide is coated with this mixture. The saccharine substances dissolve in the generating water, and also have a dissolving action on the slaked lime, which is formed by the decomposition of the carbide which admits of its easy removal.

According to another process carbide is put on the market in such a shape that, without weighing, merely by counting or measuring one is in a position to use equivalent quantities for every charge. Gearing casts molten carbide in the shape of bars, and pours a layer of gelatin, glue, and water soluble varnish over the carbide bars. Others make shells containing a certain quantity of reduced carbide. For this ordinary and varnished pasteboard, wax paper, tinfoil, thin sheet zinc, and similar substances may be used which ward off atmospheric moisture, thus protecting the carbide from premature decomposition. Before use, the cartridge-like shell is pierced or cut open, so that the water can get at the contents. The more or less reduced carbide is filled in the shell, either without any admixture or united into a compact mass by a binding agent, such as colophony, pitch, tar, sand, etc.

«Deodorization of Calcium Carbide.»—Calcium carbide is known to possess a very unpleasant odor because it constantly develops small quantities of impure acetylene in contact with the moisture of the air. Le Roy, of Rouen, proposes for portable—especially bicycle—lamps, in which the evil is more noticeable than in large plants, simply to pour some petroleum over the carbide and to pour off the remainder not absorbed. The petroleum, to which it is well to add some nitro-benzol (mirbane essence), prevents the access of air to the carbide, but permits a very satisfactory generation of gas on admission of water.

CALCIUM SULPHIDE (LUMINOUS): See Paints.

CALFSKIN: See Leather.

CAMERA RENOVATION: See Photography.

«CAMPHOR PREPARATIONS:»

«Fragrant Naphthalene Camphor.»—

Naphthalene white, in scales 3,000 parts Camphor 1,000 parts

Melt on the steam bath and add to the hot mass:

Coumarin 2 parts Mirbane oil 10 parts

Cast in plates or compressed tablets. The preparation is employed as a moth preventive.

«Powdered Camphor in Permanent Form.»—I.—Powder the camphor in the usual manner, with the addition of a little alcohol. When it is nearly reduced to the proper degree of fineness add a few drops of fluid petrolatum and immediately triturate again. In this manner a powder as fine as flour is obtained, which does not cake together. This powdered camphor may be used for all purposes except for solution in alcohol, as it will impart to the latter a faint opalescence, owing to the insolubility of the petrolatum.

II.—Take equal parts of strong ether and alcohol to reduce the camphor to powder. It is claimed for this method that it only takes one-half of the time required when alcohol alone is used, and that the camphor dries more quickly. Before sifting add 1 per cent of white vaseline and 5 per cent of sugar of milk. Triturate fairly dry, spread out in the air, say 15 minutes, then pass through a moderately fine wire sieve, using a stubby shaving brush to assist in working it through. {145}

«Camphor Pomade»—

Oil of bitter almonds 1 drachm Oil of cloves 20 drops Camphor 1 1/2 ounces White wax 4 ounces Lard, prepared 1 pound

Melt the wax and lard together, then add the camphor in saturated solution in spirit; put in the oils when nearly cold.

«Camphor Ice.»—

I.—White wax 16 parts
Benzoated suet 48 parts
Camphor, powdered 8 parts
Essential oil, to perfume.

Melt the wax and suet together. When nearly cold, add the camphor and perfume, mix well, and pour into molds.

II.—Oil of almond 16 parts
White wax 4 parts
Spermaceti 4 parts
Paraffine 8 parts
Camphor, powdered 1 part
Perfume, quantity sufficient.

Dissolve the camphor in the oil by the aid of a gentle heat. Melt the solids together, remove, and let cool, but before the mixture begins to set add the camphorated oil and the perfume, mix, and pour into molds.

III.—Stearine (stearic acid) 8 pounds
Lard 10 pounds
White wax 5 pounds
Spermaceti 5 pounds

Melt on a water bath in an earthen or porcelain dish; strain into a similar vessel; add a solution of 2 ounces powdered borax in 1 pound of glycerine, previously warmed, to the melted substance when at the point of cooling; stir well; add camphor, 2 pounds, powdered by means of alcohol, 3 ounces; stir well and pour into molds.

CAMPHOR SUBSTITUTES IN THE PREPARATION OF CELLULOID: See Celluloid.

CAMPHOR AND RHUBARB AS A REMEDY FOR CHOLERA: See Cholera Remedies.

CAN VARNISH: See Varnishes.

«CANARY-BIRD PASTE.»

The following is a formula much used by German canary-bird raisers:

Sweet almonds, blanched 16 parts Pea meal 32 parts Butter, fresh (unsalted) 3 parts Honey, quantity sufficient to make a stiff paste.

The ingredients are worked into a stiff paste, which is pressed through a colander or large sieve to granulate the mass. Some add to every 5 pounds, 10 or 15 grains of saffron and the yolks of 2 eggs.

CANARY BIRDS AND THEIR DISEASES: See Veterinary Formulas.

«CANDLES:»

«Coloring Ceresine Candles for the Christmas Tree.»—For coloring these candles only dye stuffs soluble in oil can be employed. Blue: 23–24 lavender blue, pale or dark, 100–120 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Violet: 26 fast violet R, 150 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Silver gray: 29 silver gray, 150 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Yellow and orange: 30 wax yellow, medium, 200 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine; 61 old gold, 200 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Pink and red: 27 peach-pink, or 29 chamois, about 100 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Green: 16–17 brilliant green, 33 May green, 41 May green, 200–250 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. The above-named colors should be ground in oil and the ceresine tinted with them afterwards.

«Manufacture of Composite Paraffine Candles.»—Three parts of hydroxy-stearic acid are dissolved in 1 part of a suitable solvent (e. g., stearic acid), and the solution is mixed with paraffine wax to form a stock for the manufacture of composite candles.

«Transparent Candles.»—The following are two recipes given in a German patent specification. The figures denote parts by weight:

I.—Paraffine wax, 70; stearine, 15; petroleum, 15.

II.—Paraffine wax, 90; stearine, 5; petroleum, 5. Recipe I of course gives candles more transparent than does recipe II. The 15 per cent may be regarded as the extreme limit consistent with proper solidity of the candles.

«To Prevent the Trickling of Burning Candles.»—Dip the candles in the following mixture:

Magnesium sulphate 15 parts Dextrin 15 parts Water 100 parts

The solution dries quickly and does not affect the burning of the candle. {146}

«Candle Coloring.»—Candles are colored either throughout or they sometimes consist of a white body that is covered with a colored layer of paraffine wax. According to the material from which candles are made (stearine, paraffine, or ozokerite), the process of coloring varies.

Stearine, owing to its acid character, dissolves the coal-tar colors much more readily than do the perfectly neutral paraffine and ozokerite waxes. For coloring stearine the necessary quantity of the color is added to the melted mass and well stirred in; if the solution effected happens to be incomplete, a small addition of alcohol will prove an effective remedy. It is also an advantage to dissolve the colors previously in alcohol and add the concentrated solution to the melted stearine. The alcohol soon evaporates, and has no injurious effect on the quality of the stearine.

For a number of years there have been on the market so-called “fat colors,” formed by making concentrated solutions of the color, and also special preparations of the colors in stearine. They are more easily applied, and are, therefore, preferred to the powdered aniline colors, which are apt to cause trouble by being accidentally distributed in soluble particles, where they are not wanted. Since paraffine and ozokerite dissolve comparatively little, they will not become colored, and so must be colored indirectly. One way is to dissolve the color in oleic acid or in stearine acid and add the solution to the wax to be colored. Turpentine may be employed for the same purpose. Concerning the colors suitable for candles, there are the eosine colors previously mentioned, and also chroline yellow, auramine, taniline blue, tartrazine, brilliant green, etc. The latter, however, bleaches so rapidly that it can hardly be recommended. An interesting phenomenon is the change some colors undergo in a warm temperature; for instance, some blues turn red at a moderate degree of heat (120° F.) and return to blue only when completely cooled off; this will be noticed while the candle mixture is being melted previous to molding into candles.

CANDLES (FUMIGATING): See Fumigants.

CANDY COLORS AND FLAVORS: See Confectionery.

CANDY: See Confectionery.

CANVAS WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

CAOUTCHOUC: See Rubber.

CAOUTCHOUC SOLUTION FOR PAINTS: See Paint.

CAPPING MIXTURES FOR BOTTLES: See Bottle-Capping Mixtures.

CAPSULE VARNISH: See Varnishes.

«CARAMEL:»

«Cloudless Caramel Coloring.»—I.—When it is perfectly understood that in the manufacture of caramel, sugar is to be deprived of the one molecule of its water of constitution, it will be apparent that heat must not be carried on to the point of carbonization. Cloudy caramel is due to the fact that part of the sugar has been dissociated and reduced to carbon, which is insoluble in water. Hence the cloudiness. Caramel may be made on a small scale in the following manner: Place 4 or 5 ounces of granulated sugar in a shallow porcelain-lined evaporating dish and apply either a direct heat or that of an oil bath, continuing the heat until caramelization takes place or until tumescence ceases and the mass has assumed a dark-brown color. Then carefully add sufficient water to bring the viscid mass to the consistence of a heavy syrup. Extreme _care_ must be taken and the face and hands protected during the addition of the water, owing to the intensity of the heat of the mass, and consequent sputtering.

II.—The ordinary sugar coloring material is made from sugar or glucose by heating it, while being constantly stirred, up to a temperature of about 405° F. A metal pan capable of holding nearly ten times as much as the sugar used, is necessary so as to retain the mass in its swollen condition. As soon as it froths up so as nearly to fill the pan, an action which occurs suddenly, the fire must instantly be extinguished or removed. The finished product will be insoluble if more than about 15 per cent of its weight is driven off by the heat.

CARAMEL IN FOOD: See Food.

CARAMELS: See Confectionery. {147}

«CARBOLIC ACID.»

«Perfumed Carbolic Acid.»—

I.—Carbolic acid (cryst.) 1 ounce
Alcohol 1 ounce
Oil bergamot 10 minims
Oil eucalyptus 10 minims
Oil citronella 3 minims
Tincture cudbear 10 minims
Water, to make 10 ounces

Set aside for several days, and then filter through fuller’s earth.

II.—Carbolic acid (cryst.) 4 drachms
Cologne water 4 drachms
Dilute acetic acid 9 ounces

Keep in a cool place for a few days, and filter.

«Treatment of Carbolic-Acid Burns.»—Thoroughly wash the hands with alcohol, and the burning and tingling will almost immediately cease. Unless employed immediately, however, the alcohol has no effect. When the time elapsed since the burning is too great for alcohol to be of value, brush the burns with a saturated solution of picric acid in water.

«Decolorization of Carbolic Acid.»—To decolorize the acid the following simple method is recommended. For purifying carbolic acid which has already become quite brown-red on account of having been kept in a tin vessel, the receptacle is exposed for a short time to a temperature of 25° C. (77° F.), thus causing only a part of the contents to melt. In this state the acid is put into glass funnels and left to stand for 10 to 12 days in a room which is likewise kept at the above temperature. Clear white crystals form from the drippings, which remained unchanged, protected from air and light, while by repeating the same process more clear crystals are obtained from the solidified dark colored mother lye. In this manner 75 to 80 per cent of clear product is obtained altogether.

«Disguising Odor of Carbolic Acid.»—Any stronger smelling substance will disguise the odor of carbolic acid, to an extent at least, but it is a difficult odor to disguise on account of its persistence. Camphor and some of the volatile oils, such as peppermint, cajeput, caraway, clove, and wintergreen may be used.

«To Restore Reddened Carbolic Acid.»—Demont’s method consists in melting the acid on the water bath, adding 12 per cent of alcohol of 95 per cent, letting cool down and, after the greater part of the substance has crystallized out, decanting the liquid residue. The crystals obtained in this manner are snowy white, and on being melted yield a nearly colorless liquid. The alcohol may be recovered by redistillation at a low temperature. This is a rather costly procedure.

CARBOLIC SOAP: See Soap.

«CARBOLINEUM:»

See also Paints and Wood.

«Preparation of Carbolineum.»—I.—Melt together 50 parts of American rosin (F) and 150 parts of pale paraffine oil (yellow oil), and add, with stirring, 20 parts of rosin oil (rectified).

II.—Sixty parts, by weight, of black coal tar oil of a specific gravity higher than 1.10; 25 parts, by weight, of creosote oil; 25 parts, by weight, of beechwood tar oil of a higher specific weight than 0.9. Mix together and heat to about 347° F., or until the fumes given off begin to deposit soot. The resulting carbolineum is brown, and of somewhat thick consistency; when cool it is ready for use and is packed in casks. This improved carbolineum is applied to wood or masonry with a brush; the surfaces treated dry quickly, very soon loose the odor of the carbolineum, and are effectively protected from dampness and formation of fungi.

CARBON PRINTING: See Photography.

CARBON PROCESS IN PHOTOGRAPHY: See Photography.

CARBONYLE: See Wood.

CARBUNCLE REMEDIES: See Boil Remedy.

CARDS (PLAYING), TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

CARDBOARD, WATERPROOF GLUE FOR: See Adhesives under Cements and Waterproof Glues.

CARDBOARD, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

CARMINATIVES: See Pain Killers.

CARPET PRESERVATION: See Household Formulas.

CARPET SOAP: See Soap. {148}

CARRIAGE-TOP DRESSING: See Leather.

CARRON OIL: See Cosmetics.

CASE HARDENING: See Steel.

«Casein»

«Dried Casein, its Manufacture and Uses.»—For the production of casein, skimmed milk or buttermilk is used, articles of slight value, as they cannot be employed for feeding hogs or for making cheese, except of a very inferior sort, of little or no alimentive qualities. This milk is heated to from 70° to 90° C. (175°–195° F.), and sulphuric or hydrochloric acid is added until it no longer causes precipitation. The precipitate is washed to free it from residual lactose, redissolved in a sodium carbonate solution, and again precipitated, this time by lactic acid. It is again washed, dried, and pulverized. It takes 8 gallons of skimmed milk to make 1 pound of dry casein.

In the manufacture of fancy papers, or papers that are made to imitate the appearance of various cloths, laces, and silks, casein is very widely used. It is also largely used in waterproofing tissues, for preparation of waterproof products, and various articles prepared from agglomeration of cork (packing boards, etc.). With lime water casein makes a glue that resists heat, steam, etc. It also enters into the manufacture of the various articles made from artificial ivory (billiard balls, combs, toilet boxes, etc.), imitation of celluloid, meerschaum, etc., and is finding new uses every day.

Casein, as known, may act the part of an acid and combine with bases to form caseinates or caseates; among these compounds, caseinates of potash, of soda, and of ammonia are the only ones soluble in water; all the others are insoluble and may be readily prepared by double decomposition. Thus, for example, to obtain caseinate of alumina it is sufficient to add to a solution of casein in caustic soda, a solution of sulphate of alumina; an insoluble precipitate of casein, or caseinate of alumina, is instantly formed.

This precipitate ought to be freed from the sulphate of soda (formed by double decomposition), by means of prolonged washing. Pure, ordinary cellulose may be incorporated with it by this process, producing a new compound, cheaper than pure cellulose, although possessing the same properties, and capable of replacing it in all its applications.

According to the results desired, in transparency, color, hardness, etc., the most suitable caseinate should be selected. Thus, if a translucent compound is to be obtained, the caseinate of alumina yields the best. If a white compound is desired, the caseinate of zinc, or of magnesia, should be chosen; and for colored products the caseinates of iron, copper, and nickel will give varied tints.

The process employed for the new products, with a base of celluloid and caseinate, is as follows: On one hand casein is dissolved in a solution of caustic soda (100 parts of water for 10 to 25 parts of soda), and this liquid is filtered to separate the matters not dissolved and the impurities. On the other hand, a salt of the base of which the caseinate is desired is dissolved, and the solution filtered. It is well not to operate on too concentrated a solution. The two solutions are mixed in a receptacle provided with a mechanical stirrer, in order to obtain the insoluble caseinate precipitate in as finely divided a state as possible. This precipitate should be washed thoroughly, so as to free it from the soda salt formed by double decomposition, but on account of its gummy or pasty state, this washing presents certain difficulties, and should be done carefully. After the washing the mass is freed from the greater part of water contained, by draining, followed by drying, or energetic pressing; then it is washed in alcohol, dried or pressed again, and is ready to be incorporated in the plastic mass of the celluloid.

For the latter immersion and washing it has been found that an addition of 1 to 5 per cent of borax is advantageous, for it renders the mass more plastic, and facilitates the operation of mixing. This may be conducted in a mixing apparatus; but, in practice, it is found preferable to effect it with a rolling mill, operating as follows:

The nitro-cellulose is introduced in the plastic state, and moistened with a solution of camphor in alcohol (40 to 50 parts of camphor in 50 to 70 of alcohol for 100 of nitro-cellulose) as it is practiced in celluloid factories.

This plastic mass of nitro-cellulose is placed in a rolling mill, the cylinders of which are slightly heated at the same time as the caseinate, prepared as above; then the whole mass is worked by the cylinders until the mixture of the two {149} is perfectly homogeneous, and the final mass is sufficiently hard to be drawn out in leaves in the same way as practiced for pure celluloid.

These leaves are placed in hydraulic presses, where they are compressed, first hot, then cold, and the block thus formed is afterwards cut into leaves of the thickness desired. These leaves are dried in an apparatus in the same way as ordinary celluloid. The product resembles celluloid, and has all its properties. At 90° to 100° C. (194° to 212° F.), it becomes quite plastic, and is easily molded. It may be sawed, filed, turned, and carved without difficulty, and takes on a superb polish. It burns less readily than celluloid, and its combustibility diminishes in proportion as the percentage of caseinate increases; finally, the cost price is less than that of celluloid, and by using a large proportion of caseinate, products may be manufactured at an extremely low cost.

«Phosphate of Casein and its Production.»—The process is designed to produce a strongly acid compound of phosphoric acid and casein, practically stable and not hydroscopic, which may be employed as an acid ingredient in bakers’ yeast and for other purposes.

The phosphoric acid may be obtained by any convenient method; for example, by decomposing dicalcic or monocalcic phosphate with sulphuric acid. The commercial phosphoric acid may also be employed.

The casein may be precipitated from the skimmed milk by means of a suitable acid, and should be washed with cold water to remove impurities. A caseinate may also be employed, such as a compound of casein and an alkali or an alkaline earth.

The new compound is produced in the following way: A sufficient quantity of phosphoric acid is incorporated with the casein or a caseinate in such a way as to insure sufficient acidity in the resulting compound. The employment of 23 to 25 parts by weight of phosphoric acid with 75 to 77 parts of casein constitutes a good proportion.

An aqueous solution of phosphoric acid is made, and the casein introduced in the proportion of 25 to 50 per cent of the weight of the phosphoric acid present. The mixture is then heated till the curdled form of the casein disappears, and it assumes a uniform fluid form. Then the mixture is concentrated to a syrupy consistency. The remainder of the casein or of the caseinate is added and mixed with the solution until it is intimately incorporated and the mass becomes uniform. The compound is dried in a current of hot air, or in any other way that will not discolor it, and it is ground to a fine powder. The intimate union of the phosphoric acid and casein during the gradual concentration of the mixture and during the grinding and drying, removes the hydroscopic property of the phosphoric acid, and produces a dry and stable product, which may be regarded as a hyperphosphate of casein. When it is mixed with water, it swells and dissolves slowly. When this compound is mingled with its equivalent of sodium bicarbonate it yields about 17 per cent of gas.

CASEIN CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

CASEIN VARNISH: See Varnishes.

«CASKS:»

«To Render Shrunken Wooden Casks Watertight.»—When a wooden receptacle has dried up it naturally cannot hold the water poured into it for the purpose of swelling it, and the pouring has to be repeated many times before the desired end is reached. A much quicker way is to stuff the receptacle full of straw or bad hay, laying a stone on top and then filling the vessel with water. Although the water runs off again, the moistened straw remains behind and greatly assists the swelling up of the wood.

CASSIUS, PURPLE OF: See Gold.

CASKET TRIMMINGS: See Castings.

CASTS (PLASTER), PRESERVATION OF: See Plaster.

CASTS, REPAIRING OF BROKEN: See Adhesives and Lutes.

CASTS FROM WAX MODELS: See Modeling.

«Casting»

«Castings Out of Various Metals.»—Until recent years metal castings were all made in sand molds; that is, the patterns were used for the impressions in the sand, the same as iron castings are produced to-day. Nearly all of the softer metals are now cast in brass, copper, zinc, or iron molds, and only the silver {150} and German silver articles, like wire real bronze, are cast the old way, in sand. Aluminum can be readily cast in iron molds, especially if the molds have been previously heated to nearly the same temperature as the molten aluminum, and after the molds are full the metal is cooled gradually and the casting taken out as soon as cooled enough to prevent breaking from the shrinkage. Large bicycle frames have been successfully cast in this manner.

The French bronzes, which are imitations, are cast in copper or brass molds. The material used is principally zinc and tin, and an unlimited number of castings can be made in the mold, but if a real bronze piece is to be produced it must be out of copper and the mold made in sand. To make the castings hollow, with sand, a core is required. This fills the inside of the figure so that the molten copper runs around it, and as the core is made out of sand, the same can be afterwards washed out. If the casting is to be hollow and is to be cast in a metal mold, then the process is very simple. The mold is filled with molten metal, and when the operator thinks the desired thickness has cooled next to the walls, he pours out the balance. An experienced man can make hollow castings in this way, and make the walls of any thickness.

Casket hardware trimmings, which are so extensively used on coffins, especially the handles, are nearly all cast out of tin and antimony, and in brass molds. The metal used is brittle, and requires strengthening at the weak portions, and this is mostly done with wood filling or with iron rods, which are secured in the molds before the metal is poured in.

Aluminum castings, which one has procured at the foundries, are usually alloyed with zinc. This has a close affinity with aluminum, and alloys readily; but this mixture is a detriment and causes much trouble afterwards. While this alloy assists the molder to produce his castings easily, on the other hand it will not polish well and will corrode in a short time. Those difficulties may be avoided if pure aluminum is used.

Plaster of Paris molds are the easiest made for pieces where only a few castings are wanted. The only difficulty is that it requires a few days to dry the plaster thoroughly, and that is absolutely necessary to use them successfully. Not only can the softer metals be run into plaster molds, but gold and silver can be run into them. A plaster mold should be well smoked over a gaslight, or until well covered with a layer of soot, and the metal should be poured in as cool a state as it will run.

«To Prevent the Adhesion of Modeling Sand to Castings.»—Use a mixture of finely ground coke and graphite. Although the former material is highly porous, possessing this quality even as a fine powder, and the fine pulverization is a difficult operation, still the invention attains its purpose of producing an absolutely smooth surface. This is accomplished by mixing both substances intimately and adding melted rosin, whereupon the whole mass is exposed to heat, so that the rosin decomposes, its carbon residue filling up the finest pores of the coke. The rosin, in melting, carries the fine graphite particles along into the pores. After cooling the mass is first ground in edge mills, then again in a suitable manner and sifted. Surprising results are obtained with this material. It is advisable to take proportionately little graphite, as the different co-efficients of expansion of the two substances may easily exercise a disturbing action. One-fifth of graphite, in respect to the whole mass, gives the best results, but it is advisable to add plenty of rosin. The liquid mixture must, before burning, possess the consistency of mortar.

«Sand Holes in Cast-Brass Work.»—Cast-brass work, when it presents numerous and deep sand holes, should be well dipped into the dipping acid before being polished, in order thoroughly to clean these objectionable cavities; and the polishing should be pushed to an extent sufficient to obliterate the smaller sand holes, if possible, as this class of work looks very unsightly, when plated and finished, if pitted all over with minute hollows. The larger holes cannot, without considerable labor, be obliterated; indeed, it not infrequently happens that in endeavoring to work out such cavities they become enlarged, as they often extend deep into the body of the metal. An experienced hand knows how far he dare go in polishing work of this awkward character.

«Black Wash for Casting Molds.»—Gumlac, 1 part; wood spirit, 2 parts; lampblack, in sufficient quantity to color.

«How to Make a Plaster Cast of a Coin or Medal.»—The most exact observance of any written or printed directions is no guarantee of success. Practice alone can give expertness in this work. {151} The composition of the mold is of the most varied, but the materials most generally used are plaster of Paris and brick dust, in the proportion of 2 parts of the first to 1 of the second, stirred in water, with the addition of a little sal ammoniac. The best quality of plaster for this purpose is the so-called alabaster, and the brick dust should be as finely powdered as possible. The addition of clay, dried and very finely powdered, is recommended. With very delicate objects the proportion of plaster may be slightly increased. The dry material should be thoroughly mixed before the addition of water.

As the geometrically exact contour of the coin or medal is often the cause of breaking of the edges, the operator sometimes uses wax to make the edges appear half round and it also allows the casting to be more easily removed from the second half of the mold. Each half of the mold should be about the thickness of the finger. The keys, so called, of every plaster casting must not be forgotten. In the first casting some little half-spherical cavities should be scooped out, which will appear in the second half-round knobs, and which, by engaging with the depressions, will ensure exactness in the finished mold.

After the plaster has set, cut a canal for the flow of the molten casting material, then dry the mold thoroughly in an oven strongly heated. The halves are now ready to be bound together with a light wire. When bound heat the mold gradually and slowly and let the mouth of the canal remain underneath while the heating is in progress, in order to prevent the possible entry of dirt or foreign matter. The heating should be continued as long as there is a suspicion of remaining moisture. When finally assured of this fact, take out the mold, open it, and blow it out, to make sure of absolute cleanness. Close and bind again and place on a hearth of fine, hot sand. The mold should still be glowing when the casting is made. The ladle should contain plenty of metal, so as to hold the heat while the casting is being made. The presence of a little zinc in the metal ensures a sharp casting. Finally, to ensure success, it is always better to provide two molds in case of accident. Even the most practiced metal molders take this precaution, especially when casting delicate objects.

«How to Make Castings of Insects.»—The object—a dead beetle, for example—is first arranged in a natural position, and the feet are connected with an oval rim of wax. It is then fixed in the center of a paper or wooden box by means of pieces of fine wire, so that it is perfectly free, and thicker wires are run from the sides of the box to the object, which subsequently serve to form air channels in the mold by their removal. A wooden stick, tapering toward the bottom, is placed upon the back of the insect to produce a runner for casting. The box is then filled up with a paste with 3 parts of plaster of Paris and 1 of brick dust, made up with a solution of alum and sal ammoniac. It is also well first to brush the object with this paste to prevent the formation of air bubbles. After the mold thus formed has set, the object is removed from the interior by first reducing it to ashes. It is, therefore, allowed to dry, very slowly at first, by leaving in the shade at a normal temperature (as in India this is much higher than in our zone, it will be necessary to place the mold in a moderately warm place), and afterwards heating gradually to a red heat. This incinerates the object, and melts the waxen base upon which it is placed. The latter escapes, and is burned as it does so, and the object, reduced to fine ashes, is removed through the wire holes as suggested above. The casting is then made in the ordinary manner.

«Casting of Soft Metal Castings.»—I.—It is often difficult to form flat back or half castings out of the softer metals so that they will run full, owing mostly to the thin edges and frail connections. Instead of using solid metal backs for the molds it is better to use cardboard, or heavy, smooth paper, fastened to a wooden board fitted to the back of the other half of the mold. By this means very thin castings may be produced that would be more difficult with a solid metal back.

II.—To obtain a full casting in brass molds for soft metal two important points should be observed. One is to have the deep recesses vented so the air will escape, and the other is to have the mold properly blued. The bluing is best done by dipping the mold in sulphuric acid, then placing it on a gas stove until the mold is a dark color. Unless this bluing is done it will be impossible to obtain a sharp casting.

«Drosses.»—All the softer grades of metal throw off considerable dross, which is usually skimmed off; especially with tin and its composition. Should much of this gather on the top of the molten {152} metal, the drosses should all be saved, and melted down when there is enough for a kettle full. Dross may be remelted five or six times before all the good metal is out.

«Fuel.»—Where a good soft coal can be had at a low price, as in the middle West, this is perhaps the cheapest and easiest fuel to use; and, besides, it has some advantages over gas, which is so much used in the East. A soft-coal fire can be regulated to keep the metal at an even temperature, and it is especially handy to keep the metal in a molten state during the noon hour. This refers particularly to the gas furnaces that are operated from the power plant in the shop; when this power shuts down during the noon hour the metal becomes chilled, and much time is lost by the remelting after one o’clock, or at the beginning in the morning.

«Molds.»—I.—Brass molds for the casting of soft metal ornaments out of britannia, pewter, spelter, etc., should be made out of brass that contains enough zinc to produce a light-colored brass. While this hard brass is more difficult for the mold maker to cut, the superiority over the dark red copper-colored brass is that it will stand more heat and rougher usage and thereby offset the extra labor of cutting the hard brass. The mold should be heavy enough to retain sufficient heat while the worker is removing a finished casting from the mold so that the next pouring will come full. If the mold is too light it cools more quickly, and consequently the castings are chilled and will not run full. Where the molds are heavy enough they will admit the use of a swab and water after each pouring. This chills the casting so that it can be removed easily with the plyers.

II.—Molds for the use of soft metal castings may be made out of soft metal. This is done with articles that are not numerous, or not often used; and may be looked upon as temporary. The molds are made in part the same as when of brass, and out of tin that contains as much hardening as possible. The hardening consists of antimony and copper. This metal mold must be painted over several times with Spanish red, which tends to prevent the metal from melting. The metal must not be used too hot, otherwise it will melt the mold. By a little careful manipulation many pieces can be cast with these molds.

III.—New iron or brass molds must be blued before they can be used for casting purposes. This is done by placing the mold face downward on a charcoal fire, or by swabbing with sulphuric acid, then placing over a gas flame or charcoal fire until the mold is perfectly oxidized.

IV.—A good substantial mold for small castings of soft metal is made of brass. The expense of making the cast mold is considerable, however, and, on that account, some manufacturers are making their molds by electro-deposition. This produces a much cheaper mold, which can be made very quickly. The electro-deposited mold, however, is very frail in comparison with a brass casting, and consequently must be handled very carefully to keep its shape. The electro-deposited ones are made out of copper, and the backs filled in with a softer metal. The handles are secured with screws.

«Plaster Molds.»—Castings of any metal can be done in a plaster mold, provided the mold has dried, at a moderate heat, for several days. Smoke the mold well with a brand of rosin to insure a full cast. Where there are only one or two ornaments or figures to cast, it may be done in a mold made out of dental plaster. After the mold is made and set enough so that it can be taken apart, it should be placed in a warm place and left to dry for a day or two. When ready to use the inside should be well smoked over a gaslight; the mold should be well warmed and the metal must not be too hot. Very good castings may be obtained this way; the only objection being the length of time needed for a thorough drying of the mold.

«Temperature of Metal.»—Metals for casting purposes should not be overheated. If any of the softer metals show blue colors after cooling it is an indication that the metal is too hot. The metal should be heated enough so that it can be poured, and the finished casting have a bright, clean appearance. The mold may be very warm, then the metal need not be so hot for bright, clean castings. Some of the metals will not stand reheating too often, as this will cause them to run sluggish. Britannia metal should not be skimmed or stirred too much, otherwise there will be too much loss in the dross.

CASTING IN WAX: See Modeling.

CASTINGS, TO SOFTEN IRON: See Iron. {153}

«CASTOR OIL:»

«Purifying Rancid Castor Oil.»—To clean rancid castor oil mix 100 parts of the oil at 95° F. with a mixture of 1 part of alcohol (96 per cent) and 1 part of sulphuric acid. Allow to settle for 24 hours and then carefully decant from the precipitate. Now wash with warm water, boiling for 1/2 hour; allow to settle for 24 hours in well closed vessels, after which time the purified oil may be taken off.

«How to Pour Out Castor Oil.»—Any one who has tried to pour castor oil from a square, 5-gallon can, when it is full, knows how difficult it is to avoid a mess. This, however, may be avoided by having a hole punched in the cap which screws onto the can, and a tube, 2 inches long and 3/4 of an inch in diameter, soldered on. With a wire nail a hole is punched in the top of the can between the screw cap and the edge of the can. This will admit air while pouring. Resting the can on a table, with the screw-cap tube to the rear, the can is carefully tilted forward with one hand and the shop bottle held in the other. In this way the bottle may be filled without spilling any of the oil and that, too, without a funnel. It is preferable to rest the can on a table when pouring from a 1- or 2-gallon square varnish can, when filling shop bottles. With the opening to the rear, the can is likewise tilted forward slowly so as to allow the surface of the liquid to become “at rest.” Even mobile liquids, such as spirits of turpentine, may be poured into shop bottles without a funnel. Of course, the main thing is that the can be lowered slowly, otherwise the first portion may spurt out over the bottle. With 5-gallon round cans it is possible to fill shop bottles in the same manner by resting the can on a box or counter. When a funnel is used for non-greasy liquids, the funnel may be slightly raised with the thumb and little finger from the neck of the bottle, while holding the bottle by the neck between the middle and ring fingers, to allow egress of air.

«Tasteless Castor Oil.»—

I.—Pure castor oil 1 pint
Cologne spirit 3 fluidounces
Oil of wintergreen 40 minims
Oil of sassafras 20 minims
Oil of anise 15 minims
Saccharine 5 grains
Hot water, a sufficient quantity.

Place the castor oil in a gallon bottle. Add a pint of hot water and shake vigorously for about 15 minutes. Then pour the mixture into a vessel with a stopcock at its base, and allow the mixture to stand for 12 hours. Draw off the oil, excepting the last portion, which must be rejected. Dissolve the essential oils and saccharine in the cologne spirit and add to the washed castor oil.

II.—First prepare an aromatic solution of saccharine as follows:

Refined saccharine 25 parts Vanillin 5 parts Absolute alcohol 950 parts Oil of cinnamon 20 parts

Dissolve the saccharine and vanillin in the alcohol, then add the cinnamon oil, agitate well and filter. Of this liquid add 20 parts to 980 parts of castor oil and mix by agitation. Castor oil, like cod-liver oil, may be rendered nearly tasteless, it is claimed, by treating it as follows: Into a matrass of suitable size put 50 parts of freshly roasted coffee, ground as fine as possible, and 25 parts of purified and freshly prepared bone or ivory black. Pour over the mass 1,000 parts of the oil to be deodorized and rendered tasteless, and mix. Cork the container tightly, put on a water bath, and raise the temperature to about 140° F. Keep at this heat from 15 to 20 minutes, then let cool down, slowly, to 90°, at which temperature let stand for 3 hours. Finally filter, and put up in small, well-stoppered bottles.

III.—Vanillin 3 grains
Garantose 4 grains
Ol. menth. pip. 8 minims
Alcoholis 3 drachms
Ol. ricinus 12 ounces
Ol. olivæ (imported), quantity sufficient 1 pint

M. ft. sol.

Mix vanillin, garantose, ol. menth. pip. with alcohol and add castor oil and olive oil.

Dose: One drachm to 2 fluidounces.

IV.—The following keeps well:

Castor oil 24 parts Glycerine 24 parts Tincture of orange peel 8 parts Tincture of senega 2 parts Cinnamon water enough to make 100 parts

Mix and make an emulsion. Dose is 1 tablespoonful.

V.—One part of common cooking molasses to 2 of castor oil is the best {154} disguise for the taste of the oil that can be used.

VI.—Castor oil 1 1/2 ounces
Powdered acacia 2 drachms
Sugar 2 drachms
Peppermint water 4 ounces

Triturate the sugar and acacia, adding the oil gradually; when these have been thoroughly incorporated add the peppermint water in small portions, triturating the mixture until an emulsion is formed.

VII.—This formula for an emulsion is said to yield a fairly satisfactory product:

Castor oil 500 c.c. Mucilage of acacia 125 c.c. Spirit of gaultheria 10 grams Sugar 1 gram Sodium bicarbonate 1 gram

VIII.—Castor oil 1 ounce
Compound tincture of cardamom 4 drachms
Oil of wintergreen 3 drops
Powdered acacia 3 drachms
Sugar 2 drachms
Cinnamon water enough to make 4 ounces.
IX.—Castor oil 12 ounces
Vanillin 3 grains
Saccharine 4 grains
Oil of peppermint 8 minims
Alcohol 3 drachms
Olive oil enough to make 1 pint.

In any case, use only a fresh oil.

«How to Take Castor Oil.»—The disgust for castor oil is due to the odor, not to the taste. If the patient grips the nostrils firmly before pouring out the dose, drinks the oil complacently, and then thoroughly cleanses the mouth, lips, larynx, etc., with water, removing the last vestige of the oil before removing the fingers, he will not get the least taste from the oil, which is bland and tasteless. It all depends upon preventing any oil from entering the nose during the time while there is any oil present.

«Castor-Oil Chocolate Lozenges.»—

Cacao, free from oil 250 parts Castor oil 250 parts Sugar, pulverized 500 parts Vanillin sugar 5 parts

Mix the chocolate and oil and heat in the water, both under constant stirring. Have the sugar well dried and add, stirring constantly, to the molten mass. Continue the heat for 30 minutes, then pour out and divide into lozenges in the usual way.

CAT DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Insecticides and Veterinary Formulas.

«CATATYPY.»

It is a well-known fact that the reactions of the compounds of silver, platinum, and chromium in photographic processes are generally voluntary ones and that the light really acts only as an accelerator, that is to say the chemical properties of the preparations also change in the dark, though a longer time is required. When these preparations are exposed to the light under a negative, the modification of their chemical properties is accelerated in such a way that, through the gradations of the tone-values in the negative, the positive print is formed. Now it has been found that we also have such accelerators in material substances that can be used in the light, the process being termed catalysis. It is remarkable that these substances, called catalyzers, apparently do not take part in the process, but bring about merely by their presence, decomposition or combination of other bodies during or upon contact. Hence, catalysis may be defined, in short, as the act of changing or accelerating the speed of a chemical reaction by means of agents which appear to remain stable.