Chapter I: II III (19)

The safe load above assumed, 200 pounds, seems low enough to guard against any possible failure. In Taylor and Thompson’s work on concrete, a safe load of 450 pounds for concrete 1 to 2 to 4 is recommended; this allows a factor of safety of 5 1/2. On the other hand, the Building Code of the city of Cleveland permits concrete to be loaded only to 150 pounds per square inch, and limits the height of walls of 12-inch blocks to 44 feet. The pressure of such a wall would be only 40 pounds per square inch; adding the weight of two floors at 25 pounds per square foot each, and roof with snow and wind pressure, 40 pounds per square foot, we find that with a span of 25 feet the total weight on the lowest blocks would be only 52 pounds per square inch, or about one-twentieth of their minimum compression strength.

Blocks with openings equal to only one-third the surface, as required in many city regulations, are heavy to handle, especially for walls 12 inches and more in thickness, and, as the above figures show, are enormously stronger than there is any need of. Blocks with openings of 50 per cent would be far more acceptable to the building trade, and if used in walls not over 44 feet high, with floors and roof calculated as above for 25 feet span, would be loaded only to 56 pounds per square inch of actual surface. This would give a factor of safety of 18, assuming a minimum compression strength of 1,000 pounds.

There is no doubt that blocks with one-third opening are inconveniently and unnecessarily heavy. Such a block, 32 inches long, 12 inches wide, and 9 inches high, has walls about 3 1/2 inches thick, and weighs 180 pounds. A block with 50 per cent open space would have walls and partitions 2 inches in thickness, and would weigh about 130 pounds. With proper care in manufacture, especially by using as much water as possible, blocks with this thickness of walls may be made thoroughly strong, sound, and durable. It is certainly better for strength and water-resisting qualities to make thin-walled blocks of rich mixture, rather than heavy blocks of poor and porous material.

Filling the voids with cement is a rather expensive method of securing waterproof qualities, and gives stronger concretes than are needed. The same may be accomplished more cheaply by replacing part of the cement by slaked lime, which is an extremely fine-grained material, and therefore very effective in closing pores. Hydrate lime is the most convenient material to use, but nearly as costly as Portland cement at present prices. A 1 to 4 mixture in which one-third the cement is replaced by hydrate lime will be found equal to a 1 to 3 mixture without the lime. A 1 to 4 concrete made from cement, 1; hydrate lime, 1/2; sand and gravel, 6 (by weight), will be found fairly water-tight, and much superior in this respect to one of the same richness consisting of cement, 1 1/2; sand and gravel, 6.

The cost of lime may be greatly reduced by using ordinary lump lime slaked to a paste. The lime must, however, be very thoroughly hydrated, so that no unslaked fragments may remain to make trouble by subsequent expansion. Lime paste is also very difficult to mix, and can be used successfully only in a concrete mixer of the pug-mill type. Ordinary stiff lime paste contains about 50 per cent water; twice as much of it, by weight, should therefore be used as of dry hydrate lime.

«Waterproof Qualities.»—The chief fault of concrete building blocks, as ordinarily made, is their tendency to absorb water. In this respect they are generally no {697} worse than sandstone or common brick; it is well known that stone or brick walls are too permeable to allow plastering directly on the inside surface, and must be furred and lathed before plastering, to avoid dampness. This practice is generally followed with concrete blocks, but their use and popularity would be greatly increased if they were made sufficiently waterproof to allow plastering directly on the inside surface.

For this purpose it is not necessary that blocks should be perfectly waterproof, but only that the absorption of water shall be _slow_, so that it may penetrate only part way through the wall during a long-continued rain. Walls made entirely water-tight are, in fact, objectionable, owing to their tendency to “sweat” from condensation of moisture on the inside surface. For health and comfort, walls must be slightly porous, so that any moisture formed on the inside may be gradually absorbed and carried away.

Excessive water absorption may be avoided in the following ways:

1. Use of Properly Graded Materials.—It has been shown by Feret and others that porosity and permeability are two different things; porosity is the total proportion of voids or open spaces in the mass, while permeability is the rate at which water, under a given pressure, will pass through it. Permeability depends on the _size_ of the openings as well as on their total amount. In two masses of the same porosity or percentage of voids, one consisting of coarse and the other of fine particles, the permeability will be greater in the case of the coarse material. The least permeability, and also the least porosity, are, however, obtained by use of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine particles. Properly graded gravel or screenings, containing plenty of coarse fragments and also enough fine material to fill up the pores, will be found to give a much less permeable concrete than fine or coarse sand used alone.

2. Use of Rich Mixtures.—All concretes are somewhat permeable by water under sufficient pressure. Mixtures rich in cement are of course much less permeable than poorer mixtures. If the amount of cement used is more than sufficient to fill the voids in the sand and gravel, a very dense concrete is obtained, into which the penetration of water is extremely slow. The permeability also decreases considerably with age, owing to the gradual crystallization of the cement in the pores, so that concrete which is at first quite absorbent may become practically impermeable after exposure to weather for a few weeks or months. There appears to be a very decided increase in permeability when the cement is reduced below the amount necessary to fill the voids. For example, a well-mixed sand and gravel weighing 123 pounds per cubic foot, and therefore containing 25 per cent voids, will give a fairly impermeable concrete in mixtures up to 1 to 4, but with less cement will be found quite absorbent. A gravel with only 20 per cent voids would give about equally good results with a 1 to 5 mixture; such gravel is, however, rarely met with in practice. On the other hand, the best sand, mixed fine and coarse, seldom contains less than 33 per cent voids, and concrete made from such material will prove permeable if poorer than 1 to 3.

3. Use of a Facing.—Penetration of water may be effectively prevented by giving the blocks a facing of richer mixture than the body. For the sake of smooth appearance, facings are generally made of cement and fine sand, and it is often noticed that these do not harden well. It should be remembered that a 1 to 3 sand mixture is no stronger and little if any better in water absorption than a 1 to 5 mixture of well-graded sand and gravel. To secure good hardness and resistance to moisture a facing as rich as 1 to 2 should be used.

4. Use of an Impervious Partition.—When blocks are made on a horizontal-face machine, it is a simple matter, after the face is tamped and cores pushed into place, to throw into each opening a small amount of rich and rather wet mortar, spread this fairly evenly, and then go on tamping in the ordinary mixture until the mold is filled. A dense layer across each of the cross walls is thus obtained, which effectually prevents moisture from passing beyond it. A method of accomplishing the same result with vertical-face machines, by inserting tapered wooden blocks in the middle of the cross walls, withdrawing these blocks after tamping, and filling the spaces with rich mortar, has been patented. In the two-piece system the penetration of moisture through the wall is prevented by leaving an empty space between the web of the block and the inside face, or by filling this space with rich mortar.

5. Use of Waterproof Compounds.—There are compounds on the market, of a fatty or waxy nature, which, when mixed with cement to the amount of {698} only 1 or 2 per cent of its weight, increase its water-resisting qualities in a remarkable degree. By thoroughly mixing 1 to 2 pounds of suitable compound with each sack of cement used, blocks which are practically waterproof may be made, at very small additional cost, from 1 to 4 or 1 to 5 mixtures. In purchasing waterproof compound, however, care should be taken to select such as has been proved to be _permanent_ in its effect, and some of the materials used for this purpose lose their effect after a few days’ exposure to weather, and are entirely worthless.

6. Application to Surface after Erecting.—Various washes, to make concrete and stone impervious to water, have been used with some success. Among these the best known is the Sylvester wash of alum and soap solution. It is stated that this requires frequent renewal, and it is hardly likely to prove of any value in the concrete industry. The writer’s experience has been that the most effective remedy, in case a concrete building proves damp, is to give the outside walls a very thin wash of cement suspended in water. One or two coats will be found sufficient. If too thick a coating is formed it will show hair cracks. The effect of the cement wash is to make the walls appear lighter in color, and if the coating is thin the appearance is in no way injured.

«General Hints on Waterproof Qualities.»—To obtain good water-resisting properties the first precaution is to make the concrete sufficiently wet. Dry-tamped backs, even from rich mixture, will always be porous and absorbent, while the same mixture in plastic condition will give blocks which are dense, strong, and water-tight. The difference in this respect is shown by the following tests of small concrete blocks, made by the writer. The concrete used was made of 1 part cement and 5 parts mixed fine and coarse sand, by weight.

No. 1. With 8 per cent water, rather dryer than ordinary block concrete, tamped in mold.

No. 2. With 10 per cent water, tamped in the mold, and the mold removed at once.

No. 3. With 25 per cent water, poured into a mold resting on a flat surface of dry sand; after 1 hour the surface was troweled smooth; mold not removed until set.

These blocks were allowed to harden a week in moist air, then dried. The weights, voids, and water absorption were as follows:

1 2 3
Damp- Wet- Poured
tamped tamped
Weight, per cubic foot, pounds 122.2 123.9 110.0
Voids, calculated, per cent of volume 25.9 24.9 33.3
Water required to fill voids, per cent
of weight 9.8 9.4 12.5
Water absorbed, after 2 hours, per cent
of weight 8.8 6.4 10.5

The rate at which these blocks absorbed water was then determined by drying them thoroughly, then placing them in a tray containing water 1/4 inch in depth, and weighing them at intervals.

1 2 3 Damp- Wet- Poured tamped tamped 1/2 hour 2.0 0.9 1.8 1 hour 3.2 1.1 2.5 2 hours 4.1 1.6 3.2 4 hours 5.2 2.0 3.8 24 hours 6.1 3.4 7.0 48 hours 6.4 4.3 7.5

These figures show that concrete which is sufficiently wet to be thoroughly plastic absorbs water much more slowly than dryer concrete, and prove the importance of using as much water as possible in the damp-tamping process.

«Cost.»—Concrete blocks can be sold and laid up at a good profit at 25 cents per cubic foot of wall. Common red brick costs (at this writing) generally about $12 per thousand, laid. At 24 to the cubic foot, a thousand brick are equal to 41.7 cubic foot of wall; or, $12, 29 cents per cubic foot. Brick walls with pressed brick facing cost from 40 cents to 50 cents per cubic foot, and dressed stone from $1 to $1.50 per foot.

The factory cost of concrete blocks varies according to the cost of materials. Let us assume cement to be $1.50 per barrel of 380 pounds, and sand and gravel 25 cents per ton. With a 1 to 4 mixture, 1 barrel cement will make 1,900 pounds of solid concrete, or at 130 pounds per cubic foot, 14.6 cubic feet. The cost of materials will then be:

Cement, 380 pounds $1.50
Sand and gravel, 1,500 pounds 0.19
──────
Total $1.69

or 11.5 cents per cubic foot solid concrete. Now, blocks 9 inches high and 32 inches long make 2 square feet of face of wall, each. Blocks of this height {699} and length, 8 inches thick, make 1 1/3 cubic feet of wall; and blocks 12 inches thick make 2 cubic feet of wall. From these figures we may calculate the cost of materials for these blocks, with cores or openings equal to 1/3 or 1/2 the total volume, as follows:

Per cubic foot of block, 1/3 opening 7.7 cts. Per cubic foot of block, 1/2 opening 5.8 cts. Block 8 x 9 x 32 inches, 1/3 opening 10.3 cts. Block 8 x 9 x 32 inches, 1/2 opening 7.7 cts. Block 12 x 9 x 32 inches, 1/3 opening 15.4 cts. Block 12 x 9 x 32 inches, 1/2 opening 11.6 cts.

If one-third of the cement is replaced by hydrate lime the quality of the blocks will be improved, and the cost of material reduced about 10 per cent. The cost of labor required in manufacturing, handling, and delivering blocks will vary with the locality and the size and equipment of factory. With hand mixing, 3 men at an average of $1.75 each will easily make 75 8-inch or 50 12-inch blocks, with 1/3 openings, per day. The labor cost for these sizes of blocks will therefore be 7 cents and 10 1/2 cents respectively. At a factory equipped with power concrete mixer and cars for transporting blocks, in which a number of machines are kept busy, the labor cost will be considerably less. An extensive industry located in a large city is, however, subject to many expenses which are avoided in a small country plant, such as high wages, management, office rent, advertising, etc., so that the total cost of production is likely to be about the same in both cases. A fair estimate of total factory cost is as follows:

Material Labor Total 8 x 32 inch, 1/3 space 10.3 7 17.3 cts. 8 x 32 inch, 1/2 space 7.7 6 13.7 cts. 12 x 32 inch, 1/3 space 15.4 10.5 25.9 cts. 12 x 32 inch, 1/2 space 11.6 9 20.6 cts.

With fair allowance for outside expenses and profit, 8-inch blocks may be sold at 30 cents and 12-inch at 40 cents each. For laying 12-inch blocks in the wall, contractors generally figure about 10 cents each. Adding 5 cents for teaming, the blocks will cost 55 cents each, erected, or 27 1/2 cents per cubic foot of wall. This is less than the cost of common brick, and the above figures show that this price could be shaded somewhat, if necessary, to meet competition.—_S. B. Newberry in a monograph issued by the American Association of Portland Cement Manufacturers._

«Artificial Marbles.»—I.—The mass used by Beaumel consists of alum and heavy spar (barium sulphate) with addition of water and the requisite pigments. The following proportions have been found to be serviceable: Alum, 1,000 parts; heavy spar, 10 to 100 parts; water, 100 parts; the amount of heavy spar being governed by the degree of translucence desired. The alum is dissolved in water with the use of heat. As soon as the solution boils the heavy spar is mixed in, stirred with water and the pigment; this is then boiled down until the mixture has lost about 3 per cent of its weight, at which moment the mass exhibits a density of 34° Bé. at a temperature of 212° F. The mixture is allowed to cool with constant stirring until the substance is semi-liquid. The resultant mass is poured into a mold covered on the inside with several layers of collodion and the cast permitted to cool completely in the mold, whereupon it is taken out and dried entirely in an airy room. Subsequently the object may be polished, patinized, or finished in some other way.

II.—Imitation Black Marble.—A black marble of similar character to that exported from Belgium—the latter product being simply prepared slate—may be produced in the following manner: The slate suitable for the purpose is first smoothly polished with a sandstone, so that no visible impression is made on it with a chisel—this being rough—after which it is polished finely with artificial pumice stone, and lastly finished with extremely light natural pumice stone, the surface then presenting a soft, velvet-like appearance. After drying and thoroughly heating the finely polished surface is impregnated with a heated mixture of oil and fine lampblack. This is allowed to remain 12 hours; and, according to whether the slate used is more or less gray, the process is repeated until the gray appearance is lost. Polishing thoroughly with emery on a linen rag follows, and the finishing polish is done with tin ashes, to which is added some lampblack. A finish being made thus, wax dissolved in turpentine, with some lampblack, is spread on the polished plate and warmed again, which after a while is rubbed off vigorously with a {700} clean linen rag. Treated thus, the slate has the appearance of black marble.

STONE CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

STONE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

STONES FOR SHARPENING: See Tool Setting and Whetstones.

STONES (PRECIOUS), IMITATION OF: See Gems, Artificial.

STONEWARE: See Ceramics.

STONEWARE CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes.

«STOPPERS.»

I.—To make an anti-leak and lubricating mixture for plug-cocks use 2 parts of tried suet and 1 part of beeswax melted together; stir thoroughly, strain, and cool.

II.—A mixture for making glass stoppers tight is made by melting together equal parts of glycerine and paraffine.

To Loosen a Glass Stopper.—I.—Make a mixture of

Alcohol 2 drachms Glycerine 1 drachm Sodium chloride 1 drachm

Let a portion of this stand in the space above the stopper for a few hours, when a slight tap will loosen the stopper.

II.—A circular adjustable clamp, to which is attached a strip of asbestos in which coils of platinum wire are imbedded, is obtained. By placing this on the neck of the bottle, and passing a current of electricity through the coils of wire, sufficient heat will be generated to expand the neck and liberate the stopper. Heat may also be generated by passing a yard of cord once around the bottle neck and, by taking one end of the cord in each hand, drawing it rapidly back and forth. Care should be taken that the contents of the bottle are not spilled on the hand or thrown into the face when the stopper does come out—or when the bottle breaks.

STOPPER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.

«STOVE POLISH:»

See also Polishes.

The following formula gives a liquid stove blacking:

Graphite, in fine powder 1 pound Lampblack 1 ounce Rosin 4 ounces Turpentine 1 gallon

The mixture must be well shaken when used, and must not be applied when there is a fire or light near on account of the inflammability of the vapor.

This form may be esteemed a convenience by some, but the rosin and turpentine will, of course, give rise to some disagreeable odor on first heating the stove, after the liquid is applied.

Graphite is the foundation ingredient in many stove polishes; lampblack, which is sometimes added, as in the foregoing formula, deepens the color, but the latter form of carbon is of course much more readily burned off than the former. Graphite may be applied by merely mixing with water, and then no odor follows the heating of the iron. The coating must be well rubbed with a brush to obtain a good luster.

The solid cakes of stove polish found in the market are made by subjecting the powdered graphite, mixed with spirit of turpentine, to great pressure. They have to be reduced to powder and mixed with water before being applied.

Any of them must be well rubbed with a brush after application to give a handsome finish.

STOVE CEMENT: See Cement.

STOVE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Compounds.

STOVE LACQUER: See Lacquers.

STOVE VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

STRAMONIUM, ANTIDOTE FOR: See Atropine.

STRAP LUBRICANT: See Lubricant.

STRAW FIREPROOFING: See Fireproofing.

STRAWBERRIES, FROZEN: See Ice Creams.

STRAWBERRY JUICE: See Essences and Extracts.

STRAW-HAT CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

STRAW-HAT DYES: See Hats. {701}

STROPPING PASTES: See Razor Pastes.

«STYPTICS.»

Styptics are substances which arrest local bleeding. Creosote, tannic acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent salts belong to this class.

«Brocchieri’s Styptic.»—A nostrum consisting of the water distilled from pine tops.

«Helvetius’s Styptic.»—Iron filings (fine) and cream of tartar mixed to a proper consistence with French brandy.

«Eaton’s Styptic.»—A solution of sulphate disguised by the addition of some unimportant substances. Helvetius’s styptic was for a long time employed under this title.

«Styptic Paste of Gutta Percha.»—Gutta percha, 1 ounce; Stockholm tar, 1 1/2 or 2 ounces; creosote, 1 drachm; shellac, 1 ounce; or quantity sufficient to render it sufficiently hard. To be boiled together with constant stirring, till it forms a homogeneous mass. For alveolar hemorrhage, and as a styptic in toothache. To be softened by molding with the fingers.

SULPHATE STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

SULTANA ROLL: See Ice Creams.

SUNBURN REMEDIES: See Cosmetics.

SUTURES OF CATGUT, THEIR PREPARATION: See Catgut.

SYNDETICON: See Adhesives.

«Syrups»

(See also Essences and Extracts.)

The syrups should either be made from the best granulated sugar, free from ultramarine, or else rock-candy syrup. If the former, pure distilled water should be used in making the syrup, as only in this manner can a syrup be obtained that will be free from impurities and odor. There are two methods by which syrup can be made, namely, by the cold process, or by boiling. The advantage of the former is its convenience; of the latter, that it has better keeping qualities. In the cold process, the sugar is either stirred up in the water until it is dissolved, or water is percolated or filtered through the sugar, thus forming a solution. In the hot process, the sugar is simply dissolved in the water by the aid of heat, stirring until solution is effected. The strength of the syrup for fountain use should be about 6 pounds in the gallon of finished syrup; it is best, however, to make the stock syrup heavier, as it will keep much better, using 15 pounds of granulated sugar, and 1 gallon of water. When wanted for use it can be diluted to the proper density with water. The syrups of the market are of this concentrated variety. Unless the apartments of the dispenser are larger than is usual, it is often best to buy the syrup, the difference in cost being so small that when the time is taken into consideration the profit is entirely lost. Foamed syrups should, however, never be purchased; they are either contaminated with foreign flavor, or are more prone to fermentation than plain syrup.

«Fruit Syrups.»—These may be prepared from fruit juices, and the desired quantity of syrup, then adding soda foam, color, and generally a small amount of fruit-acid solution. They may also be made by reducing the concentrated fruit syrups of the market with syrup, otherwise proceeding as above. As the fruit juices and concentrated syrups always have a tried formula attached, it is needless to use space for this purpose.

When a flavor is weak it may be fortified by adding a small amount of flavoring extract, but under no condition should a syrup flavored entirely with an essence be handed out to the consumer as a fruit syrup, for there is really no great resemblance between the two. Fruit syrups may be dispensed solid by adding the syrup to the soda water and stirring with a spoon. Use nothing but the best ingredients in making syrups.

«Preservation of Syrups.»—The preservation of syrups is purely a pharmaceutical question. They must be made right in order to keep right. Syrups, particularly fruit syrups, must be kept aseptic, especially when made without heat. The containers should be made of glass, porcelain, or pure block tin, so that they may be sterilized, and should be easily and quickly removed, so that the operation may be effected with promptness and facility. As is well known, the operation of sterilization is {702} very simple, consisting in scalding the article with boiling water. No syrup should ever be filled into a container without first sterilizing the container. The fruit acids, in the presence of sugar, serve as a media for the growth and development of germ life upon exposure to the air. Hence the employment of heat as pasteurization and sterilization in the preserving of fruits, etc.

A pure fruit syrup, filled into a glass bottle, porcelain jar, or block-tin can, which has been rendered sterile with boiling water, maintained at a cool temperature, will keep for any reasonable length of time. All danger of fracturing the glass, by pouring water into it, may be obviated by first wetting the interior of the bottle with cold water.

The fruits for syrups must not only be fully ripe, but they must be used immediately after gathering. The fruit must be freed from stems, seeds, etc., filled into lightly tied linen sacks, and thus subjected to pressure, to obtain their juices. Immediately after pressure the juice should be heated quickly to 167° F., and filtered through a felt bag. The filtrate should fall directly upon the sugar necessary to make it a syrup. The heating serves the purpose of coagulating the albuminous bodies present in the juices, and thus to purify the latter.

Syrups thus prepared have not only a most agreeable, fresh taste, but are very stable, remaining in a good condition for years.

«Hints on Preparation of Syrups.»—Keep the extracts in a cool, dark place. Never add flavoring extracts to hot syrup. It will cause them to evaporate, and weaken the flavor. Keep all the mixing utensils scrupulously clean. Never mix fruit syrups, nor let them stand in the same vessels in which sarsaparilla, ginger, and similar extract flavors are mixed and kept. If possible, always use distilled water in making syrup. Never allow a syrup containing acid to come in contact with any metal except pure block tin. Clean the syrup jars each time before refilling. Keep all packages of concentrated syrups and crushed fruits tightly corked. Mix only a small quantity of crushed fruit in the bowl at a time, so as to have it always fresh.

«How to Make Simple Syrups—Hot Process.»—Put 25 pounds granulated sugar in a large pail, or kettle, and pour on and stir hot water enough to make 4 gallons, more or less depending on how thick the syrup is desired. Then strain while hot through fine cheese cloth.

«Cold Process.»—By agitation. Sugar, 25 pounds; water, 2 gallons. Put the sugar in a container, add the water, and agitate with a wooden paddle until the sugar is dissolved. An earthenware jar with a cover and a faucet at the bottom makes a very convenient container.

«Cold Process.»—By percolation. A good, easy way to keep syrup on hand all the time: Have made a galvanized iron percolator, 2 feet long, 8 inches across top, and 4 inches at base, with a 4-inch wire sieve in bottom. Finish the bottom in shape of a funnel. Put a syrup faucet in a barrel, and set on a box, so that the syrup can be drawn into a gallon measure. Bore a hole in the barrel head, and insert the percolator. Fill three-fourths full of sugar, and fill with water. As fast as the syrup runs into the barrel fill the percolator, always putting in plenty of sugar. By this method 20 to 25 gallons heavy syrup can be made in a day.

«Rock-Candy Syrup.»—Sugar, 32 pounds; water, 2 gallons. Put the sugar and water in a suitable container, set on stove, and keep stirring until the mixture boils up once. Strain and allow to cool. When cool there will be on top a crust, or film, of crystallized sugar. Strain again to remove this film, and the product will be what is commonly known as rock-candy syrup. This may be reduced with one-fifth of its bulk of water when wanted for use.

«COLORS FOR SYRUPS:»

«Caramel.»—Place 3 pounds of crushed sugar in a kettle with 1 pint of water, and heat. The sugar will at first dissolve, but as the water evaporates a solid mass will be formed. This must be broken up.

Continue to heat, with constant stirring, until the mass has again become liquefied. Keep on a slow fire until the mass becomes very dark; then remove the kettle from the fire and pour in slowly 3 pints of boiling water. Set the kettle back on the fire and permit contents to boil for a short time, then remove, and cool. Add simple syrup to produce any required consistency.

«Blue.»—

I.—Indigo carmine 1 part
Water 20 parts

Indigo carmine may usually be obtained commercially;

II.—Tincture of indigo also makes a harmless blue. {703}

«Sap Blue.»—

Dark blue 3 parts Grape sugar 1 part Water 6 parts

«Green.»—The addition of indigo-carmine solution to any yellow solution will give various shades of green. Indigo carmine added to a mixture of tincture of crocus and glycerine will give a fine green color. A solution of commercial chlorophyll yields grass-green shades.

«Pink.»—

I.—Carmine 1 part
Liquor potassæ 6 parts
Rose water to make 48 parts

Mix. If the color is too high, dilute with distilled water until the required tint is obtained.

II.—Soak red-apple parings in California brandy. The addition of rose leaves makes a fine flavoring as well as coloring agent.

«Red.»—

Carmine, No. 40 1 part Strong ammonia water 4 parts Distilled water to make 24 parts

Rub up the carmine and ammonia water and to the solution add the water under trituration. If, in standing, this shows a tendency to separate, a drop or two of water of ammonia will correct the trouble. This statement should be put on the label of the bottle as the volatile ammonia soon escapes even in glass-stoppered vials. Various shades of red may be obtained by using fruit juices, such as black cherry, raspberry, etc., and also the tinctures of sudbear, alkanet, red saunders, erythroxylon, etc.

«Orange.»—

Tincture of red sandalwood 1 part Ethereal tincture of Orlean, q. s.

Add the orlean tincture to the sandalwood gradually until the desired tint is obtained. A red color added to a yellow one gives an orange color.

«Purple.»—A mixture of tincture of indigo, or a solution of indigo carmine, added to cochineal red gives a fine purple.

«Yellow.»—Various shades of yellow may be obtained by the maceration of saffron or turmeric in alcohol until a strong tincture is obtained. Dilute with water until the desired tint is reached.

SYRUP, TABLE: See Tables.

«Tables»

«ALCOHOL DILUTION.»

The following table gives the percentage, by weight, of alcohol of 95 per cent and of distilled water to make 1 liter (about 1 quart), or 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds), of alcohol of various dilutions.

TABLE FOR THE DILUTION OF ALCOHOL.

──────────+─────────────────────+───────────+─────────────────────+───────────
│ 1 Liter │ │ 1 Kilogram │
│ contains │ Specific │ contains │ Percentage
Percentage+─────────+───────────+ Gravity +─────────+───────────+ by Weight.
by Volume.│Alcohol │ Distilled │ at 60° F. │ Alcohol │ Distilled │
│ 95%. │ Water. │ │ 95%. │ Water. │
──────────+─────────+───────────+───────────+─────────+───────────+───────────
│ Gms. │ Gms. │ │ Gms. │ Gms. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
5 │ 42.87 │ 950.13 │ 0.993 │ 43.17 │ 956.83 │ 3.99
10 │ 85.89 │ 900.11 │ 0.986 │ 87.11 │ 912.89 │ 8.05
15 │ 128.87 │ 852.13 │ 0.981 │ 131.37 │ 868.63 │ 12.14
20 │ 171.83 │ 804.17 │ 0.976 │ 176.06 │ 823.94 │ 16.27
25 │ 214.77 │ 756.23 │ 0.971 │ 221.18 │ 778.82 │ 20.44
30 │ 257.93 │ 707.07 │ 0.965 │ 267.28 │ 732.72 │ 24.70
35 │ 300.74 │ 658.26 │ 0.959 │ 313.60 │ 686.40 │ 28.98
40 │ 343.77 │ 608.23 │ 0.952 │ 361.10 │ 638.90 │ 33.37
45 │ 386.75 │ 557.25 │ 0.944 │ 409.69 │ 590.31 │ 37.86
50 │ 429.65 │ 504.35 │ 0.934 │ 460.01 │ 539.99 │ 42.51
55 │ 472.64 │ 451.36 │ 0.924 │ 511.52 │ 488.48 │ 47.27
60 │ 515.60 │ 398.40 │ 0.914 │ 564.11 │ 435.89 │ 52.13
65 │ 558.61 │ 343.39 │ 0.902 │ 619.30 │ 380.70 │ 57.23
70 │ 601.55 │ 288.45 │ 0.890 │ 675.90 │ 324.10 │ 62.46
75 │ 644.58 │ 232.42 │ 0.877 │ 734.98 │ 265.02 │ 67.92
80 │ 687.57 │ 176.43 │ 0.864 │ 795.80 │ 204.20 │ 73.54
85 │ 730.51 │ 19.49 │ 0.850 │ 859.43 │ 140.57 │ 79.42
90 │ 773.53 │ 0.47 │ 0.834 │ 927.49 │ 72.51 │ 85.71
──────────+─────────+───────────+───────────+─────────+───────────+───────────

«Capacities of Common Utensils.»—For ordinary measuring purposes a wineglass may be said to hold 2 ounces.

A tablespoon, 1/2 ounce.

A dessertspoon, 1/4 ounce.

A teaspoon, 1/8 ounce, or 1 drachm.

A teacupful of sugar weighs 1/2 pound.

Three tablespoonfuls weigh 1/4 pound.

«Cook’s Table.»—Two teacupfuls (well heaped) of coffee and of sugar weigh 1 pound.

Two teacupfuls (level) of granulated sugar weigh 1 pound.

Two teacupfuls soft butter (well packed) weigh 1 pound.

One and one-third pints of powdered sugar weigh 1 pound.

Two tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar or flour weigh 1 pound.

Four teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoon.

Two and one-half teacupfuls (level) of the best brown sugar weigh 1 pound.

Two and three-fourths teacupfuls (level) of powdered sugar weigh 1 pound.

One tablespoonful (well heaped) of granulated or best brown sugar equals 1 ounce. {704}

One generous pint of liquid, or 1 pint finely chopped meat, packed solidly, weighs 1 pound.

«Table of Drops.»—Used in estimating the amount of a flavoring extract necessary to flavor a gallon of syrup. Based on the assumption of 450 drops being equal to 1 ounce.

One drop of extract to an ounce of syrup is equal to 2 drachms to a gallon.

Two drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 1/2 drachms to a gallon.

Three drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 6 1/2 drachms to a gallon.

Four drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 1 drachm to a gallon.

Five drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 3 1/8 drachms to a gallon.

Six drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 5 1/2 drachms to a gallon.

Seven drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces to the gallon.

Eight drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 2 1/2 drachms to a gallon.

Nine drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 4 1/2 drachms to a gallon.

Ten drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 6 3/4 drachms to a gallon.

Twelve drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 3 ounces and 3 1/4 drachms to a gallon.

Fourteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 ounces to a gallon.

Sixteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 ounces and 4 1/8 drachms to a gallon.

Eighteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 5 ounces and 1 drachm to a gallon.

NOTE.—The estimate 450 drops to the ounce, while accurate and reliable enough in this particular relation, must not be relied upon for very exact purposes, in which, as has frequently been demonstrated, the drop varies within a very wide range, according to the nature of the liquid, its consistency, specific gravity, temperature; the size and shape of the aperture from which it is allowed to escape, etc.

«Fluid Measure.—U. S. Standard, or Wine Measure.»—Sixty minims are equal to 1 fluidrachm.

Eight fluidrachms are equal to 1 fluidounce.

Sixteen fluidounces are equal to 1 pint.

Two pints are equal to 1 quart.

Four quarts are equal to 1 gallon.

One pint of distilled water weighs about 1 pound.

«Percentage Solutions.»—To prepare the following approximately correct solutions, dissolve the amount of medicament indicated in sufficient water to make one imperial pint.

For 1/50 per cent, or 1 in 5,000 solution, use 1 3/4 grains of the medicament.

For 1/20 per cent, or 1 in 2,000 solution, use 4 3/8 grains of the medicament.

For 1/10 per cent, or 1 in 1,000 solution, use 8 3/4 grains of the medicament.

For 1/4 per cent, or 1 in 400 solution, use 21 7/8 grains of the medicament.

For 1/2 per cent, or 1 in 200 solution, use 43 3/4 grains of the medicament.

For 1 per cent, or 1 in 100 solution, use 87 1/2 grains of the medicament.

For 2 per cent, or 1 in 50 solution, use 175 grains of the medicament.

For 4 per cent, or 1 in 25 solution, use 350 grains of the medicament.

For 5 per cent, or 1 in 20 solution, use 437 1/2 grains of the medicament.

For 10 per cent, or 1 in 10 solution, use 875 grains of the medicament.

To make smaller quantities of any solution, use less water and reduce the medicament in proportion to the amount of water employed; thus 1/2 imperial pint of a 1 per cent solution will require 43 3/4 grains of the medicament.

«Pressure Table.»—This table shows the amount of commercial sulphuric acid (H_〈2〉SO_〈4〉) and sodium bicarbonate necessary to produce a given pressure:

120 Pounds Pressure.

Water, Soda Bicar., Acid Sulph.,
gallons Av. ounces Av. ounces
10 86 50
20 123 71
30 161 93
40 198 118
50 236 138

135 Pounds Pressure.

Water, Soda Bicar., Acid Sulph.,
gallons Av. ounces Av. ounces.
10 96 56
20 134 73
30 171 100
40 209 122
50 246 144

If marble dust be used, reckon at the rate of 18 ounces hot water for use.

«Syrup Table.»—The following table shows the amount of syrup obtained from

1. The addition of pounds of sugar to 1 gallon of water; and the {705}

2. Amount of sugar in each gallon of syrup resulting therefrom:

───────────+───────────────────────────────────+───────────
Pounds │ Quantity of syrup actually │ Pounds
of sugar │ obtained. │ of sugar
added to +──────────+─────────+──────────────+ in one
one gallon │ │ │ │ gallon of
of cold │ Gallons. │ Pints. │ Fluidounces. │ syrup.
water. │ │ │ │
───────────+──────────+─────────+──────────────+───────────
1 │ 1 │ — │ 10 │ .93
2 │ 1 │ 1 │ 4 │ 1.73
3 │ 1 │ 1 │ 14 │ 2.43
4 │ 1 │ 2 │ 3 │ 3.05
5 │ 1 │ 3 │ 2 │ 3.6
6 │ 1 │ 3 │ 12 │ 4.09
7 │ 1 │ 4 │ 6 │ 4.52
8 │ 1 │ 5 │ — │ 4.92
9 │ 1 │ 5 │ 10 │ 5.28
10 │ 1 │ 6 │ 4 │ 5.62
11 │ 1 │ 6 │ 14 │ 5.92
12 │ 1 │ 7 │ 8 │ 6.18
13 │ 2 │ — │ 2 │ 6.38
14 │ 2 │ — │ 12 │ 6.7
15 │ 2 │ 1 │ 6 │ 6.91
───────────+──────────+─────────+──────────────+───────────

TABLE-TOPS, ACID-PROOF: See Acid-Proofing.

TABLES FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS: See Photography.

TAFFY: See Confectionery.

TALCUM POWDER: See Cosmetics.

TALLOW: See Fats.

TALMI GOLD: See Alloys.

TAMPRING: See Tampring, under Steel.

TAN REMEDY: See Cosmetics.

«TANK:»

«To Estimate Contents of a Circular Tank.»—The capacity of a circular tank may be determined by multiplying the diameter in inches by itself and by .7854 and by the length (or depth) in inches, which gives the capacity of the tank in inches, and then dividing by 231, the number of cubic inches in a United States gallon.

TANNING: See Leather.

«TAPS, TO REMOVE BROKEN.»

First clean the hole by means of a small squirt gun filled with kerosene. All broken pieces of the tap can be removed with a pair of tweezers, which should be as large as possible. Then insert the tweezers between the hole and flutes of the tap. By slowly working back and forth and occasionally blowing out with kerosene, the broken piece is easily released.

TAR PAINTS: See Wood.

TAR-SPOTS ON WOODWORK: See Paint.

TAR-SULPHUR SOAP: See Soap.

TAR SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.

«TATTOO MARKS, REMOVAL OF.»

Apply a highly concentrated tannin solution on the tattooed places and treat them with the tattooing needle as the tattooer does. Next vigorously rub the places with a lunar caustic stick and allow the silver nitrate to act for some time, until the tattooed portions have turned entirely black. Then take off by dabbing. At first a silver tannate forms on the upper layers of the skin, which dyes the tattooing black; with slight symptoms of inflammation a scurf ensues which comes off after 14 to 16 days, leaving behind a reddish scar. The latter assumes the natural color of the skin after some time. The process is said to have given good results.

TAWING: See Leather.

TEA EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.

«TEETH, TO WHITEN DISCOLORED.»

Moisten the corner of a linen handkerchief with hydrogen peroxide, and with it rub the teeth, repeating the rubbing occasionally. Use some exceedingly finely pulverized infusorial earth, or pumice ground to an impalpable powder, in connection with the hydrogen peroxide, and the job will be quicker than with the peroxide alone.

TEMPERING OF STEEL: See Steel.

«TERRA COTTA SUBSTITUTE.»

A substance, under this name, designed to take the place of terra cotta and plaster of Paris in the manufacture of small ornamental objects, consists of {706}

Albumen 10 parts Magnesium sulphate 4 parts Alum 9 parts Calcium sulphate, calcined 45 parts Borax 2 parts Water 30 parts

The albumen and alum are dissolved in the water and with the solution so obtained the other ingredients are made into a paste. This paste is molded at once in the usual way and when set the articles are exposed in an oven to a heat of 140° F.

TERRA COTTA CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

TEXTILE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and Household Formulas.

«Thermometers»

Table Showing the Comparison of the Readings of Thermometers.

CELSIUS, OR CENTIGRADE (C). RÉAUMUR (R). FAHRENHEIT (F).

──────+─────────+────────
C. │ R. │ F.
──────+─────────+────────
−30 │ −24.0 │ −22.0
−25 │ −20.0 │ −13.0
−20 │ −16.0 │ − 4.0
−15 │ −12.0 │ + 5.0
−10 │ − 8.0 │ 14.0
− 5 │ − 4.0 │ 23.0
− 4 │ − 3.2 │ 24.8
− 3 │ − 2.4 │ 26.6
− 2 │ − 1.6 │ 28.4
− 1 │ − 0.8 │ 30.2
0 │ 0.0 │ 32.0 Freezing point of water.
1 │ 0.8 │ 33.8
2 │ 1.6 │ 35.6
3 │ 2.4 │ 37.4
4 │ 3.2 │ 39.2
5 │ 4.0 │ 41.0
6 │ 4.8 │ 42.8
7 │ 5.6 │ 44.6
8 │ 6.4 │ 46.4
9 │ 7.2 │ 48.2
10 │ 8.0 │ 50.0
11 │ 8.8 │ 51.8
12 │ 9.6 │ 53.6
13 │ 10.4 │ 55.4
14 │ 11.2 │ 57.2
15 │ 12.0 │ 59.0
16 │ 12.8 │ 60.8
17 │ 13.6 │ 62.6
18 │ 14.4 │ 64.4
19 │ 15.2 │ 66.2
20 │ 16.0 │ 68.0
21 │ 16.8 │ 69.8
22 │ 17.6 │ 71.6
23 │ 18.4 │ 73.4
24 │ 19.2 │ 75.2
25 │ 20.0 │ 77.0
26 │ 20.8 │ 78.8
27 │ 21.6 │ 80.6
28 │ 22.4 │ 82.4
29 │ 23.2 │ 84.2
30 │ 24.0 │ 86.0
31 │ 24.8 │ 87.8
32 │ 25.6 │ 89.6
33 │ 26.4 │ 91.4
34 │ 27.2 │ 93.2
35 │ 28.0 │ 95.0
36 │ 28.8 │ 96.8
37 │ 29.6 │ 98.6
38 │ 30.4 │ 100.4
39 │ 31.2 │ 102.2
40 │ 32.0 │ 104.0
41 │ 32.8 │ 105.8
42 │ 33.6 │ 107.6
43 │ 34.4 │ 109.4
44 │ 35.2 │ 111.2
45 │ 36.0 │ 113.0
50 │ 40.0 │ 122.0
55 │ 44.0 │ 131.0
60 │ 48.0 │ 140.0
65 │ 52.0 │ 149.0
70 │ 56.0 │ 158.0
75 │ 60.0 │ 167.0
80 │ 64.0 │ 176.0
85 │ 68.0 │ 185.0
90 │ 72.0 │ 194.0
95 │ 76.0 │ 203.0
100 │ 80.0 │ 212.0 Boiling point of water.
──────+─────────+────────

Readings on one scale can be changed into another by the following formulas, in which _t_° indicates degrees of temperature:

Réau. to Fahr. 9/4_t_° R + 32° = _t_° F

Réau. to Cent. 5/4_t_° R = _t_° C

Cent. to Fahr. 9/5_t_° C + 32° = _t_° F

Cent. to Réau. 4/5_t_° C = _t_° R

Fahr. to Cent. 5/9(_t_° F − 32°) = _t_° C

Fahr. to Réau. 4/9(_t_° F − 32°) = _t_° R

«THREAD:»

See also Cordage.

«Dressing for Sewing Thread.»—For colored thread: Irish moss, 3 pounds; gum arabic, 2 1/2 pounds; Japan wax, 1/2 pound; stearine, 185 grams; borax, 95 grams; boil together for 1/4 hour.

For white thread: Irish moss, 2 pounds; tapioca, 1 1/2 pounds; spermaceti, 3/4 pound; stearine, 110 grams; borax, 95 grams; boil together for 20 minutes.

For black thread: Irish moss, 3 pounds; gum Senegal, 2 1/2 pounds; ceresin, 1 pound; borax, 95 grams; logwood extract, 95 grams; blue vitriol, 30 grams; boil together for 20 minutes. Soak the Irish moss in each case overnight in 45 liters of water, then boil for 1 hour, strain and add the other ingredients to the resulting solution. It is of advantage to add the borax to the Irish moss before the boiling.

THROAT LOZENGES: See Confectionery.

THYMOL: See Antiseptics.

TICKS, CATTLE DIP FOR: See Insecticides.

TIERCES: See Disinfectants.

TILEMAKERS’ NOTES: See Ceramics.

«Tin»

«Etching Bath for Tin.»—The design is either freely drawn upon the metal with a needle or a lead pencil, or pricked into the metal through tracing paper with a needle. The outlines are filled with a varnish (wax, colophony, asphalt). The varnish is rendered fluid with turpentine and applied with a brush. The article after having dried is laid in a 1/2 solution of nitric acid for 1 1/2 to 2 hours. It is then washed and dried with blotting {707} paper. The protective coating of asphalt is removed by heating. The zinc oxide in the deeper portions is cleaned away with a silver soap and brush.

«Recovery of Tin and Iron in Tinned-Plate Clippings.»—The process of utilizing tinned-plate scrap consists essentially in the removal of the tin. This must be very completely carried out if the remaining iron is to be available for casting. The removal of the outer layer of pure tin from the tinned plate is an easy matter. Beneath this, however, is another crystalline layer consisting of an alloy of tin and iron, which is more difficult of treatment. It renders the iron unavailable for casting, as even 0.2 per cent of tin causes brittleness. Its removal is best accomplished by electrolysis. If dilute sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte, the deposit is spongy at first, and afterwards, when the acid has been partly neutralized, crystalline. After 6 hours the clippings are taken out and the iron completely dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid; the residue of tin is then combined with the tin obtained by the electrolysis. Green vitriol is therefore a by-product in this process.

Gutensohn’s process has two objects: To obtain tin and to render the iron fit for use. The tin is obtained by treating the tinned plate repeatedly with hydrochloric acid. The tin is then removed from the solution by means of the electric current. The tinned plate as the positive pole is placed in a tank made of some insulating material impervious to the action of acids, such as slate. A copper plate forms the cathode. The bichloride of tin solution, freed from acid, is put round the carbon cylinder in the Bunsen element. Another innovation in this process is that the tank with the tinned-plate clippings is itself turned into an electric battery with the aid of the tin. A still better source of electricity is, however, obtained during the treatment of the untinned iron which will be described presently. The final elimination of the tin takes place in the clay cup of the Bunsen elements. Besides the chloride of tin solution (free from acid), another tin solution, preferably chromate of tin, nitrate of tin, or sulphate of tin, according to the strength of the current desired, may be used. To render the iron of the tinned plate serviceable the acid is drawn off as long as the iron is covered with a thin layer of an alloy of iron and tin. The latter makes the iron unfit for use in rolling mills or for the precipitation of copper. Fresh hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid is therefore poured over the plate to remove the alloy, after the treatment with the bichloride of tin solution. This acid is also systematically used in different vats to the point of approximate saturation. This solution forms the most suitable source of electricity, a zinc-iron element being formed by means of a clay cell and a zinc cylinder. The electrical force developed serves to accelerate the solution in the next tank, which contains tinned plate, either fresh or treated with hydrochloric acid. Ferrous oxide, or spongy metallic iron if the current is very strong, is liberated in the iron battery. Both substances are easily oxidized, and form red oxide of iron when heated. The remaining solution can be crystallized by evaporation, so that ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) or ferric chloride can be obtained, or it can be treated to form red oxide of iron.

«Tin in Powder Form.»—To obtain tin in powder form the metal is first melted; next pour it into a box whose sides, etc., are coated with powdered chalk. Agitate the box vigorously and without discontinuing, until the metal is entirely cold. Now pass this powder through a sieve and keep in a closed flask. This tin powder is eligible for various uses and makes a handsome effect, especially in bronzing. It can be browned.

«TINFOIL:»

See also Metal Foil.

By pouring tin from a funnel with a very long and narrow mouth upon a linen surface, the latter being tightly stretched, covered with a mixture of chalk and white of egg, and placed in a sloping position, very thin sheets can be produced, and capable of being easily transformed into thin foil. Pure tin should never be used in the preparation of foil intended for packing tobacco, chocolate, etc., but an alloy containing 5 to 40 per cent of lead. Lead has also been recently plated on both sides with tin by the following method: A lead sheet from 0.64 to .80 inches thick is poured on a casting table as long as it is hot, a layer of tin from 0.16 to 0.20 inches in thickness added, the sheet then turned over and coated on the other side with tin in the same manner. The sheet is then stretched between rollers. Very thin sheet tin can also be made in the same way as sheet lead, by cutting up a tin cylinder into spiral sections. Colored tinfoil is prepared by making the foil thoroughly bright by rubbing with purified chalk {708} and cotton, then adding a coat of gelatin, colored as required, and covering the whole finally with a transparent spirit varnish. In place of this somewhat troublesome process, the following much simpler method has lately been introduced: Aniline dyes dissolved in alcohol are applied on the purified foil, and the coat, when dry, covered with a very thin layer of a colorless varnish. This is done by pouring the varnish on the surface and then inclining the latter so that the varnish may reach every part and flow off.

TIN, SILVER-PLATING: See Plating.

TIN VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

TINNING: See Plating.

«TIRE:»

«Anti-Leak Rubber Tire.»—Pneumatic tires can be made quite safe from punctures by using a liberal amount of the following cheap mixture: One pound of sheet glue dissolved in hot water in the usual manner, and 3 pints of molasses. This mixture injected into the tire through the valve stem, semi-hardens into an elastic jelly, being, in fact, about the same as the well-known ink roller composition used for the rollers of printing presses. This treatment will usually be found to effectually stop leaks in punctured or porous tires.

TIRE CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.

TISSIER’S METAL: See Alloys.

TITANIUM STEEL: See Steel.

TODDY, HOT SODA: See Beverages.