Chapter I: II III IV V VI VII (2)

XIII.—White and light-colored fabrics are first put into a bath of aluminum acetate, 4° to 5° Bé., at a temperature of 102° F., the superfluous liquid being removed from the fabric by press rollers. The fabric is put into a soap solution (5 parts of good Marseilles soap in 100 parts of soft water). Finally it is put through a 2 per cent alum solution, and left to dry for 2 or 3 days on racks. The adhering particles of soap are removed by brushing with machinery.

XIV.—Dissolve 1.5 parts of gelatin in 50 parts of boiling water, add 1.5 parts of shavings of tallow grain soap, and gradually, 2.5 parts of alum. Let this cool to 122° F., draw the fabric through it, dry and calender.

XV.—Cellular tissues are made waterproof by impregnating them with a warm solution of 1 part, by weight, of gelatin, 1 part, by weight, of glycerine, and 1 part, by weight, of tannin, in 12 parts, by weight, of wood vinegar, 12° Bé.

XVI.—Linen, hemp, jute, cotton, and other fabrics can be given a good odorless waterproof finish by impregnating them, and afterwards subjecting them to the action of several mechanical brush rollers. By this process the fabric is brushed dry, the fibers are laid smooth, the threads of the warp brought out, and a glossy, odorless, unfading waterproof stuff results. Fabrics manufactured in the usual way from rough and colored yarns are put through a bath of this waterproof finish, whose composition is as follows: Thirty parts, by weight, of Japanese wax; 22.5 parts, by weight, of paraffine; 15 parts, by weight, of rosin soap; 35 parts, by weight, of starch, and 5 parts, by weight, of a 5 per cent alum solution. The first three components are melted in a kettle, the starch and, lastly, the alum added, and the whole stirred vigorously.

XVII.—One hundred parts, by weight, of castor oil are heated to nearly 204° F., with 50 parts, by weight, of caustic potash, of 50° Bé., to which 50 parts, by weight, of water have previously been added. Forty parts, by weight, of cooler water are then added slowly, care being taken to keep the temperature of the mixture constant. As soon as the liquor begins to rise, 40 parts, by weight, of cooler water are again added, with the same precaution to keep the temperature from falling below 204° F. At the same time care must be taken to prevent the liquor boiling, as this would produce too great saponification. By the prolonged action of heat below the boiling point, the oil absorbs water and caustic potash without being changed, and the whole finally forms a perfectly limpid, nearly black liquid. This is diluted with 5 times its weight of hot or cold water, and is then ready for use without any further preparation. Other vegetable oils may be employed besides castor oil, and the quantity of unsaponified oil present may be increased by stirring the prepared liquid with a fresh quantity of castor or other vegetable oil. The product is slightly alkaline, but wool fiber is not injured, as the oiling may be done in the cold. The solution is clear and limpid, and will not separate out on standing like an emulsion. This product in spinning gives a 10 per cent better utilization of the raw material owing to the greater evenness and regularity with which the fibers are oiled; in weaving less oiling is required.

The product can be completely removed by water, preferably by cold water, and scouring of the goods subsequently with soap, soda, or fuller’s earth can thus be dispensed with.

XVIII.—Cloth may be rendered waterproof by rubbing the under side with a lump of beeswax until the surface presents a uniform white or grayish appearance. This method it is said renders the cloth {750} practically waterproof, although still leaving it porous to air.

XIX.—Coating the under side of the cloth with a solution of isinglass and then applying an infusion of galls is another method, a compound being thus formed which is a variety of leather.

XX.—An easy method is the formation of aluminum stearate in the fiber of the cloth, which may readily be done by immersing it in a solution of aluminum sulphate in water (1 in 10) and without allowing it to dry passing through a solution of soap made from soda and tallow or similar fat, in hot water. Reaction between the aluminum sulphate and the soap produces aluminum stearate and sodium sulphate. The former is insoluble and remains in the fiber; the latter is removed by subsequently rinsing the fabric in water.

XXI.—A favorite method for cloth is as follows: Dissolve in a receptacle, preferably of copper, over a bright coal fire, 1 liter (1.76 pints) of pure linseed oil, 1 liter (1.76 pints) of petroleum, 1/2 liter (0.88 pints) of oil turpentine, and 125 grams (4.37 ounces) of yellow wax, the last named in small bits. As there is danger of fire, boiling of this mass should be avoided. With this hot solution removed from the fire, of course the felt material is impregnated; next it is hung up in a warm, dry room or spread out, but in such a manner that the uniform temperature can act upon all parts.

«Waterproofing Leather.»—I.—Tenning’s process is as follows: Melt together equal parts of zinc and linseed oil, at a temperature not above 225° F. Put the leather in the molten mixture and let it remain until saturated. The “zinc soap” is made by dissolving 6 parts of white soap in 16 parts of water, and stirring into the solution 6 parts of zinc sulphate. To make sure of a homogeneous mixture remelt the whole and stir until it begins to cool. The process, including the saturation of the leather, requires about 48 hours. Instead of zinc sulphate, copper or iron sulphate may be used. The philosophy of the process is that the moisture and air contained in the pores of the leather are driven out by the heat of the soap mixture, and their place is taken, on cooling, by the mixture. The surface of the leather is scraped after cooling, and the article is dried, either by heating over an open fire or by hanging in a drying room, strongly heated.

II.—Prideaux’ process consists in submitting the leather to treatment with a solution of caoutchouc until it is thoroughly saturated with the liquid. The latter consists of 30 parts of caoutchouc in 500 parts of oil of turpentine. Complete impregnation of the leather requires several days, during which the solution must be frequently applied to the surface of the leather and rubbed in.

III.—Villon’s process consists in applying a soap solution to the leather, about as follows: The leather is first treated to a solution of 62 parts of soap, 124 parts of glue, and 2,000 parts of water. When it has become saturated with the solution, it is treated to rubbing with a mixture of 460 parts of common salt and 400 parts of alum, in sufficient water to dissolve the same. After this it is washed with tepid water and dried. This process is much the quickest. The application of the soap requires about 2 hours, and the subsequent treatment about as much more, or 4 or 5 hours in all.

«Oilskins.»—The art of painting over textile fabrics with oily preparations to make them waterproof is probably nearly as old as textile manufacture itself, an industry of prehistoric, nay, geologic, origin. It is certainly more ancient than the craft of the artistic painter in oils, whose canvases are nothing more nor less than art oilskins, and when out of their frames, have served the usual purpose of those things in protecting goods or the human body before now. The art of waterproofing has been extended beyond the domain of the oilskin by chemical processes, especially those in which alum or lead salts, or tannin, are used, as well as by the discovery of India rubber and gutta percha. These two have revolutionized the waterproofing industry in quite a special manner, and the oilskin manufacture, although it still exists and is in a fairly flourishing condition, has found its products to a very large extent replaced by rubber goods. The natural result has been that the processes used in the former industry have remained now unchanged for a good many years. They had already been brought to a very perfect state when the rubber-waterproofing business sprang up, so that improvements were even then difficult to hit upon in oilskin making, and the check put upon the trade by India rubber made people less willing to spend time and money in experimenting with a view to improving what many years had already made it difficult to better. Hence the three cardinal defects of the oilskin: its weight, its stiffness, and the liability of {751} its folds to stick together when it is wrapped up, or in the other extreme to crack, still remains. The weight, of course, is inevitable. An oilskin must be heavy, comparatively, from the very essence of the process by which it is made, but there seems no reason why it should not in time be made much more pliable (an old-time oilskin coat could often stand up on end when empty) and free from the danger of cracking or being compacted into a solid block when it has been stored folded on a shelf.

Probably the best oilskins ever made are those prepared by combining Dr. Stenhouse’s process (patented in 1864) with the ordinary method, which consists in the main of painting over the fabric with two or more coats of boiled linseed oil, allowing each coat to dry before the next is applied. This, with a few variations in detail, is the whole method of making oilskins. Dr. Stenhouse’s waterproofing method is to impregnate the fabric with a mixture of hard paraffine and boiled oil in proportions varying according to circumstances from 95 per cent of paraffine and 5 of oil to 70 per cent of the former and 30 of the latter. The most usual percentages are 80 and 20. The mixture is made with the aid of heat, and is then cast into blocks for storage. It is applied to the cloth stretched on a hot plate by rubbing the fabric thoroughly all over with a block of the composition, which may be applied on one or both sides as may be wished. The saturation is then made complete, and excess of composition is removed by passing the cloth between hot rollers. When the cloth is quite cold the process is complete. The paraffine and the drying oil combine their waterproofing powers, and the paraffine prevents the oil from exerting any injurious action upon the material. Drying oil, partly on account of the metallic compounds in it, and partly on account of its absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere, has a decided slow weakening effect upon textile fibers. Dr. Stenhouse points out that the inflammability of oilskins may be much lessened by the use of the ordinary fireproofing salts, such as tungstate of soda, or alum, either before or after the waterproofing process is carried out.

The following are some of the best recommended recipes for making oilskins:

I.—Dissolve 1 ounce of yellow soap in 1 1/2 pints of boiling water. Then stir in 1 quart of boiled oil. When cold, add 1/4 pint of gold size.

II.—Take fine twilled calico. Soak it in bullock’s blood and dry it. Then give it 2 or 3 coats of boiled oil, mixed with a little litharge, or with an ounce of gold size to every pint of the oil.

III.—Make ordinary paint ready to be applied thin with a strong solution of soap.

IV.—Make 96 pounds of ocher to a thin paste with boiled oil, and then add 16 pounds of ordinary black paint mixed ready for use. Apply the first coat of this with soap, the subsequent coats without soap.

V.—Dissolve rosin in hot boiled oil till it begins to thicken.

VI.—Mix chalk or pipe clay in the finest powder, and in the purest state obtainable to a thin paste with boiled oil.

VII.—Melt together boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax and rosin, each, 2 ounces.

VIII.—Dissolve soft soap in hot water and add solution of protosulphate of iron till no further precipitate is produced. Filter off, wash, and dry, and form the mass into a thin paste with boiled oil.

All these compositions are painted on with an ordinary painter’s brush. The fabric should be slightly stretched, both to avoid folds and to facilitate the penetration of the waterproofing mixture. To aid the penetration still further, the mixture should be applied hot. It is of the greatest importance that the fabric should not be damp when the composition is applied to it. It is best to have it warm as well as the composition. If more than one coat is applied, which is practically always the case, three being the usual number, it is essential that the last coat should be perfectly dry before the next is applied. Neglect of this precaution is the chief cause of stickiness, which frequently results in serious damage to the oilskins when they have to be unfolded. In fact, it is advisable to avoid folding an oilskin when it can be avoided. They should be hung up when not in use, whenever practicable, and be allowed plenty of room. It goes without saying that no attempt should be made to sell or use the oilskin, whether garment or tarpaulin, until the final coat of composition is perfectly dry and set. It is unadvisable to use artificial heat in the drying at any stage in the manufacture.

«Waterproofing Paper.»—Any convenient and appropriate machinery or apparatus may be employed; but the best method for waterproofing paper is as follows: The treatment may be applied {752} while the pulp is being formed into paper, or the finished paper may be treated. If the material is to be treated while being formed into paper, then the better method is to begin the treatment when the web of pulpy material leaves the Foudrinier wire or the cylinders, it then being in a damp condition, but with the larger percentage of moisture removed. From this point the treatment of the paper is the same whether it be pulp in a sheet, as above stated, or finished paper.

The treatment consists, first, in saturating the paper with glutinous material, preferably animal glue, and by preference the bath of glutinous material should be hot, to effect the more rapid absorption and more perfect permeation, impregnation, and deposit of the glutinous material within all the microscopic interstices throughout the body of the paper being treated. By preference a suitable tank is provided in which the glutinous material is deposited, and in which it may be kept heated to a constant temperature, the paper being passed through the tank and saturated during its passage. The material being treated should pass in a continuous sheet—that is, be fed from a roll and the finished product be wound in a roll after final treatment. This saves time and the patentee finds that the requisite permeation or incorporation of glutinous matter in the fiber will with some papers—for instance, lightly sized manila hemp—require but a few seconds. As the paper passes from the glutin tank the surplus of the glutinous matter is removed from the surface by mechanical means, as contradistinguished from simply allowing it to pass off by gravity, and in most instances it is preferred to pass the paper between suitable pressure rolls to remove such surplus. The strength and consistency of the glutinous bath may be varied, depending upon the material being treated and the uses for which such material is designed. It may, however, be stated that, in a majority of cases, a hot solution of about 1 part of animal glue to about 10 parts of water, by weight, gives the best results. After leaving the bath of glutinous material and having the surplus adhering to the surfaces removed, the paper before drying is passed into or through a solution of formaldehyde and water to “set” the glutinous material. The strength of this solution may also be variable, depending, as heretofore stated, upon the paper and uses for which it is designed. In the majority of cases, however, a solution of 1 part of formaldehyde (35 per cent solution) to 5 parts of water, by weight, gives good results, and the best result is attained if this bath is cold instead of hot, though any particular temperature is not essentially necessary. The effect of the formaldehyde solution upon the glutin-saturated paper is to precipitate the glutinous matter and render it insoluble.

As the material comes from the formaldehyde bath, the surplus adhering to the surfaces is removed by mechanical means, pressure rolls being probably most convenient. The paper is then dried in any convenient manner. The best result in drying is attained by the air-blast, i. e., projecting blasts of air against both surfaces of the paper. This drying removes all the watery constituents and leaves the paper in a toughened or greatly strengthened condition, but not in practical condition for commercial uses, as it is brittle, horny, and stiff, and has an objectionable odor and taste on account of the presence of the aldehydes, paraldehydes, formic acid, and other products, the result of oxidation. Hence it needs to be “tempered.” Now while the glutinous material is rendered insoluble—that is, it is so acted upon by formaldehyde and the chemical action which takes place while the united solutions are giving off their watery constituents that it will not fully dissolve—it is, however, in a condition to be acted on by moisture, as it will swell and absorb, or take up permanently by either chemical or mechanical action a percentage of water, and will also become improved in many respects, so that to temper and render the paper soft and pliable and adapt it for most commercial uses it is subjected to moisture, which penetrates the paper, causing a welling in all directions, filling the interstices perfectly and resulting in “hydration” throughout the entire cellular structure. Two actions, mechanical and chemical, appear to take place, the mechanical action being the temporary absorption of water analogous to the absorption of water by a dry sponge, the chemical action being the permanent union of water with the treated paper, analogous to the union of water and tapioca, causing swelling, or like the chemical combination of water with lime or cement. For this purpose it is preferred to pass the paper into a bath of hot water, saturated steam or equivalent heat-and-moisture medium, thus causing the fibers and the non-soluble glutinous material filling the interstices to expand in all directions and forcing {753} the glutinous material into all the microscopic pores or openings and into the masses of fiber, causing a commingling or thorough incorporation of the fibers and the glutinous compound. At the same time, as heretofore indicated, a change (hydration) takes place, whereby the hardened mass of fiber, glutinous material, and formaldehyde become tempered and softened and the strength imparted by the previous treatment increased. To heighten the tempering and softening effect, glycerine may, in some instances, be introduced in the tempering bath, and in most cases one two-hundredths in volume of glycerine gives the best results.

The paper may be dried in any convenient manner and is in condition for most commercial uses, it being greatly strengthened, more flexible, more impervious to moisture, acids, grease, or alkalies, and is suitable for the manufacture of binding-twine, carpets, and many novelties, for dry wrappings and lining packing cases, etc., but is liable to have a disagreeable taste and may carry traces of acids, rendering it impracticable for some uses—for instance, wrapping butter, meats, cheese, etc., after receiving the alkali treatment. The paper is also valuable as a packing for joints in steam, water, and other pipes or connections. For the purpose, therefore, of rendering the material absolutely free from all traces of acidity and all taste and odors and, in fact, to render it absolutely hygienic, it is passed through a bath of water and a volatile alkali (ammonium hydrate), the proportion by preference in a majority of cases being one-hundredth of ammonium hydrate to ninety-nine one-hundredths of water by volume. A small percentage of wood alcohol may be added. This bath is preferably cool, but a variation in its temperature will not interfere to a serious extent with the results. The effect of this bath followed by drying is to complete the chemical reaction and destroy all taste or odor, removing all traces of acids and rendering the paper hygienic in all respects. The material may be calendered or cut and used for any of the purposes desired. If the material is to be subjected to the volatile alkali bath, it is not necessary to dry it between the tempering and volatile alkali baths.

The paper made in accordance with the foregoing will, it is claimed, be found to be greatly strengthened, some materials being increased in strength from 100 to 700 per cent. It will be nonabsorbent to acids, greases, and alkalies, and substantially waterproof, and owing to its component integrate structure will be practically non-conductive to electricity, adapting it as a superior insulating material. It may with perfect safety be employed for wrapping butter, meats, spices, groceries, and all materials, whether unctuous or otherwise.

The term “hydration” means the subjecting of the material (after treatment with glutinous material and formaldehyde and drying) to moisture, whereby the action described takes place.

A sheet or web of paper can be treated by the process as rapidly as it is manufactured, as the time for exposure to the action of the glutinous material need not be longer than the time required for it to become saturated, this, of course, varying with different thicknesses and densities, and the length of time of exposure may be fixed without checking the speed by making the tank of such length that the requisite time will elapse while the sheet is passing through it and the guides so arranged as to maintain the sheet in position to be acted on by such solution the requisite length of time. Four seconds’ exposure to the action of formaldehyde is found sufficient in most cases.

«Waterproof Ropes.»—For making ropes and lines impervious to weather, the process of tarring is recommended, which can be done either in the separate strands or after the rope is twisted. An addition of tallow gives greater pliability.

«Waterproof Wood.»—I.—Soak in a mixture of boracic acid, 6 parts; ammonium chloride, 5 parts; sodium borate, 3 parts, and water, 100 parts.

II.—Saturate in a solution of zinc chloride.

«Wax»

«Adulteration of Wax.»—Wax is adulterated with the following among other substances: Rosins, pitch, flowers of sulphur, starch, fecula, stearine, paraffine, tallow, palm oil, calcined bones, yellow ocher, water, and wood sawdust.

Rosins are detected by cold alcohol, which dissolves all rosinous substances and exercises no action on the wax. The rosins having been extracted from the alcoholic solution by the evaporation of the alcohol, the various kinds may be distinguished by the odors disengaged by burning the mass several times on a plate of heated iron.

All earthy substances may be readily {754} separated from wax by means of oil of turpentine, which dissolves the wax, while the earthy matters form a residue.

Oil of turpentine also completely separates wax from starchy substances, which, like earthy matters, do not dissolve, but form a residue. A simpler method consists in heating the wax with boiling water; the gelatinous consistency assumed by the water, and the blue coloration in presence of iodine, indicate that the wax contains starchy substances. Adulteration by means of starch and fecula is quite frequent. These substances are sometimes added to the wax in a proportion of nearly 60 per cent. To separate either, the suspected product is treated hot with very dilute sulphuric acid (2 parts of acid per 100 parts of water). All amylaceous substances, converted into dextrin, remain dissolved in the liquid, while the wax, in cooling, forms a crust on the surface. It is taken off and weighed; the difference between its weight and that of the product analyzed will give the quantity of the amylaceous substances.

Flowers of sulphur are recognized readily from the odor of sulphurous acid during combustion on red-hot iron.

Tallow may be detected by the taste and odor. Pure wax has an aromatic, agreeable taste, while that mixed with tallow is repulsive both in taste and smell. Pure wax, worked between the fingers, grows soft, preserving a certain cohesion in all parts. It divides into lumps, which adhere to the fingers, if it is mixed with tallow. The adulteration may also be detected by the thick and nauseating fumes produced when it is burned on heated iron.

Stearic acid may be recognized by means of boiling alcohol, which dissolves it in nearly all proportions and causes it to deposit crystals on cooling, while it is without action on the wax. Blue litmus paper, immersed in alcohol solution, reddens on drying in air, and thus serves for detecting the presence of stearic acid.

Ocher is found by treating the wax with boiling water. A lemon-yellow deposit results, which, taken up with chlorhydric acid, yields with ammonia a lemon-yellow precipitate of ferric oxide.

The powder of burnt bones separates and forms a residue, when the wax is heated with oil of turpentine.

«Artificial Beeswax.»—This is obtained by mixing the following substances, in approximately the proportions stated: Paraffine, 45 parts, by weight; white Japan vegetable wax, 30 parts, by weight; rosins, or colophonies, 10 parts, by weight; white pitch, 10 parts, by weight; tallow, 5 parts, by weight; ceresine, colorant, 0.030 parts, by weight; wax perfume, 0.100 parts, by weight. If desired, the paraffine may be replaced with ozokerite, or by a mixture of vaseline and ozokerite, for the purpose of varying the fusing temperature, or rendering it more advantageous for the various applications designed. The following is the method of preparation: Melt on the boiling water bath, shaking constantly, the paraffine, the Japan wax, the rosins, the pitch, and the tallow. When the fusion is complete, add the colorant and the perfume. When these products are perfectly mingled, remove from the fire, allow the mixture to cool, and run it into suitable molds. The wax thus obtained may be employed specially for encaustics for furniture and floors, or for purposes where varnish is employed.

«Waxes for Floors, Furniture, etc.»—

I.—White beeswax 16 parts
Colophony 4 parts
Venice turpentine 1 part

Melt the articles together over a gentle fire, and when completely melted and homogeneous, pour into a sizable earthenware vessel, and stir in, while still warm, 6 parts of the best French turpentine. Cool for 24 hours, by which time the mass has acquired the consistence of soft butter, and is ready for use. Its method of use is very simple. It is smeared, in small quantities, on woolen cloths, and with these is rubbed into the wood.

This is the best preparation, but one in which the beeswax is merely dissolved in the turpentine in such a way as to have the consistence of a not too thin oil color, will answer. The wood is treated with this, taking care that the surface is evenly covered with the mixture, and that it does not sink too deeply in the ornaments, corners, etc., of the woodwork. This is best achieved by taking care to scrape off from the cloths all excess of the wax.

If, in the course of 24 hours, the surface is hard, then with a stiff brush go over it, much after the way of polishing a boot. For the corners and angles smaller brushes are used; when necessary, stiff pencils may be employed. Finally, the whole is polished with plush, or velvet rags, in order not to injure the original polish. Give the article a good coat of linseed oil or a washing with petroleum before beginning work.

II.—Articles that are always exposed to the water, floors, doors, especially of oak, should, from time to time, be {755} saturated with oil or wax. A house door, plentifully decorated with wood carving, will not shrink or warp, even where the sun shines hottest on it, when it is frequently treated to saturation with wax and oil. Here a plain dosage with linseed oil is sufficient. Varnish, without the addition of turpentine, should never be used, or if used it should be followed by a coat of wax.

III.—A good floor wax is composed of 2 parts of wax and 3 parts of Venice turpentine, melted on the water bath, and the mixture applied while still hot, using a pencil, or brush, for the application, and when it has become solid and dry, diligently rubbed, or polished down with a woolen cloth, or with a floor brush, especially made for the purpose.

IV.—An emulsion of 5 parts of yellow wax, 2 parts of crude potassium carbonate, and 12 parts of water, boiled together until they assume a milky color and the solids are dissolved, used cold, makes an excellent composition for floors. Any desired color may be given this dressing by stirring in the powdered coloring matter. Use it exactly as described for the first mass.

«Gilders’ Wax.»—For the production of various colorings of gold in fire gilding, the respective places are frequently covered with so-called gilders’ wax. These consist of mixtures of various chemicals which have an etching action in the red heat upon the bronze mass, thus causing roughness of unequal depth, as well as through the fact that the composition of the bronze is changed somewhat on the surface, a relief of the gold color being effected in consequence of these two circumstances. The gilding wax is prepared by melting together the finely powdered chemicals with wax according to the following recipes: