Chapter I: II III (11)

To make iron take a bright polish like steel, pulverize and dissolve in 1 quart of hot water, 1 ounce of blue vitriol; 1 ounce of borax; 1 ounce of prussiate of potash; 1 ounce of charcoal; 1/2 pint of salt, all of which is to be added to one gallon of linseed oil and thoroughly mixed. To apply, bring the iron or steel to the proper heat and cool in the solution.

«Stove Polish.»—The following makes an excellent graphite polish:

I.—Ceresine 12 parts
Japan wax 10 parts
Turpentine oil 100 parts
Lampblack, best 12 parts
Graphite, levigated 10 parts

Melt the ceresine and wax together, remove from the fire, and when half {598} cooled off add and stir in the graphite and lampblack, previously mixed with the turpentine.

II.—Ceresine 23 parts
Carnauba wax 5 parts
Turpentine oil 220 parts
Lampblack 300 parts
Graphite, finest levigated 25 parts

Mix as above.

III.—Make a mixture of water glass and lampblack of about the consistency of thin syrup, and another of finely levigated plumbago and mucilage of Soudan gum (or other cheap substitute for gum arabic), of a similar consistency. After getting rid of dust, etc., go over the stove with mixture No. 1 and let it dry on, which it will do in about 24 hours. Now go over the stove with the second mixture, a portion of the surface at a time, and as this dries, with an old blacking brush give it a polish. If carefully done the stove will have a polish resembling closely that of new Russian iron. A variant of this formula is as follows: Mix the graphite with the water glass to a smooth paste; add, for each pound of paste, 1 ounce of glycerine and a few grains of aniline black. Apply to the stove with a stiff brush.

«POLISHES FOR WOOD:»

See also Polishes for Furniture, Floors and Pianos.

In the usual method of French polishing, the pad must be applied along curved lines, and with very slight pressure, if the result is to be uniform. To do this requires much practice and the work is necessarily slow. Another disadvantage is that the oil is apt to sweat out afterwards, necessitating further treatment. According to a German patent all difficulty can be avoided by placing between the rubber and its covering a powder composed of clay or loam, or better, the powder obtained by grinding fragments of terra cotta or of yellow bricks. The powder is moistened with oil for use. The rubber will then give a fine polish, without any special delicacy of manipulation and with mere backward and forward rubbing in straight lines, and the oil will not sweat out subsequently. Another advantage is that no priming is wanted, as the powder fills up the pores. The presence of the powder also makes the polish adhere more firmly to the wood.

«Oak Wood Polish.»—The wood is first carefully smoothed, then painted with the following rather thickly liquid mass, using a brush, viz.: Mix 1 1/2 parts, by weight, of finely washed chalk (whiting), 1/2 part of dryer, and 1 part of boiled linseed oil with benzine and tint (umber with a little lampblack, burnt sienna). After the applied mixture has become dry, rub it down, polish with glass powder, and once more coat with the same mixture. After this filling and after rubbing off with stickwood chips or fine sea grass, one or two coats of shellac are put on (white shellac with wood alcohol for oak, brown shellac for cherry and walnut). This coating is cut down with sandpaper and given a coat of varnish, either polishing varnish, which is polished off with the ball of the hand or a soft brush, or with interior varnish, which is rubbed down with oil and pumice stone. This polish is glass hard, transparent, of finer luster, and resistive.

«Hard Wood Polish.»—In finishing hard wood with a wax polish the wood is first coated with a “filler,” which is omitted in the case of soft wood. The filler is made from some hard substance, very finely ground; sand is used by some manufactures.

The polish is the same as for soft wood. The simplest method of applying wax is by a heated iron, scraping off the surplus, and then rubbing with a cloth. It is evident that this method is especially laborious; and for that reason solution of the wax is desirable. It may be dissolved rather freely in turpentine spirit, and is said to be soluble also in kerosene oil.

The following recipes give varnish-like polishes:

I.—Dissolve 15 parts of shellac and 15 parts of sandarac in 180 parts of spirit of wine. Of this liquid put some on a ball of cloth waste and cover with white linen moistened with raw linseed oil. The wood to be polished is rubbed with this by the well-known circular motion. When the wood has absorbed sufficient polish, a little spirit of wine is added to the polish, and the rubbing is continued. The polished articles are said to sustain no damage by water, nor show spots or cracks.

II.—Orange shellac, 3 parts; sandarac, 1 part; dissolved in 30 parts of alcohol. For mahogany add a little dragon’s blood.

III.—Fifteen parts of oil of turpentine, dyed with anchusine, or undyed, and 4 parts of scraped yellow wax are stirred into a uniform mass by heating on the water bath. {599}

IV.—Melt 1 part of white wax on the water bath, and add 8 parts of petroleum. The mixture is applied hot. The petroleum evaporates and leaves behind a thin layer of wax, which is subsequently rubbed out lightly with a dry cloth rag.

V.—Stearine 100 parts
Yellow wax 25 parts
Caustic potash 60 parts
Yellow laundry soap 10 parts
Water, a sufficient quantity.

Heat together until a homogeneous mixture is formed.

VI.—Yellow wax 25 parts
Yellow laundry soap 6 parts
Glue 12 parts
Soda ash 25 parts
Water, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the soda in 400 parts of water, add the wax, and boil down to 250 parts, then add the soap. Dissolve the glue in 100 parts of hot water, and mix the whole with the saponified wax.

VII.—This is waterproof. Put into a stoppered bottle 1 pint alcohol; 2 ounces gum benzoin; 1/4 ounce gum sandarac, and 1/4 ounce gum anime. Put the bottle in a sand bath or in hot water till the solids are dissolved, then strain the solution, and add 1/4 gill best clear poppy oil. Shake well and the polish is ready for use.

VIII.—A white polish for wood is made as follows:

White lac 1 1/2 pounds Powdered borax 1 ounce Alcohol 3 pints

The lac should be thoroughly dried, especially if it has been kept under water, and, in any case, after being crushed, it should be left in a warm place for a few hours, in order to remove every trace of moisture. The crushed lac and borax are then added to the spirit, and the mixture is stirred frequently until solution is effected, after which the polish should be strained through muslin.

IX.—To restore the gloss of polished wood which has sweated, prepare a mixture of 100 parts of linseed oil, 750 parts of ether, 1,000 parts of rectified oil of turpentine, and 1,000 parts of petroleum benzine, perfumed, if desired, with a strongly odorous essential oil, and colored, if required, with cuicuma, orlean, or alkanna. The objects to be treated are rubbed thoroughly with this mixture, using a woolen rag.

«MISCELLANEOUS POLISHING AGENTS:»

«Polishing Agent which may also be used for Gilding and Silvering.»—The following mediums hitherto known as possessing the aforenamed properties, lose these qualities upon having been kept for some time, as the metal salt is partly reduced. Furthermore, it has not been possible to admix reducing substances such as zinc to these former polishing agents, since moisture causes the metal to precipitate. The present invention obviates these evils. The silver or gold salt is mixed with chalk, for instance, in a dry form. To this mixture, fine dry powders of one or more salts (e. g., ammonia compounds) in whose solutions the metal salt can enter are added; if required, a reducing body, such as zinc, may be added at the same time. The composition is pressed firmly together and forms briquettes, in which condition the mass keeps well. For use, all that is necessary is to scrape off a little of the substance and to prepare it with water.

«Silver Polishing Balls.»—This polishing agent is a powder made into balls by means of a binding medium and enjoys much popularity in Germany. It is prepared by adding 5 parts of levigated chalk to 2 parts of yellow tripoli, mixing the two powders well and making into a stiff paste with very weak gum water—1 part gum arabic to 12 parts of water. This dough is finally shaped by hand into balls of the size of a pigeon’s egg. The balls are put aside to dry on boards in a moderately warm room, and when completely hard are wrapped in tin-foil paper.

«To Prepare Polishing Cloths.»—The stuff must be pure woolen, colored with aniline red, and then put in the following:

Castile soap, white 4 parts Jewelers’ red 2 parts Water 20 parts

Mix. One ounce of this mixture will answer for a cloth 12 inches square, where several of them are saturated at the same time. For the workshop, a bit of chamois skin of the same size (a foot square), is preferable to wool, on account of its durability. After impregnation with the soap solution, it should be dried in the air, being manipulated while drying to preserve its softness and suppleness.

«To Polish Delicate Objects.»—Rub the objects with a sponge charged with a mixture of 28 parts of alcohol, 14 parts of water, and 4 parts of lavender oil. {600}

«Polish for Gilt Frames.»—Mix and beat the whites of 3 eggs with one-third, by weight, of javelle water, and apply to the gilt work.

«Steel Dust as a Polishing Agent.»—Steel dust is well adapted for polishing precious stones and can replace emery with advantage. It is obtained by spraying water on a bar of steel brought to a high temperature. The metal becomes friable and can be readily reduced to powder in a mortar. This powder is distinguished from emery by its mordanting properties and its lower price. Besides, it produces a finer, and consequently, a more durable polish.

«Polishing Bricks.»—Stir into a thick pulp with water 10 parts of finely powdered and washed chalk, 1 part of English red, and 2 parts of powdered gypsum; give it a square shape and dry.

«Polishing Cream.»—

Denaturized alcohol 400 parts Spirit of sal ammoniac 75 parts Water 150 parts Petroleum ether 80 parts Infusorial earth 100 parts Red bole or white bole 50 parts Calcium carbonate 100 parts

Add as much of the powders as desired. Mirbane oil may be used for scenting.

«Polishing Paste.»—

Infusorial earth (Kieselguhr) 8 ounces Paraffine 2 ounces Lubricating oil 6 fluidounces Oleic acid 1 fluidounce Oil mirbane 30 minims

Melt the paraffine with the lubricating oil, and mix with the infusorial earth, then add the oleic acid and oil of mirbane.

«To Polish Paintings on Wood.»—According to the statements of able cabinet makers who frequently had occasion to cover decorations on wood, especially aquarelle painting, with a polish, a good coating of fine white varnish is the first necessity, dammar varnish being employed for this purpose. This coat is primarily necessary as a protective layer so as to preserve the painted work from destructive attacks during the rubbing for the production of a smooth surface and the subsequent polishing. At all events, the purest white polishing varnish must be used for the polish so as to prevent a perceptible subsequent darkening of the white painting colors. Naturally the success here is also dependent upon the skill of the polisher. To polish painting executed on wood it is necessary to choose a white, dense, fine grained wood, which must present a well-smoothed surface before the painting. After the painting the surface is faintly coated with a fine, quickly drying, limpid varnish. When the coating has dried well, it is carefully rubbed down with finely pulverized pumice stone, with tallow or white lard, and now this surface is polished in the usual manner with a good solution prepared from the best white shellac.

«Polishing Mediums.»—For iron and steel, stannic oxide or Vienna lime or iron oxide and sometimes steel powder is employed. In using the burnisher, first oil is taken, then soap water, and next Vienna lime.

For copper, brass, German silver, and tombac, stearine oil and Vienna lime are used. Articles of brass can be polished, after the pickling, in the lathe with employment of a polish consisting of shellac, dissolved in alcohol, 1,000 parts; powdered turmeric, 1,000 parts; tartar, 2,000 parts; ox gall, 50 parts; water, 3,000 parts.

Gold is polished with ferric oxide (red stuff), which, moistened with alcohol, is applied to leather.

For polishing silver, the burnisher or bloodstone is employed, using soap water, thin beer, or a decoction of soap wort. Silver-plated articles are also polished with Vienna lime.

To produce a dull luster on gold and silver ware, glass brushes, i. e., scratch brushes of finely spun glass threads, are made use of.

Pewter articles are polished with Vienna lime or whiting; the former on a linen rag, the latter on leather.

If embossed articles are to be polished, use the burnisher, and for polish, soap water, soap-wort decoction, ox gall with water.

Antimony-lead alloys are polished with burnt magnesia on soft leather or with fine jewelers’ red.

Zinc is brightened with Vienna lime or powdered charcoal.

Vienna lime gives a light-colored polish on brass, while ferric oxide imparts a dark luster.

«Rouge or Paris Red.»—This appears in commerce in many shades, varying from brick red to chocolate brown. The color, however, is in no wise indicative of its purity or good quality, but it can be accepted as a criterion by which to {601} determine the hardness of the powder. The darker the powder, the greater is its degree of hardness; the red or reddish is always very soft, wherefore the former is used for polishing steel and the latter for softer metals.

For the most part, Paris red consists of ferric oxide or ferrous oxide. In its production advantage is taken of a peculiarity common to most salts of iron, that when heated to a red heat they separate the iron oxide from the acid combination. In its manufacture it is usual to take commercial green vitriol, copperas crystals, and subject them to a moderate heat to drive off the water of crystallization. When this is nearly accomplished they will settle down in a white powder, which is now placed in a crucible and raised to a glowing red heat till no more vapor arises, when the residue will be found a soft smooth red powder. As the temperature is raised in the crucible, the darker will become the color of the powder and the harder the abrasive.

Should an especially pure rouge be desired, it may be made so by boiling the powder we have just made in a weak solution of soda and afterwards washing it out repeatedly and thoroughly with clean water. If treated in this way, all the impurities that may chance to stick to the iron oxide will be separated from it.

Should a rouge be needed to put a specially brilliant polish upon any object its manufacture ought to be conducted according to the following formula: Dissolve commercial green vitriol in water; dissolve also a like weight of sorrel salt in water; filter both solutions; mix them well, and warm to 140° F.; a yellow precipitate, which on account of its weight, will settle immediately; decant the fluid, dry out the residue, and afterwards heat it as before in an iron dish in a moderately hot furnace till it glows red.

By this process an exceptionally smooth, deep-red powder is obtained, which, if proper care has been exercised in the various steps, will need no elutriation, but can be used for polishing at once. With powders prepared in this wise our optical glasses and lenses of finest quality are polished.

POLISHES FOR THE LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations.

POMADE, PUTZ: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

POMADES: See Cosmetics.

POMEGRANATE ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.

«PORCELAIN:»

See also Ceramics.

«Mending Porcelain by Riveting» (see Adhesives for methods of mending Porcelain by means of cements).—Porcelain and glass can be readily pierced with steel tools. Best suited are hardened drills of ordinary shape, moistened with oil of turpentine, if the glazed or vitreous body is to be pierced. In the case of majolica and glass without enamel the purpose is best reached if the drilling is done under water. Thus, the vessel should previously be filled with water, and placed in a receptacle containing water, so that the drill is used under water, and, after piercing the clay body, reaches the water again. In the case of objects glazed on the inside, instead of filling them with water, the spot where the drill must come through may be underlaid with cork. The pressure with which the drill is worked is determined by the hardness of the material, but when the tool is about to reach the other side it should gradually decrease and finally cease almost altogether, so as to avoid chipping. In order to enlarge small bore holes already existing, three-cornered or four-square broaches, ground and polished, are best adapted. These are likewise employed under water or, if the material is too hard (glass or enamel), moistened with oil of turpentine. The simultaneous use of oil of turpentine and water is most advisable in all cases, even where the nature of the article to be pierced does not admit the use of oil alone, as in the case of majolica and non-glazed porcelain, which absorb the oil, without the use of water.

«Porcelain Decoration.»—A brilliant yellow color, known as “gold luster,” may be produced on porcelain by the use of paint prepared as follows: Melt over a sand bath 30 parts of rosin, add 10 parts of uranic nitrate, and, while constantly stirring, incorporate with the liquid 35 to 40 parts of oil of lavender. After the mixture has become entirely homogeneous, remove the source of heat, and add 30 to 40 parts more of oil of lavender. Intimately mix the mass thus obtained with a like quantity of bismuth glass prepared by fusing together equal parts of oxide of bismuth and crystallized boric acid. The paint is to be burned in in the usual manner.

PORCELAIN, HOW TO TELL POTTERY AND PORCELAIN: See Ceramics. {602}

PORTLAND CEMENT: See Cement.

PORTLAND CEMENT, SIZE OVER: See Adhesives.

POSTAL CARDS, HOW TO MAKE SENSITIZED: See Photography, under Paper-Sensitizing Processes.

POTASSIUM SILICATE AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Cements.

POTATO STARCH: See Starch.

POTTERY: See Ceramics.

POULTRY APPLICATIONS: See Insecticides.

POULTRY FOODS AND POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary Formulas.

POULTRY WINE: See Wines and Liquors.

POUNCE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Ink Eradicators.

POWDER FOR COLORED FIRES: See Pyrotechnics.

POWDER, FACE: See Cosmetics.

POWDER, ROUP: See Roup Powder.

POWDERS FOR STAMPING: See Stamping.

POWDERS FOR THE TOILET: See Cosmetics.

«Preservatives»

(See also Foods.)

«Preservative Fluid for Museums.»—

Formaldehyde solution 6 parts Glycerine 12 parts Alcohol 3 parts Water 100 parts

The addition of glycerine becomes necessary only if it is desired to keep the pieces in a soft state. Filtering through animal charcoal renders the liquid perfectly colorless. For dense objects, such as lungs and liver, it is best to make incisions so as to facilitate the penetration of the fluid. In the case of very thick pieces, it is best to take 80 to 100 parts of formaldehyde solution for above quantities.

«Preservative for Stone, etc.»—A new composition, or paint, for protecting stone, wood, cement, etc., from the effects of damp or other deleterious influences consists of quicklime, chalk, mineral colors, turpentine, boiled oil, galipot, rosin, and benzine. The lime, chalk, colors, and turpentine are first fixed and then made into a paste with the boiled oil. The paste is finely ground and mixed with the rosins previously dissolved in the benzine.

«Preservative for Stuffed Animals.»—For the exterior preservation use

Arsenic 0.7 parts Alum 15.0 parts Water 100.0 parts

For sprinkling the inside skin as well as filling bones, the following is employed:

Camphor 2 parts Insect powder 2 parts Black pepper 1 part Flowers of sulphur 4 parts Alum 3 parts Calcined soda 3 parts Tobacco powder 3 parts

«Preservatives for Zoological and Anatomical Specimens.»—The preparations are first placed in a solution or mixture of

Sodium fluoride 5 parts Formaldehyde (40 per cent) 2 parts Water 100 parts

After leaving this fixing liquid they are put in the following preservative solution:

Glycerine (28° Bé.) 5 parts Water 10 parts Magnesium chloride 1 part Sodium fluoride 0.2 parts

In this liquid zoological preparations, especially reptiles, retain their natural coloring. Most anatomical preparations likewise remain unchanged therein.

PRESERVATIVES FOR WOOD: See Wood.

«Preserving»

«Canning.»—There should be no trouble in having canned fruit keep well if perfect or “chemical cleanliness” is observed in regard to jars, lids, etc., and if the fruit or vegetables are in good order, not overripe or beginning to ferment where bruised or crushed. Fruit will {603} never come out of jars better than it goes in. It is better to put up a little fruit at a time when it is just ripe than to wait for a large amount to ripen, when the first may be overripe and fermenting and likely to spoil the whole lot. Use only the finest flavored fruit.

Have everything ready before beginning canning. Put water in each jar, fit on rubbers and tops, and invert the jar on the table. If any water oozes out try another top and rubber until sure the jar is air-tight. Wash jars and tops, put them in cold water and bring to a boil. When the fruit is cooked ready take a jar from the boiling water, set it on a damp cloth laid in a soup plate, dip a rubber in boiling water, and fit it on firmly. Fill the jar to overflowing, wipe the brim, screw on the top, and turn it upside down on a table. If any syrup oozes out empty the jar back into the kettle and fit on a tighter rubber. Let it stand upside down till cold, wipe clean, wrap in thick paper, and keep in a cool, dry place.

These general directions are for all fruits and vegetables that are cooked before putting in the jars. Fruit keeps its shape better if cooked in the jars, which should be prepared as above, the fruit carefully looked over and filled into the jars. If a juicy fruit, like blackberries or raspberries, put the sugar in with it in alternate layers. For cherries the amount of sugar depends on the acidity of the fruit and is best made into a syrup with a little water and poured down through them. Peaches and pears after paring, are packed into the jars and a syrup of about a quarter of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit poured over them. Most fruits need to be cooked from 10 to 15 minutes after the water around them begins to boil.

Red raspberries ought not to be boiled. Put them into jars as gently as possible; they are the tenderest of all fruits and will bear the slightest handling. Drop them in loosely, fold a saucer into a clean cloth, and lay over the top, set on a perforated board in a boiler, pour water to two-thirds, cover and set over a slow fire. As the fruit settles add more until full. When it is cooked soft lift the jar out and fill to the top with boiling syrup of equal parts of sugar and water, and seal.

Do not can all the fruit, for jams and jellies are a welcome change and also easier to keep. Raspberries and currants mixed make delicious jam. Use the juice of a third as many currants and 3/4 of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit. The flavor of all kinds of fruit is injured by cooking it long with the sugar, so heat the latter in the oven and add when the fruit is nearly done.

Jelly is best made on a clear day, for small fruits absorb moisture, and if picked after a rain require longer boiling, and every minute of unnecessary boiling gives jelly a less delicate color and flavor. When jelly is syrupy, it has been boiled too long; if it drops from the spoon with a spring, or wrinkles as you push it with the spoon in a saucer while cooling, it is done enough. Try it after 5 minutes’ boil. Cook the fruit only until the skin is broken and pulp softened. Strain without squeezing for jelly, and use the last juice you squeeze out for jam. Measure the juice and boil uncovered, skimming off. For sweet fruits 3/4 of a pound of sugar is enough to a pint of juice. Heat the sugar in the oven, add to the boiling juice; stir till dissolved. When it boils up, draw to the back of the stove. Scald the jelly glasses, fill and let stand in a clean, cool place till next day; then cover. Blackberries make jelly of a delicious flavor and jelly easily when a little underripe. Currants should be barely ripe; the ends of the bunches may be rather green.

A highly prized way of canning cherries: Stone and let them stand overnight. In the morning pour off the juice, add sugar to taste, and some water if there is not much juice, and boil and skim till it is a rich syrup. If the cherries are sweet a pint of juice and 3/4 of a pint of sugar will be right. Heat the jars, put in the uncooked cherries till they are nearly full; then pour over them the boiling syrup and fasten on the covers. Set the jars in a washboiler, fill it with very hot water and let it stand all night. The heat of the syrup and of the water will cook the fruit, but the flavor and color will be that of fresh and uncooked cherries.

«Canning without Sugar.»—I.—In order to preserve the juices of fruit merely by sterilization, put the juice into the bottles in which it is to be kept, filling them very nearly full; place the bottles, unstoppered, in a kettle filled with cold water, so arranging them on a wooden perforated “false bottom,” or other like contrivance, as to prevent their immediate contact with the metal, thus preventing unequal heating and possible fracture. Now heat the water, gradually raising the temperature to the boiling point, and maintain at that until the juice attains a boiling temperature; then close the bottles with perfectly fitting corks, which {604} have been kept immersed in boiling water for a short time before use. The corks should not be fastened in any way, for if the sterilization is not complete, fermentation and consequent explosion of the bottle might occur, unless the cork should be forced out. The addition of sugar is not necessary to secure the success of the operation; in fact a small proportion would have no antiseptic effect. If the juice is to be used for syrup as for use at the soda fountain, the best method is to make a concentrated syrup at once, using about 2 pounds of refined sugar to 1 pint of juice, dissolving by a gentle heat. The syrup may be made by simple agitation without heat and a finer flavor thus results, but its keeping quality would be uncertain.

II.—Fruit juices may be preserved by gentle heating and after protection from the air in sterilized containers. The heat required is much below the boiling point. Professor Müller finds that a temperature of from 140° to 158° F., maintained for 15 minutes, is sufficient to render the fermenting agents present inactive. The bottles must also be heated to destroy any adherent germs. The juices may be placed in them as expressed and the container then placed in a water bath. As soon as the heating is finished the bottles must be securely closed. The heating process will, in consequence of coagulating certain substances, produce turbidity, and if clear liquid is required, filtration is, of course, necessary. In this case it is better to heat the juice in bulk in a kettle, filter through felt, fill the bottles, and then heat again in the containers as in the first instance. It is said that grape juice prepared in this manner has been found unaltered after keeping for many years. Various antiseptics have been proposed as preservatives for fruit juices and other articles of food, but all such agents are objectionable both on account of their direct action on the system and their effect in rendering food less digestible. While small quantities of such drugs occasionally taken may exert no appreciable effect, continuous use is liable to be more or less harmful.

«CRUSHED FRUIT PRESERVING:»

«Crushed Pineapples.»—Secure a good brand of canned grated pineapple and drain off about one-half of the liquor by placing on a strainer. Add to each pound of pineapple 1 pound of granulated sugar. Place on the fire and bring to boiling point, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, add to each gallon of pulp 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution salicylic acid. Put into air-tight jars until wanted for use.

«Crushed Peach.»—Take a good brand of canned yellow peaches, drain off liquor, and rub through a No. 8 sieve. Add sugar, bring to the boiling point, and when ready to remove from fire add to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal hermetically.

«Crushed Apricots.»—Prepared in similar manner to crushed peach, using canned apricots.

«Crushed Orange.»—Secure oranges with a thin peel and containing plenty of juice. Remove the outer or yellow peel first, taking care not to include any of bitter peel. The outer peel may be used in making orange phosphate or tincture sweet orange peel. After removing the outer peel, remove the inner, bitter peel, quarter and remove the seeds. Extract part of the juice and grind the pulp through an ordinary meat grinder. Add sugar, place on the fire, and bring to the boiling point. When ready to remove, add to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid and 1 ounce glycerine. Put into jars and seal.

«Crushed Cherries.»—If obtainable, the large, dark California cherry should be used. Stone the cherries, and grind to a pulp. Add sugar, and place on the fire, stirring constantly. Before removing, add to each gallon 1 ounce of the saturated solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal.

«Dry Sugar Preserving.»—The fruits are embedded in a thick layer of dry, powdered sugar to which they give up the greater part of the water contained in them. At the same time, a quantity of sugar passes through the skins into the interior of the fruits. Afterwards, the fruits are washed once, wiped, and completely dried.

«Fruit Preserving.»—Express the juice and filter at once, through two thicknesses of best white Swedish paper, into a container that has been sterilized immediately before letting the juice run into it, by boiling water. The better plan is to take out of water in active ebullition at the moment you desire to use it. Have ready some long-necked, 8-ounce vials, which should also be kept in boiling water until needed. Pour the juice into these, leaving room in the upper part of the body of the vial to {605} receive a teaspoonful of the best olive oil. Pour the latter in so that it will trickle down the neck and form a layer on top of the juice, and close the neck with a wad of antiseptic cotton thrust into it in such manner that it does not touch the oil, and leaves room for the cork to be put in without touching it. Cork and cap or seal the vial, and put in a cool, dark place, and keep standing upright. If carried out faithfully with due attention to cleanliness, this process will keep the juice in a perfectly natural condition for a very long time. The two essentials are the careful and rapid filtration, and the complete asepticization of the containers. Another process, in use in the French Navy, depends upon the rapid and careful filtering of the juice, and the addition of from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol.

«Raspberry Juice.»—A dark juice is obtained by adding to the crushed raspberries, before the fermentation, slight quantities of sugar in layers. The ethyl-alcohol forming during the fermentation is said to cause a better extraction of the raspberry red. Furthermore, the boiling should not be conducted on a naked fire, but by means of superheated steam, so as to avoid formation of caramel. Finally, the sugar used should be perfectly free from ultramarine and lime, since both impurities detract from the red color of the raspberries.

«Spice for Fruit Compote.»—This is greatly in demand in neighborhoods where many plums and pears are preserved.

Parts Parts Lemon peel 15 or — Cinnamon, ordinary 15 or 50 Star aniseed 10 or 15 Coriander 3 or 100 Carob pods 5 or — Ginger root, peeled 2 or 200 Pimento — or 100 Licorice — or 100 Cloves, without stems — or 30 Spanish peppers — or 2 Oil of lemon — or 4 Oil of cinnamon — or 2 Oil of cloves — or 2

All the solid constituents are powdered moderately fine and thoroughly mixed; the oils dropped in last, and rubbed into the powder.

«Strawberries.»—Carefully remove the stems and calyxes, place the strawberries on a sieve, and move the latter about in a tub of water for a few moments, to remove any dirt clinging to them. Drain and partially dry spontaneously, then remove from the sieve and put into a porcelain-lined kettle provided with a tight cover. To every pound of berries take a half pound of sugar and 2 ounces of water and put the same in a kettle over the fire. Let remain until the sugar has dissolved or become liquid, and then pour the same, while still hot, over the berries, cover the kettle tightly and let it stand overnight. The next morning put the kettle over the fire, removing the cover when the berries begin to boil, and let boil gently for 6 to 8 minutes (according to the mass), removing all scum as it arises. Remove from the fire, and with a perforated spoon or dipper take the fruit from the syrup, and fill into any suitable vessel. Replace the syrup on the fire and boil for about the same length of time as before, then pour, all hot, over the berries. The next day empty out the contents of the vessel on a sieve, and let the berries drain off; remove the syrup that drains off, add water, put on the fire, and boil until you obtain a syrup which flows but slowly from the stirring spoon. At this point add the berries, and let boil gently for a few moments. Have your preserve jars as hot as possible, by putting them into a pot of cold water and bringing the latter to a boil, and into them fill the berries, hot from the kettle. Cool down, cover with buttered paper, and immediately close the jars hermetically. If corks are used, they should be protected below with parchment paper, and afterwards covered with wet bladder stretched over the top, securely tied and waxed. The process seems very troublesome and tedious, but all of the care expended is repaid by the richness and pureness of the flavor of the preserve, which maintains the odor and taste of the fresh berry in perfection.

«Hydrogen Peroxide as a Preservative.»—Hydrogen peroxide is one of the best, least harmful, and most convenient agents for preserving syrups, wine, beer, cider, and vinegar. For this purpose 2 1/2 fluidrachms of the commercial peroxide of hydrogen may be added to each quart of the article to be preserved. Hydrogen peroxide also affords an easy test for bacteria in water. When hydrogen peroxide is added to water that contains bacteria, these organisms decompose it, and consequently oxygen gas is given off. If the water be much contaminated the disengagement of gas may be quite brisk. {606}

«To Preserve Milk» (which should be as fresh as possible) there should be added enough hydrogen peroxide to cause it to be completely decomposed by the enzymes of the milk. For this purpose 1.3 per cent, by volume, of a 3 per cent hydrogen peroxide solution is required. The milk is well shaken and kept for 5 hours at 122° to 125° F. in well-closed vessels. Upon cooling, it may keep fresh for about a month and also to retain its natural fresh taste. With this process, if pure milk is used, the ordinary disease germs are killed off soon after milking and the milk sterilized.

«Powdered Cork as a Preservative.»—Tests have shown that powdered cork is very efficacious for packing and preserving fruits and vegetables. A bed of cork is placed at the bottom of the case, and the fruits or vegetables and the cork are then disposed in alternate layers, with a final one of cork at the top. Care should be taken to fill up the interstices, in order to prevent friction. Fruit may thus be kept fresh a year, provided any unsound parts have been removed preliminarily. When unpacking for sale, it suffices to plunge the fruit into water. Generally speaking, 50 pounds of cork go with 1,000 or 1,200 pounds of fruit. The cork serves as a protection against cold, heat, and humidity. Various fruits, such as grapes, mandarines, tomatoes, and early vegetables, are successfully packed in this way.

PRESSURE TABLE: See Tables.

PRINT COPYING: See Copying.

PRINTERS’ OIL: See Oil.

PRINTING ON PHOTOGRAPHS: See Photography.

PRINTS, RESTORATION OF: See Engravings.

PRINTS, THEIR PRESERVATION: See Engravings.

PRINTING OILCLOTH AND LEATHER IN GOLD: See Gold.

PRINTING-OUT PAPER, HOW TO SENSITIZE: See Photography, under Paper-Sensitizing Processes.

PRINTING-ROLLER COMPOSITIONS: See Roller Compositions for Printers.

PRUSSIC ACID: See Poisons.

«PUMICE STONE.»

While emery is used for polishing tools, polishing sand for stones and glass, ferric oxide for fine glassware, and lime and felt for metals, pumice stone is more frequently employed for polishing softer objects. Natural pumice stone presents but little firmness, and the search has therefore been made to replace the natural product with an artificial one. An artificial stone has been produced by means of sandstone and clay, designed to be used for a variety of purposes. No. 1, hard or soft, with coarse grain, is designed for leather and waterproof garments, and for the industries of felt and wool; No. 2, hard and soft, of average grain, is designed for work in stucco and sculptors’ use, and for rubbing down wood before painting; No. 3, soft, with fine grain, is used for polishing wood and tin articles; No. 4, of average hardness, with fine grain, is used for giving to wood a surface previous to polishing with oil; No. 5, hard, with fine grain, is employed for metal work and stones, especially lithographic stones. These artificial products are utilized in the same manner as the volcanic products. For giving a smooth surface to wood, the operation is dry; but for finishing, the product is diluted with oil.

PUMICE-STONE SOAP: See Soaps.

PUNCHES: See Ice Creams.

PUNCTURE CEMENT: See Cement.

PURPLE OF CASSIUS: See Gold.

«Putty»

(See also Lutes, under Adhesives and Cements.)

Common putty, as used by carpenters, painters, and glaziers, is whiting mixed with linseed oil to the consistency of dough. Plasterers use a fine lime mortar that is called putty. Jewelers use a tin oxide for polishing, called putty powder or putz powder. (See Putz Powder, under Jewelers’ Polishes, under Polishes.) {607}

«Acid-Proof Putty.»—I.—Melt 1 part of gum elastic with 2 parts of linseed oil and mix with the necessary quantity of white bole by continued kneading to the desired consistency. Hydrochloric acid and nitric acid do not attack this putty, it softens somewhat in the warm and does not dry readily on the surface. The drying and hardening is effected by an admixture of 1/2 part of litharge or red lead.

II.—A putty which will even resist boiling sulphuric acid is prepared by melting caoutchouc at a moderate heat, then adding 8 per cent of tallow, stirring constantly, whereupon sufficiently slaked lime is added until the whole has the consistency of soft dough. Finally about 20 per cent of red lead is still added, which causes the mass to set immediately and to harden and dry. A solution of caoutchouc in double its weight of linseed oil, added by means of heat and with the like quantity (weight) of pipe clay, gives a plastic mass which likewise resists most acids.

«Black Putty.»—Mix whiting and antimony sulphide, the latter finely powdered, with soluble glass. This putty, it is claimed, can be polished, after hardening, by means of a burnishing agate.

«Durable Putty.»—According to the “Gewerbeschau,” mix a handful of burnt lime with 4 1/4 ounces of linseed oil; allow this mixture to boil down to the consistency of common putty, and dry the extensible mass received, in a place not accessible to the rays of the sun. When the putty, which has become very hard through the drying, is to be used, it is warmed. Over the flame it will become soft and pliable, but after having been applied and become cold, it binds the various materials very firmly.

«Glaziers’ Putty.»—I.—For puttying panes or looking glasses into picture frames a mixture prepared as follows is well adapted: Make a solution of gum elastic in benzine, strong enough so that a syrup-like fluid results. If the solution be too thin, wait until the benzine evaporates. Then grind white lead in linseed-oil varnish to a stiff paste and add the gum solution. This putty may be used, besides the above purposes, for the tight puttying-in of window panes into their frames. The putty is applied on the glass lap of the frames and the panes are firmly pressed into it. The glass plates thereby obtain a good, firm support and stick to the wood, as the putty adheres both to the glass and to the wood.

II.—A useful putty for mirrors, etc., is prepared by dissolving gummi elasticum (caoutchouc) in benzol to a syrupy solution, and incorporating this latter with a mixture of white lead and linseed oil to make a stiff pulp. The putty adheres strongly to both glass and wood, and may therefore be applied to the framework of the window, mirror, etc., to be glazed, the glass being then pressed firmly on the cementing layer thus formed.

«Hard Putty.»—This is used by carriage painters and jewelers. Boil 4 pounds brown umber and 7 pounds linseed oil for 2 hours; stir in 2 ounces beeswax; take from the fire and mix in 5 1/2 pounds chalk and 11 pounds white lead; the mixing must be done very thoroughly.

«Painters’ Putty and Rough Stuff.»—Gradually knead sifted dry chalk (whiting) or else rye flour, powdered white lead, zinc white, or lithopone white with good linseed-oil varnish. The best putty is produced from varnish with plenty of chalk and some zinc white. This mixture can be tinted with earth colors. These oil putties must be well kneaded together and rather compact (like glaziers’ putty).

If flour paste is boiled (this is best produced by scalding with hot water, pouring in, gradually, the rye flour which has been previously dissolved in a little cold water and stirring constantly until the proper consistency is attained) and dry sifted chalk and a little varnish are added, a good rough stuff for wood or iron is obtained, which can be rubbed. This may also be produced from glaziers’ oil putty by gradually kneading into it flour paste and a little more sifted dry chalk.

«To Soften Glaziers’ Putty.»—I.—Glaziers’ putty which has become hard can be softened with the following mixture: Mix carefully equal parts of crude powdered potash and freshly burnt lime and make it into a paste with a little water. This dough, to which about 1/4 part of soft soap is still added, is applied on the putty to be softened, but care has to be taken not to cover other paint, as it would be surely destroyed thereby. After a few hours the hardest putty will be softened by this caustic mass and can be removed from glass and wood.

II.—A good way to make the putty soft and plastic enough in a few hours so that it can be taken off like fresh putty, is by the use of kerosene, which entirely dissolves the linseed oil of the putty, {608} transformed into rosin, and quickly penetrates it.

«Substitute for Putty.»—A cheap and effective substitute for putty to stop cracks in woodwork is made by soaking newspapers in a paste made by boiling a pound of flour in 3 quarts of water, and adding a teaspoonful of alum. This mixture should be of about the same consistency as putty, and should be forced into the cracks with a blunt knife. It will harden, like papier maché, and when dry may be painted or stained to match the boards, when it will be almost imperceptible.

«Waterproof Putties.»—I.—Grind powdered white lead or minium (red lead) with thick linseed-oil varnish to a stiff paste. This putty is used extensively for tightening wrought-iron gas pipes, for tightening rivet seams on gas meters, hot-water furnaces, cast-iron flange pipes for hot-water heating, etc. The putty made with minium dries very slowly, but becomes tight even before it is quite hard, and holds very firmly after solidification. Sometimes a little ground gypsum is added to it.

The two following putties are cheaper than the above-mentioned red lead putty: II.—One part white lead, 1 part manganese, one part white pipe clay, prepared with linseed-oil varnish.

III.—Two parts red lead, 5 parts white lead, 4 parts clay, ground in or prepared with linseed-oil varnish.

IV.—Excellent putty, which has been found invaluable where waterproof closing and permanent adhesion are desired, is made from litharge and glycerine. The litharge must be finely pulverized and the glycerine very concentrated, thickly liquid, and clear as water. Both substances are mixed into a viscid, thickly liquid pulp. The pegs of kerosene lamps, for instance, can be fixed in so firmly with this putty that they can only be removed by chiseling it out. For puttying in the glass panes of aquariums it is equally valuable. As it can withstand higher temperatures it may be successfully used for fixing tools, curling irons, forks, etc., in the wooden handles. The thickish putty mass is rubbed into the hole, and the part to be fixed is inserted. As this putty hardens very quickly it cannot be prepared in large quantities, and only enough for immediate use must be compounded in each case.

V.—Five parts of hydraulic lime, 0.3 parts of tar, 0.3 parts of rosin, 1 part of horn water (the decoction resulting from boiling horn in water and decanting the latter). The materials are to be mixed and boiled. After cooling, the putty is ready for use. This is an excellent cement for glass, and may be used also for reservoirs and any vessels for holding water, to cement the cracks; also for many other purposes. It will not give way, and is equally good for glass, wood, and metal.

VI.—This is especially recommended for boiler leaks: Mix well together 6 parts of powdered graphite, 3 parts of slaked lime, 8 parts of heavy spar (barytes), and 8 parts of thick linseed-oil varnish, and apply in the ordinary way to the spots.

PUTTY FOR ATTACHING SIGN-LETTERS TO GLASS: See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Cements.

PUTTY, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

PUTZ POMADE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

PYROGALLIC ACID: See Photography.

PYROGALLIC ACID STAINS, TO REMOVE, FROM THE SKIN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and Photography.

PYROCATECHIN DEVELOPER: See Photography.

«Pyrotechnics»

«FIREWORKS.»

The chief chemical process is, of course, oxidation. Oxidation may be produced by the atmosphere, but in many cases this is not enough, and then the pyrotechnist must employ his knowledge of chemistry in selecting oxidizing agents.

The chief of these oxidizing agents are chlorates and nitrates, the effect of which is to promote the continuance of combustion when it is once started. They are specially useful, owing to their solid non-hygroscopic nature. Then ingredients are needed to prevent the too speedy action of the oxidizing agents, to regulate the process of combustion, such as calomel, sand, and sulphate of potash. Thirdly, there are the active ingredients that produce the desired effect, prominent among which are substances that in contact with flame impart some special color to it. Brilliancy and brightness are imparted by steel, zinc, and copper {609} filings. Other substances employed are lampblack with gunpowder, and, for theatre purposes, lycopodium.

Fireworks may be classified under four heads, viz.:

1. Single fireworks.

2. Terrestrial fireworks, which are placed upon the ground and the fire issues direct from the surface.

3. Atmospheric fireworks, which begin their display in the air.

4. Aquatic fireworks, in which oxidation is so intense that they produce a flame under water.

«Rockets.»—First and foremost among atmospheric fireworks are rockets, made in different sizes, each requiring a slightly different percentage composition. A good formula is

Sulphur 1 part Carbon, wood 2 parts Niter 4 parts Meal powder 1 part

Meal powder is a fine black or brown dust, which acts as a diluent.

«Roman Candles.»—Roman candles are somewhat after the same principle. An average formula is:

Sulphur 4 parts Carbon 3 parts Niter 8 parts

«Pin Wheels.»—These are also similar in composition to the preceding. The formula for the basis is

Sulphur 5 parts Niter 9 parts Meal powder 15 parts Color as desired.

«Bengal Lights.»—Bengal lights have the disadvantage of being poisonous. A typical preparation can be made according to this formula:

Realgar 1 part Black antimony 5 parts Red lead 1 part Sulphur 3 parts Niter 14 parts

«COLORED FIRES.»

The compounds should be ignited in a small pill box resting on a plate. All the ingredients must be dried and powdered separately, and then lightly mixed on a sheet of paper. Always bear in mind that sulphur and chlorate of potassium explode violently if rubbed together.

«Smokeless Vari-Colored Fire.»—First take barytes or strontium, and bring to a glowing heat in a suitable dish, remove from the fire, and add the shellac. The latter (unpowdered) will melt at once, and can then be intimately mixed with the barytes or strontium by means of a spatula. After cooling, pulverize. One may also add about 2 1/2 per cent of powdered magnesium to increase the effect. Take for instance 4 parts of barytes or strontium and 1 part of shellac.

The following salts, if finely powdered and burned in an iron ladle with a little spirits, will communicate to the flame their peculiar colors.

Potassium nitrate or sodium chlorate, yellow.

Potassium chlorate, violet.

Calcium chloride, orange.

Strontium nitrate, red.

Barium nitrate, apple green.

Copper nitrate, emerald green.

Borax, green.

Lithium chloride, purple.

The colored fires are used largely in the production of various theatrical effects.

«Blue Fire.»—

I.—Ter-sulphuret of antimony 1 part
Sulphur 2 parts
Nitrate of potassium 6 parts

II.—Sulphur 15 parts
Potassium sulphate 15 parts
Ammonio-cupric sulphate 15 parts
Potassium nitrate 27 parts
Potassium chlorate 28 parts

III.—Chlorate of potash 8 parts
Calomel 4 parts
Copper sulphate 5 parts
Shellac 3 parts

IV.—Ore pigment 2 parts
Charcoal 3 parts
Potassium chloride 5 parts
Sulphur 13 parts
Potassium nitrate 77 parts

V.—Potassium chlorate 10 parts
Copper chlorate 20 parts
Alcohol 20 parts
Water 100 parts

VI.—Copper chlorate 100 parts
Copper nitrate 50 parts
Barium chlorate 25 parts
Potassium chlorate 100 parts
Alcohol 500 parts
Water 1,000 parts

«Green.»—

I.—Barium chlorate 20 parts
Alcohol 20 parts
Water 100 parts

II.—Barium nitrate 10 parts
Potassium chlorate 10 parts
Alcohol 20 parts
Water 100 parts

{610}

III.—Shellac 5 parts
Barium nitrate 1 1/4 parts

Pound after cooling, and add Barium chlorate, 2 to 5 per cent.

«Red.»—

I.—Shellac 5 parts
Strontium nitrate 1 to 1.2 parts

Preparation as in green fare. In damp weather add 2 to 4 per cent of potassium chlorate to the red flame; the latter causes a little more smoke.

II.—Strontium nitrate 20 parts
Potassium chlorate 10 parts
Alcohol 20 parts
Water 100 parts

«Yellow.»—

I.—Sulphur 16 parts
Dried carbonate of soda 23 parts
Chlorate of potassium 61 parts

II.—Sodium chlorate 20 parts
Potassium oxalate 10 parts
Alcohol 20 parts
Water 100 parts

«Violet.»—

I.—Strontium chlorate 15 parts
Copper chlorate 15 parts
Potassium chlorate 15 parts
Alcohol 50 parts
Water 100 parts

II.—Potassium chlorate 20 parts
Strontium chlorate 20 parts
Copper chlorate 10 parts
Alcohol 50 parts
Water 100 parts

«Lilac.»—

Potassium chlorate 20 parts Copper chlorate 10 parts Strontium chloride 10 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parts

«Mauve.»—

Chlorate of potash 28 parts Calomel 12 parts Shellac 4 parts Strontium nitrate 4 parts Cupric sulphate 2 parts Fat 1 part

«Purple.»—

Copper sulphide 8 parts Calomel 7 parts Sulphur 2 parts Chlorate of potash 16 parts

«White.»—

I.—Gunpowder 15 parts
Sulphur 22 parts
Nitrate of potassium 64 parts