Chapter CI: Section 2 (4)

During the stay of these piratical Andalusian Arabs at
Alexandria, "they cut in pieces both friends and foes,
pillaged the churches and mosques, sold above 6,000 Christian
captives, and maintained their station in the capital of Egypt
till they were oppressed by the forces and presence of Almamon
himself."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 52.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

ALSO IN:
_S. A. Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal,
book 3, chapter 1._

CRETE: A. D. 961-963.
Recovery from the Saracens.

"In the subordinate station of great domestic, or general of
the East, he [Nicephorus Phocas, afterwards emperor, on the
Byzantine throne], reduced the island of Crete, and extirpated
the nest of pirates who had so long defied, with impunity, the
majesty of the Empire. ... Seven months were consumed in the
siege of Candia; the despair of the native Cretans was
stimulated by the frequent aid of their brethren of Africa and
Spain; and, after the massy wall and double ditch had been
stormed by the Greeks, a hopeless conflict was still
maintained in the streets and houses of the city. The whole
island was subdued in the capital, and a submissive people
accepted, without resistance, the baptism of the conqueror."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 52.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

CRETE: A. D. 1204-1205.
Acquired by the Venetians.

See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D.1204-1205.

CRETE: A. D. 1645-1669.
The long siege of Candia.
Surrender to the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1645-1669.

CRETE: A. D. 1715.
Complete Expulsion of the Venetians by the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1714-1718.

CRETE: A. D. 1866-1868.
Unsuccessful revolt.
Struggle for independence.
Turkish concession of the Organic Regulation.

See GREECE: A. D. 1862-1881.

----------CRETE: End----------

CRETE, Party of the.--Crêtois.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (APRIL).

CRIMEA, OR CRIM TARTARY:
Early history.

See TAURICA;
also BOSPORUS, CITY AND KINGDOM.

CRIMEA: 7th Century.
Conquest and occupation by the Khazars.

See KHAZARS.

CRIMEA: 12th-13th Centuries.
Genoese commercial colonies.

See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299.

CRIMEA: 13th-14th Centuries.
The khanate to Krim.

See MONGOLS: A. D. 1238-1391.

CRIMEA: A. D. 1475.
Conquest by the Ottoman Turks.

See TURKS (THE OTTOMANS): A. D. 1451-1481.

CRIMEA: A. D. 1571.
Expedition of the Khan to Moscow.
The city stormed and sacked.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1569-1571.

CRIMEA: A. D. 1735-1738.
Russian invasions and fruitless conquests.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1725-1739.

CRIMEA: A. D. 1774.
The khanate declared independent of the Porte.

See TURKS: A. D. 1768-1774.

CRIMEA: A. D. 1776-1784.
The process of acquisition by Russia.
Final recognition of Russian sovereignty by the Sultan.

See TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792.

CRIMEA: A. D. 1853-1855.
War of Russia with Turkey and her allies.
Siege of Sebastopol.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1853-1854, to 1854-1856.

----------CRIMEA: End----------

CRISIS OF 1837, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1835-1837.

CRISIS OF 1857.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION
(UNITED STATES): A. D. 1846-1861.

CRISSA.
Crissæan or Sacred War.

See DELPHI.

CRITTENDEN COMPROMISE, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1860 (DECEMBER).

CROATANS, The.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1587-1590.

CROATIA: 7th Century.
Sclavonic occupation and settlement.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES,
7TH CENTURY (SERVIA, CROATIA, BOSNIA, ETC.)

CROATIA: A. D. 1102.
Subjection and annexation to Hungary.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 972-1114.

CROATIA: A. D. 1576.
Transferred to the Duke of Styria.
Military colonization.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1567-1604.

----------CROATIA: End----------

CROIA, Turkish massacre at.

See GREECE: A. D. 1454-1479.

CROMLECHS.

Rude stone monuments found in many parts of the British
Islands, France, and elsewhere, usually formed by three or
more huge, rough, upright stones, with a still larger stone
lying flatly upon them. In France these are called Dolmens.
They were formerly thought to be "Druids altars," to which
notion they owe the name Cromlechs; but it is now very
generally concluded by archæologists that they were
constructed for burial chambers, and that originally, in most
cases, they were covered with mounds of earth, forming the
well known barrows, or grave mounds, or tumuli.

_L. Jewett, Grave Mounds._

ALSO IN:
_T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon._

_Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, chapter 5._

See, also, AMORITES.

CROMPTON'S MULE, The invention of.

See COTTON MANUFACTURES.

CROMWELL, Oliver.
Campaigns and Protectorate.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1644 to 1658-1660;
and IRELAND: A. D. 1649-1650.

CROMWELL, Thomas,
The suppression of the Monasteries.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1535-1539.

CROMWELLIAN SETTLEMENT OF IRELAND.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1653.

CROMWELL'S IRONSIDES.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (MAY).

CROSS, The "True."
Its capture by the Persians and recovery by Heraclius.

See ROME: A. D. 565-628;
And JERUSALEM: A. D. 615.

CROSS KEYS, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

CROTON.--KROTON.

See SYBARIS.

CROTONA, Battle of (A. D. 983).

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 800-1016.

CROWN, The iron.

See LOMBARDY, THE IRON CROWN OF.

CROWN OF INDIA, The Order of the.

An order, for women, instituted by Queen Victoria in 1878.

{626}

CROWN POINT: A. D. 1727.
Fort built by the French.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1700-1735.

CROWN POINT: A. D. 1755.
English Expedition against.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1755 (SEPTEMBER).

CROWN POINT: A. D: 1759.
Abandoned to the English by the French.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1759 (JULY-AUGUST).

CROWN POINT: A. D. 1775.
Surprise and capture by the Americans.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 MAY.

----------CROWN POINT: End----------

CROWS, OR UPSAROKAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

CRUITHNIGH.-CRUITHNIANS.

The Irish name of the Picts and Scots of ancient Ireland and
Scotland.

See SCOTLAND: THE PICTS AND SCOTS.

CRUSADES:
Causes and introductory events.

"Like all the great movements of mankind, the Crusades must be
traced to the coincidence of many causes which influenced men
of various nations and discordant feelings, at the same period
of time, to pursue one common end with their whole heart.
Religious zeal, the fashion of pilgrimages, the spirit of
social development, the energies that lead to colonisation or
conquest, and commercial relations, only lately extended so
widely as to influence public opinion, all suddenly received a
deep wound. Every class of society felt injured and insulted,
and unity of action was created as if by a divine impulse. The
movement was facilitated by the circumstance that Europe began
to adopt habits of order just at the time when Asia was thrown
into a state of anarchy by the invasions of the Seljouk Turks.
Great numbers of pilgrims had always passed through the
Byzantine empire to visit the holy places in Palestine. We
still possess an itinerary of the road from Bordeaux to
Jerusalem, by the way of Constantinople, written in the fourth
century for the use of pilgrims. Though the disturbed and
impoverished state of Europe, after the fall of the Western
Empire, diminished the number of pilgrims, still, even in
times of the greatest anarchy, many passed annually through
the Eastern Empire to Palestine. The improvement which dawned
on the western nations during the eleventh century, and the
augmented commerce of the Italians, gave additional importance
to the pilgrimage to the East. About the year 1064, during the
reign of Constantine X., an army or caravan of seven thousand
pilgrims passed through Constantinople, led by the Archbishop
of Mentz and four bishops. They made their way through Asia
Minor, which was then under the Byzantine government; but in
the neighbourhood of Jerusalem they were attacked by the
Bedouins, and only saved from destruction by the Saracen emir
of Ramla, who hastened to their assistance. These pilgrims are
reported to have lost 3,000 of their number, without being
able to visit either the Jordan or the Dead Sea. The invasions
of the Seljouks [see TURKS (THE SELJUKS): A. D. 1073-1092]
increased the disorders in Palestine. ... In the year 1076 the
Seljouk Turks took possession of Jerusalem, and immediately
commenced harassing the pilgrims with unheard-of exactions.
The Saracens had in general viewed the pilgrims with favour,
as men engaged in fulfilling a pious duty, or pursuing lawful
gain with praiseworthy industry, and they had levied only a
reasonable toll on the pilgrims, and a moderate duty on their
merchandise; while in consideration of these imposts, they had
established guards to protect them on the roads by which they
approached the holy places. The Turks, on the contrary, acting
like mere nomads, uncertain of retaining possession of the
city, thought only of gratifying their avarice. They plundered
the rich pilgrims, and insulted the poor. The religious
feelings of the Christians were irritated, and their commerce
ruined; a cry for vengeance arose throughout all Europe, and
men's minds were fully prepared for an attempt to conquer
Palestine, when Peter the Hermit began to preach that it was a
sacred duty to deliver the tomb of Christ from the hands of
the Infidels."

_G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine and Greek
Empires, book 3, chapter 2, section 1._

CRUSADES: A. D. 1091.
The Council of Clermont.

Pope Urban II., one of two rival pontiffs then contending for
recognition by the Church, entered with great eagerness into
the movement stirred by Peter the Hermit, and gave it a
powerful impulse through his support, while obtaining for
himself, at the same time, a decisive advantage over his
competitor, by the popularity of the agitation. A great
Council was convened at Piacenza, A. D. 1094, and a second at
Clermont, in the autumn of the same year, to deliberate upon
the action to be taken. The city of Clermont could not contain
the vast multitude of bishops, clergy and laity which
assembled, and an army of many thousands was tented in the
surrounding country. To that excited congregation, at a
meeting in the great square of Clermont, Pope Urban addressed
a speech which is one of the notable utterances of History.
"He began by detailing the miseries endured by their brethren
in the Holy Land; how the plains of Palestine were desolated
by the outrageous heathen, who with the sword and the
firebrand carried wailing into the dwellings and flames into
the possessions of the faithful; how Christian wives and
daughters were defiled by pagan lust; how the altars of the
true God were desecrated, and the relics of the saints trodden
under foot. 'You,' continued the eloquent pontiff (and Urban
II. was one of the most eloquent men of the day), 'you, who
hear me, and who have received the true faith, and been
endowed by God with power, and strength, and greatness of
soul,--whose ancestors have been the prop of Christendom, and
whose kings have put a barrier against the progress of the
infidel,--I call upon you to wipe off these impurities from
the face of the earth, and lift your oppressed
fellow-Christians from the depths into which they have been
trampled.' ... The warmth of the pontiff communicated itself
to the crowd, and the enthusiasm of the people broke out
several times ere he concluded his address. He went on to
portray, not only the spiritual but the temporal advantages
that would accrue to those who took up arms in the service of
the cross. Palestine was, he said, a land flowing with milk
and honey, and precious in the sight of God, as the scene of
the grand events which had saved mankind. That land, he
promised, should be divided among them. Moreover, they should
have full pardon for all their offences, either against God or
man. 'Go, then,' he added, 'in expiation of your sins; and
go assured, that after this world shall have passed away,
imperishable glory shall be yours in the world which is to
come.' The enthusiasm was no longer to be restrained, and loud
shouts interrupted the speaker; the people exclaiming as if
with one voice, 'Dieu le veult! Dieu le veult!' ... The news
of this council spread to the remotest parts of Europe in an
incredibly short space of time. Long before the fleetest
horseman could have brought the intelligence, it was known by
the people in distant provinces; a fact which was considered
as nothing less than supernatural. But the subject was in
everybody's mouth, and the minds of men were prepared for the
result. The enthusiastic merely asserted what they wished, and
the event tallied with their prediction."

_C. Mackay, Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular
Delusions: The Crusades, (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity,
book 7, chapter 6._

{627}

CRUSADES: A. D. 1094-1095,
Peter the Hermit and his appeal.

"About twenty years after the conquest of Jerusalem by the
Turks, the holy sepulchre was visited by an hermit of the name
of Peter, a native of Amiens, in the province of Picardy in
France. His resentment and sympathy were excited by his own
injuries, and the oppression of the Christian name; he mingled
his tears with those of the patriarch, and earnestly inquired,
if no hopes of relief could be entertained from the Greek
emperors of the East. The patriarch exposed the vices and
weakness of the successors of Constantine. 'I will rouse,'
exclaimed the hermit, 'the martial nations of Europe in your
cause;' and Europe was obedient to the call of the hermit. The
astonished patriarch dismissed him with epistles of credit and
complaint, and no sooner did he land at Bari, than Peter
hastened to kiss the feet of the Roman pontiff. His stature
was small, his appearance contemptible; but his eye was keen
and lively, and he possessed that vehemence of speech which
seldom fails to impart the persuasion of the soul. He was born
of a gentleman's family (for we must now adopt a modern
idiom), and his military service was under the neighbouring
counts of Boulogne, the heroes of the first crusade.
Invigorated by the approbation of the pontiff, this zealous
missionary traversed, with speed and success, the provinces of
Italy and France. His diet was abstemious, his prayers long
and fervent, and the alms which he received with one hand, he
distributed with the other; his head was bare, his feet naked,
his meagre body was wrapt in a coarse garment; he bore and
displayed a weighty crucifix; and the ass on which he rode was
sanctified in the public eye by the service of the man of God.
He preached to innumerable crowds in the churches, the
streets, and the highways. ... When he painted the sufferings
of the natives and pilgrims of Palestine, every heart was
melted to compassion; every breast glowed with indignation,
when he challenged the warriors of the age to defend their
brethren and rescue their Saviour: his ignorance of art and
language was compensated by sighs and tears, and ejaculations;
and Peter supplied the deficiency of reason by loud and
frequent appeals to Christ and his Mother, to the saints and
angels of paradise, with whom he had personally conversed. The
most perfect orator of Athens might have envied the success of
his eloquence; the rustic enthusiast inspired the passions
which he felt, and Christendom expected with impatience the
counsels and decrees of the supreme pontiff."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 58.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

ALSO IN:
_J. C. Robertson, History of the Christian
Church, book 6, chapter 4 (volume 4)._

CRUSADES: A. D. 1096-1099.
The First Great Movement.

The first army of Crusaders to set out on the long march to
Jerusalem was a mob of men, women and children which had not
patience to wait for the organized movement of the military
leaders. They gathered in vast numbers on the banks of the
Moselle and the Meuse, in the spring of 1096, with Peter the
Hermit for their chosen chief. There were nine knights, only,
in the swarm, and but few who had horses to ride, or efficient
arms to bear, or provisions to feed upon. Knowing nothing, and
therefore fearing nothing, they marched away, through France,
Germany, Hungary and beyond, begging food where they could and
subsisting by pillage when it needed. A knight called Walter
the Penniless led the van, and Peter followed, with his second
division, by a somewhat different route. Walter escaped
serious trouble until he reached the country of the savage
Bulgarians. Peter's senseless mob provoked the just wrath of
the Hungarians by storming the small city of Semlin and
slaying 4,000 of its inhabitants. The route of both was lined
with the bones of thousands who perished of hunger, of
exposure, of disease, and by the swords of Hungarians and
Bulgarians. A third and a fourth host of like kind followed in
their wake, led by a monk, Gotschalk, a priest named Volkmar,
and a Count Emicon. These terrorized even more all the
countries through which they passed,--especially where Jews
were to be hunted and killed,--and were destroyed in Hungary
to almost the last man. Peter and Walter reached
Constantinople with 100,000 followers, it is said, even yet,
after all who had fallen by the way. Still refusing to wait
for the better appointed expeditions that were in progress,
and still appalling eastern Christendom by their lawless
barbarities, they passed into Asia Minor, and their miserable
career soon came to an end. Attacking the Turks in the city of
Nicæa,--which had become the capital of the Seljouk sultan of
Roum,--they were beaten, routed, scattered, slaughtered, until
barely 3,000 of the great host escaped. "Of the first
Crusaders," says Gibbon, "300,000 had already perished before
a single city was rescued from the infidels,--before their
graver and more noble brethren had completed the preparations
of their enterprise." Meantime the knights and princes of the
crusade had gathered their armies and were now (in the summer
of 1096) beginning to move eastward, by different routes. Not
one of the greater sovereigns of Europe had enlisted in the
undertaking. The chiefs of one armament were Godfrey de
Bouillon, duke of the Lower Lorraine, or Brabant; his
brothers, Eustace, count of Boulogne, and Baldwin; his cousin,
Baldwin de Bourg, with Baldwin, count of Hainaut, Dudon de
Contz, and other knights celebrated in the "Jerusalem
Delivered" of Tasso. This expedition followed nearly the route
of Peter the Hermit, through Hungary and Bulgaria, giving
hostages for its orderly conduct and winning the good-will of
those countries, even maddened as they were by the foregoing mobs.
{628}
Another larger following from France was led by Hugh, count of
Vermandois, brother of the king of France; Robert, duke of
Normandy, eldest son of William the Conqueror; Stephen, count
of Blois, the Conqueror's son-in-law, and Robert, count of
Flanders. These took the road into Italy, and to Bari, whence,
after spending the winter, waiting for favorable weather, they
were transported by ships to Greece, and pursued their march
to Constantinople. They were followed by a contingent from
southern Italy, under Bohemond, the Norman prince of Tarentum,
son of Robert Guiscard, and his knightly cousin, Tancred. A
fourth army, gathered in southern France by count Raymond of
Toulouse and Bishop Adhemer, the appointed legate and
representative of the pope, chose still another route, through
Lombardy, Dalmatia and Macedonia, into Thrace. On passing
through the territories of the Byzantine emperor (Alexius I.),
all the crusaders experienced his distrust, his duplicity, and
his cautious ill-will--which, under the circumstances were
natural enough. Alexius managed so well that he extorted from
each of the princes an acknowledgment of his rights of
sovereignty over the region of their expected conquests, with
an oath of fealty and homage, and he pushed them across the
Bosphorus so adroitly that no two had the opportunity to unite
their forces under the walls of Constantinople. Their first
undertaking in Asia [May and June, A. D. 1097] was the siege
of Nicæa, and they beleaguered it with an army which Gibbon
believes to have been never exceeded within the compass of a
single camp. Here, again, they were mastered by the cunning
diplomacy of the Greek emperor. When the sultan of Roum
yielded his capital, he was persuaded to surrender it to
Alexius, and the imperial banner protected it from the rage of
the discomfited crusaders. But they revenged themselves on the
Turk at Dorylæum, where he attacked them during their
subsequent march, and where he suffered a defeat which ended
all fighting in Asia Minor. Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, now
improved his opportunities by stealing away from the army,
with a few hundred knights and men, to make conquests on his
own account; with such success that he won the city of Edessa,
with a sweep of country around it, and founded a principality
which subsisted for half a century. The rest fared on, meeting
no opposition from infidel swords, but sickening and dying by
thousands, from heat and from want of water and food, until
they came to Antioch. There, the Turkish emir in command, with
a stout garrison of horse and foot, had prepared for a
stubborn defence, and he held the besiegers at bay for seven
months, while they starved in their ill-supplied camps. The
city was delivered to them by a traitor, at length, but prince
Bohemond, the crafty Norman, secured the benefit of the
treason to himself, and forced his compatriots to concede to
him the sovereignty of Antioch. The sufferings of the
crusaders did not end with the taking of the city. They
brought famine and pestilence upon themselves anew by their
greedy and sensual indulgence, and they were soon under siege
in their own turn, by a great army which the Turks had brought
against them. Death and desertion were in rivalry to thin
their wasted ranks. The survivors were in gloom and despair,
when an opportune miracle occurred to excite them afresh. A
lance, which visions and apparitions certified to be the very
spear that pierced the Redeemer's side, was found buried in a
church at Antioch. Under the stimulus of this amazing
discovery they sallied from the town and dispersed the great
army of the Turks in utter rout. Still the quarrels of the
leaders went on, and ten months more were consumed before the
remains of the Latin army advanced to Jerusalem. It was June,
A. D. 1099, when they saw the Holy City and assailed its
formidable walls. Their number was now reduced to 40,000, but
their devotion and their ardor rose to frenzy, and after a
siege of little more than a month they forced an entrance by
storm. Then they spared neither age nor sex until they had
killed all who denied the Savior of mankind--the Prince of
Peace.

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 58.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

ALSO IN:
_J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 1._

_W. Besant and E. H. Palmer, Jerusalem, chapter 6._

_C. Mills, History of the Crusades, chapter 2-6._

See also, JERUSALEM: A. D. 1099.

CRUSADES: A. D. 1099-1144.
The Latin conquests in the east.
The Kingdom of Jerusalem.

See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1099-1144.

CRUSADES: A. D. 1101-1102.
The after-wave of the first movement.

"The tales of victory brought home by the pilgrims excited the
most extravagant expectations in the minds of their auditors,
and nothing was deemed capable of resisting European valour.
The pope called upon all who had taken the cross to perform
their vow, the emperor Henry IV. had the crusade preached, in
order to gain favour with the clergy and laity. Many princes
now resolved to visit in person the new empire founded in the
East. Three great armies assembled: the first in Italy under
the archbishop of Milan, and the two counts of Blandrate; the
second in France under Hugh the Great and Stephen of Blois
[who had deserted their comrades of the first expedition at
Antioch, and] whom shame and remorse urged to perform their
vow, William, duke of Guienne and count of Poitou, who
mortgaged his territory to William Rufus of England to procure
funds, the count of Nevers, the duke of Burgundy, the bishops
of Laon and Soissons; the third in Germany, under the bishop
of Saltzburg, the aged duke Welf of Bavaria, Conrad the master
of the horse to the emperor, and many other knights and
nobles. Ida also, the margravine of Austria, declared her
resolution to share the toils and dangers of the way, and pay
her vows at the tomb of Christ. Vast numbers of women of all
ranks accompanied all these armies,--nay, in that of the duke
of Guienne, who was inferior to none in valour, but united to
it the qualities of a troubadour and glee-man, there appeared
whole troops of young women. The Italian pilgrims were the
first to arrive at Constantinople. They set out early in the
spring, and took their way through Carinthia, Hungary, and
Bulgaria. Though the excesses committed by them were great,
the emperor gave them a kind reception, and the most prudent
and friendly advice respecting their future progress. While
they abode at Constantinople, Conrad and the count of Blois,
and the duke of Burgundy, arrived, and at Whitsuntide they all
passed over, and encamped at Nicomedia."
{629}
With ignorant fatuity, and against all experienced advice, the
new Crusaders resolved to direct their march to Bag-dad and to
overthrow the caliphate. The first body which advanced was cut
to pieces by the Turks on the banks of the Halys, and only a
few thousands, out of more than one hundred thousand, are said
to have made their escape by desperate flight. The second and
third armies were met successively by the victorious Moslems,
before they had advanced so far, and were even more completely
annihilated. The latter body contained, according to the
chroniclers of the time, 150,000 pilgrims, of whom scarcely
one thousand were saved from slavery or death. The men fell
under the swords of the Turks; the women and girls, in great
numbers, finished out their days in the harems of the East.
Out of the wreck of the three vast armaments a slender column
of 10,000 men was got together after some weeks at Antioch and
led to Jerusalem (A. D. 1102). Most of these perished in
subsequent battles, and very few ever saw Europe again. "Such
was the fruitless termination of this second great movement of
the West, in which perhaps a third of a million of pilgrims
left their homes, never to revisit them."

_T. Keightley, The Crusaders, chapter 2._

ALSO IN:
_J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 4._

Crusades: A. D. 1104-1111.
Conquest of maritime cities of Syria and Palestine.
Destruction of the Library of Tripoli.

"The prosperity and the safety of Jerusalem appeared closely
connected with the conquest of the maritime cities of Syria
and Palestine; it being by them alone that it could receive
succour, or establish prompt and easy communications with the
West. The maritime nations of Europe were interested in
seconding, in this instance, the enterprises of the king of
Jerusalem. ... From the period of the first crusades, the
Pisans and the Genoese had constantly sent vessels to the seas
of the East; and their fleets had aided the Christians in
several expeditions against the Mussulmans. A Genoese fleet
had just arrived in the seas of Syria when Baldwin undertook
the siege of Ptolemaïs [Acre]. The Genoese were invited to
assist in this conquest; but as religion was not the principle
to bring them into action, they required, in return for their
assistance and their labour, that they should have a third of
the booty; they likewise stipulated to have a separate church
for themselves, and a national factory and tribunal in the
conquered city. Ptolemaïs was besieged by land and sea, and
after a bloody resistance of twenty days, the inhabitants and
the garrison proposed to surrender, and implored the clemency
of the conquerors. The city opened its gates to the
Christians, and the inhabitants prepared to depart, taking
with them whatever they deemed most valuable; but the Genoese,
at the sight of such rich booty, paid no respect to the
capitulation, and massacred without pity a disarmed and
defenceless people. ... In consequence of this victory,
several places which the Egyptians still held on the coasts of
Syria fell into the hands of the Christians." Among those was
the city of Tripoli. "Raymond, Count de St. Gilles and of
Thoulouse, one of the companions of Godfrey, after having
wandered for a long time about Asia, had died before this
place, of which he had commenced the siege. In memory of his
exploits in the first crusade, the rich territory of Tripoli
was created a county, and became the inheritance of his
family. This territory was celebrated for its productions. ...
A library established in this city, and celebrated through all
the East, contained the monuments of the ancient literature of
the Persians, the Arabians, the Egyptians, and the Greeks. A
hundred copyists were there constantly employed in
transcribing manuscripts. ... After the taking of the city, a
priest attached to Count Bernard de St. Gilles, entered the
room in which were collected a vast number of copies of the
Koran, and as he declared the library of Tripoli contained
only the impious books of Mahomet, it was given up to the
flames. ... Bibles, situated on the smiling and fertile shores
of Phoenicia, Sarepta, where St. Jerome saw still in his day
the tower of Isaiah; and Berytus, famous in the early days of
the church for its school of eloquence, shared the fate of
Tripoli, and became baronies bestowed upon Christian knights.
After these conquests, the Pisans, the Genoese, and several
warriors who had followed Baldwin in his expeditions, returned
into Europe; and the king of Jerusalem, abandoned by these
useful allies, was obliged to employ the forces which remained
in repulsing the invasions of the Saracens."

_J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, volume 1, book 5._

CRUSADES: A. D. 1147-1149.
The Second Great Movement.

During the reign of Fulk, the fourth king of Jerusalem, the
Latin power in Palestine and its neighboring territories began
to be seriously shaken by a vigorous Turkish prince named
Zenghi, on whom the sultan Mahmoud had conferred the
government of all the country west of the Tigris. It was the
first time since the coming of the Christians of the West that
the whole strength of Islam in that region had been so nearly
gathered into one strong hand, to be used against them, and
they felt the effect speedily, being themselves weakened by
many quarrels. In 1143 King Fulk died, leaving the crown to a
young son, Baldwin III.,--a boy of thirteen, whose mother
governed in his name. The next year Zenghi captured the
important city of Edessa, and consternation was produced by
his successes. Europe was then appealed to for help against
the advancing Turk, and the call from Jerusalem was taken up
by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the irresistible enthusiast,
whose influence accomplished, in his time, whatever he willed
to have done. Just half a century after Peter the Hermit, St.
Bernard preached a Second Crusade, and with almost equal
effect, notwithstanding the better knowledge now possessed of
all the hardships and perils of the expedition. This time,
royalty took the lead. King Conrad of Germany commanded a
great army from that country, and another host followed King
Louis VII. from France. "Both armies marched down the Danube,
to Constantinople, in the summer of 1147. At the same moment
King Roger [of Naples], with his fleet, attacked, not the
Turks, but the Greek seaport towns of the Morea. Manuel [the
Byzantine emperor] thereupon, convinced that the large armies
were designed for the destruction of his empire in the first
place, with the greatest exertions, got together troops from
all his provinces, and entered into a half-alliance with the
Turks of Asia Minor. The mischief and ill-feeling was
increased by the lawless conduct of the German hordes; the
Greek troops attacked them more than once; whereupon numerous
voices were raised in Louis's headquarters to demand open war
against the faithless Greeks.
{630}
The kings were fully agreed not to permit this, but on
arriving in Constantinople they completely fell out, for,
while Louis made no secret of his warm friendship for Roger,
Conrad promised the Emperor of Constantinople to attack the
Normans as soon as the Crusade should be ended. This was a bad
beginning for a united campaign in the East, and moreover, at
every step eastward, new difficulties arose. The German army,
broken up into several detachments, and led without ability or
prudence, was attacked in Asia Minor by the Emir of Iconium,
and cut to pieces, all but a few hundred men. The French,
though better appointed, also suffered severe losses in that
country, but contrived nevertheless, to reach Antioch with a
very considerable force, and from thence might have carried
the project which the second Baldwin had conceived in vain,
namely, the defence of the northeastern frontier, upon which,
especially since Zenki [Zenghi] had made his appearance, the
life or death of the Christian states depended. But in vain
did Prince Raymond of Antioch try to prevail upon King Louis
to take this view, and to attack without delay the most
formidable of all their adversaries, Noureddin [son of Zenghi,
now dead]. Louis would not hear or do anything till he had
seen Jerusalem and prayed at the Holy Sepulchre. ... In
Jerusalem he [King Louis] was welcomed by Queen Melisende (now
regent, during her son's minority, after Fulco's death), with
praise and gratitude, because he had not taken part in the
distant wars of the Prince of Antioch, but had reserved his
forces for the defence of the holy city of Jerusalem. It was
now resolved to lead the army against Damascus, the only
Turkish town whose Emir had always refused to submit to either
Zenki or Noureddin. Nevertheless Noureddin instantly collected
all his available forces, to succour the besieged town." But
he was spared further exertion by the jealous disagreement of
the Christians, who began to take thought as to what should be
done with Damascus when they took it. The Syrian barons
concluded that they would prefer to leave the city in Turkish
hands, and by treacherous manœuvres they forced king Louis to
raise the siege. "The German king, long since tired of his
powerless position, returned home in the autumn of 1148, and
Louis, after much pressing, stayed a few months longer, and
reached Europe in the following spring. The whole expedition
... had been wrecked, without honour and without result, by
the most wretched personal passions, and the most narrow and
selfish policy."

_H. Von Sybel, History and Literature of the Crusades,
chapter 3._

"So ended in utter shame and ignominy the Second Crusade. The
event seemed to give the lie to the glowing promises and
prophecies of St. Bernard. So vast had been the drain of
population to feed this holy war that, in the phrase of an
eye-witness, the cities and castles were empty, and scarcely
one man was left to seven women; and now it was known that the
fathers, the husbands, the sons, or the brothers of these
miserable women would see their earthly homes no more. The cry
of anguish charged Bernard with the crime of sending them
forth on an errand in which they had done absolutely nothing
and had reaped only wretchedness and disgrace. For a time
Bernard himself was struck dumb: but he soon remembered that
he had spoken with the authority of God and his vicegerent,
and that the guilt or failure must lie at the door of the
pilgrims."

_G. W. Cox, The Crusades, chapter 5._

CRUSADES: A. D. 1187.
The loss of Jerusalem.

See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1149-1187.

CRUSADES: A. D. 1188-1192.
The Third Great Movement.

When the news reached Europe that Saladin, the redoubtable new
champion of Islam had expelled the Christians and the Cross
from Jerusalem, polluting once more the precincts of the Holy
Sepulchre, the effect produced was something not easily
understood at the present day. If we may believe historians of
the time, the pope (Urban III.) died of grief; "Christians
forgot all the ills of their own country to weep over
Jerusalem. ... Luxury was banished from cities; injuries were
forgotten and alms were given abundantly, Christians slept
upon ashes, clothed themselves in haircloth, and expiated
their disorderly lives by fasting and mortification. The
clergy set the example; the morals of the cloister were
reformed, and cardinals, condemning themselves to poverty,
promised to repair to the Holy Land, supported on charity by
the way. These pious reformations did not last long; but men's
minds were not the less prepared for a new crusade by them,
and all Europe was soon roused by the voice of Gregory VIII.,
who exhorted the faithful to assume the cross and take up
arms."

_J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 7._

"The emperor Frederic Barbarossa and the kings of France and
England assumed the cross; and the tardy magnitude of their
armaments was anticipated by the maritime states of the
Mediterranean and the ocean. The skilful and provident
Italians first embarked in the ships of Genoa, Pisa, and
Venice. They were speedily followed by the most eager pilgrims
of France, Normandy and the Western Isles. The powerful
succour of Flanders, Frise, and Denmark filled near a hundred
vessels; and the northern warriors were distinguished in the
field by a lofty stature and a ponderous battle-axe. Their
increasing multitudes could no longer be confined within the
walls of Tyre [which the Latins still held], or remain
obedient to the voice of Conrad [Marquis of Montferrat, who
had taken command of the place and repelled the attacks of
Saladin]. They pitied the misfortunes and revered the dignity
of Lusignan [the nominal king of Jerusalem, lately captive in
Saladin's hands], who was released from prison, perhaps to
divide the army of the Franks. He proposed the recovery of
Ptolemais, or Acre, thirty miles to the south of Tyre; and the
place was first invested [July, 1189] by 2,000 horse and
30,000 foot under his nominal command. I shall not expatiate
on the story of this memorable siege, which lasted near two
years, and consumed, in a narrow space, the forces of Europe
and Asia. ... At the sound of the holy trumpet the Moslems of
Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and the Oriental provinces assembled
under the servant of the prophet: his camp was pitched and
removed within a few miles of Acre; and he laboured, night and
day, for the relief of his brethren and the annoyance of the
Franks. ... In the spring of the second year, the royal fleets
of France and England cast anchor in the bay of Acre, and the
siege was more vigorously prosecuted by the youthful emulation
of the two kings, Philip Augustus and Richard Plantagenet.
{631}
After every resource had been tried, and every hope was
exhausted, the defenders of Acre submitted to their fate. ...
By the conquest of Acre the Latin powers acquired a strong
town and a convenient harbour; but the advantage was most
dearly purchased. The minister and historian of Saladin
computes, from the report of the enemy, that their numbers, at
different periods, amounted to 500,000 or 600,000; that more
than 100, 000 Christians were slain; that a far greater number
was lost by disease or shipwreck." On the reduction of Acre,
king Philip Augustus returned to France, leaving only 500
knights and 10,000 men behind him. Meantime, the old emperor,
Frederick Barbarossa, coming by the landward route, through
the country of the Greeks and Asia Minor, with a well-trained
army of 20,000 knights and 50,000 men on foot, had perished by
the way, drowned in a little Cilician torrent, and only 5,000
of his troops had reached the camp at Acre. Old as he was, (he
was seventy when he took the cross) Barbarossa might have
changed the event of the Crusade if he had reached the scene
of conflict; for he had brains with his valor and character
with his ferocity, which Richard Cœur de Lion had not. The
latter remained another year in the Holy Land; recovered
Cæsarea and Jaffa; threatened Saladin in Jerusalem seriously,
but to no avail; and stirred up more and fiercer quarrels
among the Christians than had been customary, even on the soil
which was sacred to them. In the end, a treaty was arranged
which displeased the more devout on both sides. "It was
stipulated that Jerusalem and the holy sepulchre should be
open, without tribute or vexation, to the pilgrimage of the
Latin Christians; that, after the demolition of Ascalon, they
should inclusively possess the sea-coast from Jaffa to Tyre;
that the count of Tripoli and the prince of Antioch should be
comprised in the truce; and that, during three years and three
months, all hostilities should cease. ... Richard embarked for
Europe, to seek a long captivity and a premature grave; and
the space of a few months concluded the life and glories of
Saladin."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 59.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

"A halo of false glory surrounds the Third Crusade from the
associations which connect it with the lion-hearted king of
England. The exploits of Richard I. have stirred to enthusiasm
the dullest of chroniclers, have furnished themes for jubilant
eulogies, and have shed over his life that glamour which
cheats even sober-minded men when they read the story of his
prototype Achilleus in the tale of Troy. ... When we turn from
the picture to the reality, we shall see in this Third Crusade
an enterprise in which the fiery zeal which does something
towards redeeming the savage brutalities of Godfrey and the
first crusaders is displaced by base and sordid greed, by
intrigues utterly of the earthy, by wanton crimes from which
we might well suppose that the sun would hide away its face;
and in the leaders of this enterprise we shall see men in whom
morally there is scarcely a single quality to relieve the
monotonous blackness of their infamy; in whom, strategically,
a very little generalship comes to the aid of a blind brute
force."

_G. W. Cox, The Crusades, chapter 7._

ALSO IN:
_Mrs. W. Busk, Mediaeval Popes, Emperors, Kings
and Crusaders, book 2, chapter 12, and book 3, chapter 1-2._

CRUSADES: A. D. 1196-1197.
The Fourth Expedition.

A crusading expedition of German barons and their followers,
which went to the Holy Land, by way of Italy, in 1196, is
generally counted as the Fourth Crusade, though some writers
look upon it as a movement supplementary to the Third Crusade.
The Germans, who numbered some 40,000, do not seem to have
been welcomed by the Christians of Palestine. The latter
preferred to maintain the state of peace then prevailing; but
the new crusaders forced hostilities at once. Saladin was
dead; his brother Saphadin accepted the challenge to war with
prompt vigor and struck the first hard blow, taking Jaffa,
with great slaughter, and demolishing its fortifications. But
Saphadin was presently defeated in a battle fought between
Tyre and Sidon, and Jaffa was recovered, together with other
towns and most of the coast. But, a little later, the Germans
suffered, in their turn, a most demoralizing reverse at the
castle of Thoron, which they besieged, and were further
disturbed, in the midst of their depression, by news of the
death of their emperor, Henry VI. A great part of them,
thereupon, returned home. Those who remained, or many of them,
occupied Jaffa, where they were attacked, a few months later,
and cut to pieces.

_G. W. Cox, The Crusades, chapter 8._

CRUSADES: A. D. 1201-1203.
The Fifth Movement.-
Treachery of the Venetians.
Conquest of Constantinople.

"Every traveller returning from Syria brought a prayer for
immediate help from the survivors of the Third Crusade. It was
necessary to act at once if any portion even of the wreck of
the kingdom of Jerusalem were to be saved. Innocent the Third,
and some, at least, of the statesmen of the West were fully
alive to the progress which Islam had made since the departure
of the Western kings. In 1197, however, after five years of
weary waiting, the time seemed opportune for striking a new
blow for Christendom. Saladin, the great Sultan, had died in
1193, and his two sons were already quarreling about the
partition of his empire. The contending divisions of the Arab
Moslems were at this moment each bidding for the support of
the Christians of Syria. The other great race of Mahometans
which had threatened Europe, the Seljukian Turks, had made a
halt in their progress through Asia Minor. ... Other special
circumstances which rendered the moment favourable for a new
crusade, combined with the profound conviction of the
statesmen of the West of the danger to Christendom from the
progress of Islam, urged Western Europe to take part in the
new enterprise. The reigning Pope, Innocent III., was the
great moving spirit of the Fourth Crusade." The popular
preacher of the Crusade was found in an ignorant priest named
Fulk, of Neuilly, whose success in kindling public enthusiasm
was almost equal to that of Peter the Hermit. Vast numbers
took the cross, with Theobald, count of Champagne, Louis,
count of Blois and Chartres, Simon de Montfort, Walter of
Brienne, Baldwin, count of Flanders, Hugh of St. Pol, Geoffrey
de Villehardouin, marshal of Champagne and future historian of
the Crusade, and many other prominent knights and princes
among the leaders. The young count of Champagne was the chosen
chief; but he sickened and died and his place was taken by
Boniface, marquis of Montferrat.
{632}
It was the decision of the leaders that the expedition should
be directed in the first instance against the Moslem power in
Egypt, and that it should be conveyed to the attack of Egypt
by sea. Venice, alone, seemed to be able to furnish ships,
sailors and supplies for so great a movement, and a contract
with Venice for the service was concluded in the spring of
120l. But Venice was mercenary, unscrupulous and treacherous,
caring for nothing but commercial gains. Before the crusaders
could gather at her port for embarkation, she had betrayed
them to the Moslems. By a secret treaty with the sultan of
Egypt, the fact of which is coming more and more conclusively
to light, she had undertaken to frustrate the Crusade, and to
receive important commercial privileges at Alexandria as
compensation for her treachery. When, therefore, in the early
summer of 1202, the army of the Crusade was collected at
Venice to take ship, it encountered difficulties,
discouragements and ill-treatments which thickened daily. The
number assembled was not equal to expectation. Some had gone
by sea from Flanders; some by other routes. But Venice had
provided transport for the whole, and inflexibly demanded pay
for the whole. The money in hand was not equal to this claim.
The summer was lost in disputes and attempted compromises.
Many of the crusaders withdrew in disgust and went home. At
length, in defiance of the censures of the pope and of the
bitter opposition of many leaders and followers of the
expedition, there was a bargain struck, by the terms of which
the crusaders were to assist the Venetians in taking and
plundering the Christian city of Zara, a dreaded commercial
rival on the Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic, belonging to the
king of Hungary, himself one of the promoters of the very
crusade which was now to be turned against him. The infamous
compact was carried out. Zara was taken, and in the end it was
totally destroyed by the Venetians. In the meantime, the
doomed city was occupied by the crusading army through the
winter, while a still more perfidious plot was being formed.
Old Dandolo, the blind doge of Venice, was the master spirit
of it. He was helped by the influence of Philip, one of the
two rivals then fighting for the imperial crown in Germany and
Italy. Philip had married a daughter of Isaac II. (Angelos),
made emperor at Constantinople on the fall of the dynasty of
Comnenus, and that feeble prince had lately been dethroned by
his brother. The son and heir of Isaac, named Alexius, had
escaped from Constantinople and had made his way to Philip
imploring help. Either Philip conceived the idea, or it was
suggested to him, that the armament of the Crusade might be
employed to place the young Alexius on the throne of his
father. To the Venetians the scheme was more than acceptable.
It would frustrate the Crusade, which they had pledged
themselves to the sultan of Egypt to accomplish; it would
satisfy their ill-will towards the Byzantines, and, more
important than all else, it would give them an opportunity to
secure immeasurable advantages over their rivals in the great
trade which Constantinople held at command. The marquis of
Montferrat, commander of the Crusade, had some grievances of
his own and some ambitions of his own, which made him
favorable to the new project, and he was easily won to it. The
three influences thus combined--those of Philip, of Dandolo,
and of Montferrat--overcame all opposition. Some who opposed
were bribed, some were intimidated, some were deluded by
promises, some deserted the ranks. Pope Innocent remonstrated,
appealed and threatened in vain. The pilgrim host, "changed
from a crusading army into a filibustering expedition," set
sail from Zara in the spring of the year 1203, and was landed,
the following June, not on the shores of Egypt or Syria, but
under the walls of Constantinople. Its conquest, pillage and
brutally destructive treatment of the great city are described
in another place.

_E. Pears, The Fall of Constantinople, chapter 8-13._

ALSO IN:
_G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine and
Greek Empires, 716-1453, book 3, chapter 3._

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 59.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

See, also,
BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1203-1204

CRUSADES: A. D. 1201-1283.
Against the heathen Sclavonians on the Baltic.

See LIVONIA: 12TH-13TH CENTURIES;
and PRUSSIA: 13TH CENTURY.

CRUSADES: A. D. 1209-1242.
Against the Albigenses.

See ALBIGENSES.

CRUSADES: A. D, 1212.
The Children's Crusade.