Chapter LII: Front Matter (52)

"The Caucasus has always possessed a certain fascination not
for the Russians only, but also for western nations, and is
peculiarly rich in historical traditions, and in memories of
ancient times and ancient nations. Here to the rocks of
Elbruz, Prometheus lay chained; and to Colchis, where the
Phasis flowed towards the sea, through ever green woods, came
the Argonauts. The present Kutais is the old capital of King
Æetes, near which, in the sacred grove of Ares, hung the
golden fleece. The gold mines which the Russians discovered in
1864 were apparently known to the Greeks, whose colony,
Dioscurias, was an assemblage of 300 diverse nationalities.
... Here on the coasts of the stormy and dangerous Black Sea
arose the famous Pontine kingdom [see MITHRIDATIC WARS] which
in spite of its valiant resistance under Mithridates, fell a
victim to Roman aggression. Along the rivers Kura and Rion ran
the old commercial road from Europe to Asia, which enriched
the Venetians and the Genoese in the middle ages. Up to recent
times this trade consisted not only of all sorts of other
merchandise, but of slaves; numberless girls and women were
conveyed to Turkish harems and there exercised an important
influence on the character of the Tartar and Mongol races. In
the middle ages the Caucasus was the route by which the wild
Asiatic hordes, the Goths, Khasars, Huns, Avars, Mongols,
Tartars, and Arabs crossed from Asia into Europe; and
consequently its secluded valleys contain a population
composed of more different and distinct races than any other
district in the world. ... It was in the 16th century, under
Ivan the Terrible, that Russia first turned her attention to
the conquest of the Caucasus; but it was not till 1859 that
the defeat and capture of the famous Schamyl brought about the
final subjugation of the country. ... In 1785 [after the
partial conquest of 1784--see TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792] the
mountaineers had been incited to take arms by a so-called
prophet Scheick Mansur, but he was seized and banished to
Solovetsk, on the White Sea. In 1820 a Mollah, Kasi by name,
made his appearance in Daghestan, and began to preach the
'Kasawat,' that is, holy war against the Russians. To him
succeeded another equally fanatical adventurer, Hamset Beg.
The work which they had begun was carried on by Schamyl, who
far surpassed his predecessors in all the qualities which make
up a successful guerilla chief, and who maintained the unequal
conflict against the enemies of his country for 25 years with
singular good fortune, undaunted courage, untiring energy, and
conspicuous ability. He was of the tribe of the Lesghians in
Daghestan, and was born in 1796, in the village of Gimri, of
poor shepherd parents. In spite of his humble origin he raised
himself to the rank of an Imaum, surrounded himself with a
strong body-guard of devoted adherents, whom he named Murides,
and succeeded in fanning to a flame the patriotic ardour of
his fellow-countrymen. The capture of the mountain fastness of
Achulgo in 1839 seemed to be the death-blow of Schamyl's
cause, for it brought about the loss of the whole of
Daghestan, the very focus of the Murides' activity.
{401}
Schamyl barely escaped being made a prisoner, and was forced
to yield up his son, Djammel-Edden, only nine years of age as
a hostage. The boy was sent to St. Petersburg and placed in a
cadet corps, which he left at the conclusion of his military
education somewhere about 1850 and returned to his native
country in 1854 where he died a few years later. In 1840 the
Tchetchens, who had previously been pacified, rose in arms
once more, and Daghestan and other parts of the country
followed their example. The country of the Tchetchens was a
specially favourable theatre for the conflict with the
Russians; its long mountain chains, rocky fastnesses,
impenetrable forests, and wild precipices and gorges rendered
ambuscades and surprises of constant and, to the Russians,
fatal occurrence. During the earlier stages of the war, Russia
had ransomed the officers taken prisoners by the mountaineers,
but, subsequently, no quarter was given on either side. At
last, by means of a great concentration of troops on all the
threatened points, by fortifying the chief central stations,
find by forming broad military roads throughout the district,
the Russians succeeded in breaking down Schamyl's resistance.
He now suffered one reverse after another. His chief
fastnesses, Dargo, Weden, and Guni, were successively stormed
and destroyed; and, finally, he himself and his family were
taken prisoners. He was astonished and, it is said, not
altogether gratified to find that a violent death was not to
close his romantic career. He and his family were at first
interned at Kaluga in Russia, both a house and a considerable
sum of money for his maintenance being assigned to him. But
after a few years he was allowed to remove to Mecca, where he
died. His sons and grandsons, who have entirely adopted the
manners of the Russians, are officers in the Circassian guard.
In 1864 the pacification of the whole country was
accomplished, and a few years later the abolition of serfdom
was proclaimed at Tifiis. After the subjugation of the various
mountain tribes, the Circassians had the choice given them by
the Government of settling on the low country along the Kuban,
or of emigrating to Turkey. The latter course was chosen by
the bulk of the nation, urged, thereto, in great measure, by
envoys from Turkey. As many as 400,000 are said to have come
to the ports, where the Sultan had promised to send vessels to
receive them; but delays took place, and a large number died
of want and disease. Those who reached Turkey were settled on
the west coasts of the Black Sea, in Bulgaria and near Varna,
and proved themselves most troublesome and unruly subjects.
Most of those who at first remained in Circassia followed
their fellow-countrymen in 1874."

_H. M. Chester, Russia, chapter 18._

ALSO IN:
_F. Mayne, Life of Nicholas I., part 1, chapter 11 and 14._

_S. M. Schmucker, Life and Reign of Nicholas I., chapter 21._

CAUCASUS, The Indian.

"The real Caucasus was the most lofty range of mountains known
to the Greeks before [Alexander's conquests], and they were
generally regarded as the highest mountains in the world.
Hence when the army of Alexander came in sight of the vast
mountain barrier [of the Hindoo Koosh] that rose before them
as they advanced northward from Arachosia, they seem to have
at once concluded that this could be no other than the
Caucasus." Hence the name Caucasus given by the Greeks to
those mountains; "for the name of Hindoo Koosh, by which they
are still known, is nothing more than a corruption of the
Indian Caucasus."

_E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 12, note Q._

CAUCI, The.

See IRELAND, TRIBES OF EARLY CELTIC INHABITANTS.

CAUCUS.
In 1634--the fourth year of the colony of Massachusetts
Bay--the freemen of the colony chose Dudley instead of
Winthrop for governor. The next year they "followed up the
doctrine of rotation in office by choosing Haynes as governor,
a choice agreed upon by deputies from the towns, who came
together for that purpose previously to the meeting of the
court--the first instance of 'the caucus system' on record."

_R. Hildreth, History of the U. S., volume 1, page 224._

See also, CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.

CAUDINE FORKS, The Romans at the.

See ROME: B. C. 343-290.

CAUSENNÆ, OR ISINÆ.

A town of some importance in Roman Britain. "There can be no
doubt that this town occupied the site of the modern Ancaster,
which has been celebrated for its Roman antiquities since the
time of Leland."

_T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5._

CAVALIERS, The party of the.

See ENGLAND: A.. D. 1641 (OCTOBER);
also, ROUNDHEADS.

CAVE DWELLERS.

"We find a hunting and fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the
remote pleistocene age, in possession of France, Belgium,
Germany, and Britain, probably of the same stock as the
Eskimos, living and forming part of a fauna in which northern
and southern, living and extinct, species are strangely
mingled with those now living in Europe. In the neolithic age
caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by men of the
Iberian or Basque race, which is still represented by the
small dark-haired peoples of Europe."

_W. B. Dawkins, Cave Hunting, page 430._

CAVE OF ADULLAM.

See ADULLAM, CAVE OF.

CAVOUR, Count, and the unification of Italy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859, and 1859-1861.

CAVOUR, Treaty of (1561).

See SAVOY: A. D. 1559-1580.

CAWNPUR, OR CAWNPORE: A. D. 1857.
Siege by the Sepoy mutineers.
Surrender and massacre of the English.

See INDIA: A. D. 1857 (MAY-AUGUST),
and 1857-1858 (JULY-JUNE).

CAXTON PRESS, The.

See PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1476-1491.

CAYENNE, Colonization of.

See GUIANA: A. D. 1580-1814.

CAYUGAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

CEADAS, The.

See BARATHRUM.

CEBRENES, The.

See TROJA.

CECIL, Sir William (Lord Burleigh),
The reign of Elizabeth.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1558-1598.

CECORA, Battle of (1621).

See POLAND: A. D. 1590-1648.

CECROPIA.--CECROPIAN HILL.
The Acropolis of Athens.

See ATTICA.

{402}

CEDAR CREEK, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D.1864 (AUGUST-OCTOBER: VIRGINIA).

CEDAR MOUNTAIN OR CEDAR RUN, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862
(JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

CELESTINE II., Pope, A. D. 1143-1144. Celestine III., Pope, A. D. 1191-1198. Celestine IV., Pope, A. D. 1241.. Celestine V., Pope, A. D. 1294, July to December.

CELTIBERIANS, The.

"The Celtiberi occupied the centre of Spain, and a large part
of the two Castiles, an elevated table land bordered and
intersected by mountains. They were the most warlike race in
the Spanish peninsula."

_G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, chapter 1._

"The appellation Celtiberians indicates that in the
north-eastern part of the peninsula [Spain] there was a
mixture of Celts and Iberians. Nevertheless the Iberians must
have been the prevailing race, for we find no indications of
Celtic characteristics in the people."

_W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 6, note._

See, also, NUMANTIAN WAR.

CELTS, The.

"The Celts form a branch of the great family of nations which
has been variously called Aryan, Indo-European, Indo-Germanic,
Indo-Celtic and Japhetic, its other branches being represented by
the Italians, the Greeks, the Litu-Slaves, the Armenians, the
Persians and the chief peoples of Hindustan. ... The Celts of
antiquity who appeared first and oftenest in history were
those of Gallia, which, having been made by the French into
Gaule, we term Gaul. It included the France and Switzerland of
the present day, and much territory besides. This people had
various names. One of them was Galli, which in their language
meant warriors or brave men; ... but the Gauls themselves in
Cæsar's time appear to have preferred the name which he wrote
Celtæ. This was synonymous with the other and appears to have
meant warriors. ... The Celtic family, so far back as we can
trace it into the darkness of antiquity consisted of two
groups or branches, with linguistic features of their own
which marked them off from one another. To the one belonged
the ancestors of the people who speak Gaelic in Ireland, the
Isle of Man and the Highlands of the North. ... The national
name which the members of this group have always given
themselves, so far as one knows, is that of Gaidhel,
pronounced and spelt in English Gael, but formerly written by
themselves Goidel. ... The other group is represented in point
of speech by the people of Wales and the Bretons. ... The
national name of those speaking these dialects was that of
Briton; but, since that word has now no precise meaning, we
take the Welsh form of it, which is Brython, and call this
group Brythons and Brythonic, whenever it is needful to be
exact. The ancient Gauls must also be classified with them,
since the Brythons may be regarded as Gauls who came over to
settle in Britain."

_J. Rhys, Celtic Britain, chapter 1._

See, also, ARYANS, and APPENDIX A, volume 1.

CELTS:
Origin and first meaning of the name.

"Who were the Keltre of Spain? the population whose name
occurs in the word Celtici and Celtiberi, Keltic Iberians or
Iberian Kelts? ... I think, that though used to denominate the
tribe and nations allied to the Gauls, it [the word Celt or
Kelt] was, originally, no Gallic word--as little native as
Welsh is British. I also think that even the first populations
to which it was applied were other than Keltic in the modern
sense of the term. I think, in short, that it was a word
belonging to the Iberian language, applied, until the time of
Cæsar at least, to Iberic populations. ... By the time of
Cæsar, however, a great number of undoubted Gauls were
included under the name Celtæ: in other words, the Iberian
name for an Iberian population was first adopted by the Greeks
as the name for all the inhabitants of south-western Gaul, and
it was then extended by the Romans so as to include all the
populations of Gallia except the Belgæ and Aquitanians."

_R G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, chapter 2._

----------CELTS: Origin: End----------

CELTS.

A name given among archæologists to certain prehistoric
implements, both stone and bronze, of the wedge, chisel and
axe kind. Mr. Thomas Wright, contends that the term is
properly applied only to the bronze chisels, which the old
antiquary Hearne identified with the Roman celtis, or
chisel--whence the name. It has evidently no connection with
the word Celt used ethnologically.

CELYDDON, Forest of (or Coed Celydon).

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CENABUM.

See GENABUM.

CENOMANIANS, The.

See INSUBRIANS.

CENSORS, The Roman.

"The censorship was an office so remarkable that, however
familiar the subject may be to many readers, it is necessary
here to bestow some notice on it. Its original business was to
take a register of the citizens and of their property; but
this, which seems at first sight to be no more than the
drawing up of a mere statistical report, became in fact, from
the large discretion allowed to every Roman officer, a
political power of the highest importance. The censors made
out the returns of the free population; but they did more;
they divided it according to its civil distinctions, and drew
up a list of the senators, a list of the equites, a list of
the members of the several tribes, or of those citizens who
enjoyed the right of voting, and a list of the ærarians,
consisting of those freedmen, naturalized strangers, and
others, who, being enrolled in no tribe, possessed no vote in
the comitia, but still enjoyed all the private rights of Roman
citizens. Now the lists thus drawn up by the censors were
regarded as legal evidence of a man's condition. ... From
thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to
the decision of questions of right; such as whether a citizen
was really worthy of retaining his rank. ... If a man behaved
tyrannically to his wife or children, if he was guilty of
excessive cruelty even to his slaves, if he neglected his
land, if he indulged in habits of extravagant expense, or
followed any calling which was regarded as degrading, the
offence was justly noted by the censors, and the offender was
struck off from the list of senators, if his rank was so high;
or, if he were an ordinary citizen, he was expelled from his
tribe, and reduced to the class of the ærarians. ... The
censors had the entire management of the regular revenues of
the state, or of its vectigalia. They were the commonwealth's
stewards, and to their hands all its property was entrusted.
... With these almost kingly powers, and arrayed in kingly
state, for the censor's robe was all scarlet ... the censors
might well seem too great for a free commonwealth."

_T. Arnold, History of Rome, chapter 17._

See, also, LUSTRUM.

{403}

CENTRAL AMERICA:
Ruins of ancient civilization.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS, and QUICHES;
also, MEXICO, ANCIENT.

CENTRAL AMERICA: Discovery and early settlement.

See AMERICAN: A. D. 1498-1505; 1500-1511; 1513-1517.

CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.
Separation from Spain, and Independence.
Attempted federation and its failures.
Wars and revolutions of the five Republics.

"The central part of the American continent, extending from
the southern boundary of Mexico to the Isthmus of Panama,
consisted in the old colonial times of several Intendancies,
all of which were united in the Captaincy-General of
Guatemala. Like the West Indian Islands, it was a neglected
part of the Spanish Empire. ... Central America has no history
up to the epoch of independence. ... It was not until the
success of the Revolution had become certain on both sides of
them, both in Mexico and New Granada, that the Intendancies
which made up the Captaincy-General of Guatemala declared
themselves also independent of Spain. The cry of liberty had
indeed been raised in Costa Rica in 1813, and in Nicaragua in
1815; but the Revolution was postponed for six years longer.
Guatemala, the seat of government, published its declaration
in September, 1821, and its example was speedily followed by
San Salvador and Honduras. Nicaragua, on proclaiming its
independence, together with one of the departments of
Guatemala, declared its adhesion to what was known in Mexico
as the plan of Ignala [see MEXICO: A. D. 1820-1826]. As there
were no Spanish troops in Central America, the recusant
Spanish official party could make no resistance to the popular
movement; and many of them crossed the sea to Cuba or returned
to Spain. ... The Revolution of Central America thus stands
alone in the history of independence, as having been
accomplished without the shedding of blood." During the brief
empire of Iturbide in Mexico [see as above] the Central
American states were annexed to it, though with strong
resistance on the part of all except Guatemala. "On the
proclamation of the Federal Republic in Mexico [1824], the
whole of Central America, except the district of Chiapas,
withdrew from the alliance, and drove out the Mexican
officials as only a year before they had driven out the
Spanish officials. The people now had to face the task of
forming a government for themselves: and ... they now resolved
on combining in a federation, in imitation of the great United
States of North America. Perhaps no states were ever less
suited to form a federal union. The petty territories of
Central America lie on two Oceans, are divided by lofty
mountains, and have scarcely any communication with each
other: and the citizens of each have scarcely any common
interest. A Central American federation, however, was an
imposing idea, and the people clung to it with great
pertinacity. The first effort for federation was made under
the direction of General Filisola. All the Intendancies
combined in one sovereign state; first under the name of the
'United Provinces,' afterwards (November 22, 1823) under that
of the 'Federal Republic' of Central America. ... A
constitution of the most liberal kind was voted. This
constitution is remarkable for having been the first which
abolished slavery at once and absolutely and declared the
slave trade to be piracy. ... The clerical and oligarchic
party set their faces stubbornly against the execution of the
constitution, and began the revolt at Leon in Nicaragua. The
union broke down in 1826, and though Morazan [of Honduras]
reconstituted it in 1829, its history is a record of continual
rebellion and reaction on the part of the Guatemaltec
oligarchy. Of all South American conservative parties this
oligarchy was perhaps the most despicable. They sank to their
lowest when they raised the Spanish flag in 1832. But in doing
this they went too far. Morazan's successes date from this
time, and having beaten the Guatemaltecs, he transferred the
Federal government in 1834 to San Salvador. But the Federal
Republic of Central America dragged on a precarious existence
until 1838, when it was overthrown by the revolt of Carrera in
Guatemala. From the first the influence of the Federalists in
the capital began to decay, and it was soon apparent that they
had little power except in Honduras, San Salvador and
Nicaragua. The Costa Ricans, a thriving commercial community,
but of no great political importance, and separated by
mountainous wastes from all the rest, soon ceased to take any
part in public business. A second Federal Republic, excluding
Costa Rica, was agreed to in 1842; but it fared no better than
the first. The chief representative of the Federalist
principle in Central America was Morazan, of Honduras, from
whose government Carrera had revolted in 1838. On the failure
of the Federation Morazan had fled to Chile, and on his return
to Costa Rica he was shot at San José by the Carrerists. This
was a great blow to the Liberals, and it was not until 1847
that a third Federation, consisting of Honduras, San Salvador,
and Nicaragua, was organized. For some years Honduras, at the
head of these states, carried on a war against Guatemala to
compel it to join the union. Guatemala was far more than their
match: San Salvador and Nicaragua soon failed in the struggle,
and left Honduras to carry on the war alone. Under General
Carrera Guatemala completely defeated its rival; and to his
successes are due the revival of the Conservative or Clerical
party all over Central America. ... The government of each
state became weaker and weaker: revolutions were everywhere
frequent: and ultimately ... the whole country was near
falling into the hands of a North American adventurer [see
NICARAGUA: A. D. 1855-1860]. In former times the English
government had maintained some connection with the country
[originating with the buccaneers and made important by the
mahogany-cutting] through the independent Indians of the
Mosquito coast, over whom, for the purposes of their trade
with Jamaica, it had maintained a protectorate: and even a
small English commercial colony, called Greytown, had been
founded on this coast at the mouth of the river San Juan.
Towards the close of Carrera's ascendancy this coast was
resigned to Nicaragua, and the Bay Islands, which lie off the
coast, to Honduras: and England thus retained nothing in the
country but the old settlement of British Honduras, with its
capital, Belize. After Carrera's death in 1865, the Liberal
party began to reassert itself: and in 1871 there was a
Liberal revolution in Guatemala itself."

_E. J. Payne, History of European Colonies, chapter 21._

ALSO IN:
_H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States._

----------CENTRAL AMERICA: End----------

{404}

CENTRAL ASIA.

See ASIA, CENTRAL.

CENTRE, The.

See RIGHT, &c.

CENTREVILLE, Evacuation of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861-1862 (DECEMBER-MARCH: VIRGINIA).

CENTURIES, Roman.

See COMITIA CENTURIATA.

CENTURION.

The officer commanding one of the fifty-five centuries or
companies in a Roman legion of the empire.

See LEGION, ROMAN.

CENWULF, King of Mercia, A. D. 794-819.

CEORL.

See EORL, and ETHEL.

CEPEDA, Battle of(1859).

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1819-1874.

CEPHISSUS, Battle of the (A. D. 1311).

See CATALAN GRAND COMPANY.

CERAMICUS OF ATHENS.

The Ceramicus was originally the most important of the
suburban districts of Athens and derived its name from the
potters. "It is probable that about the time of Pisistratus
the market of the ancient suburb called the Ceramicus (for
every Attic district possessed its own market) was constituted
the central market of the city. ... They [the Pisistratidæ]
connected Athens in all directions by roadways with the
country districts: these roads were accurately measured, and
all met on the Ceramicus, in the centre of which an altar was
erected to the Twelve Gods. From this centre of town and
country were calculated the distances to the different country
districts, to the ports, and to the most important sanctuaries
of the common fatherland. ... [In the next century--in the age
of Pericles--the population had extended to the north and west
and] part of the ancient potters' district or Ceramicus had
long become a quarter of the city [the Inner Ceramicus]; the
other part remained suburb [the Outer Ceramicus]. Between the
two lay the double gate or Dipylum, the broadest and most
splendid gate of the city. ... Here the broad carriage-road
which, avoiding all heights, ascended from the market-place of
Hippodamus directly to the city-market of the Ceramicus,
entered the city; from here straight to the west led the road
to Eleusis, the sacred course of the festive processions. ...
From this road again, immediately outside the gate, branched
off that which led to the Academy. ... The high roads in the
vicinity of the city gates were everywhere bordered with
numerous and handsome sepulchral monuments, in particular the
road leading through the outer Ceramicus. Here lay the public
burial-ground for the citizens who had fallen in war; the vast
space was divided into fields, corresponding to the different
battle-fields at home and abroad."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece,
book 2, chapter 2, and book 3, chapter 3._

ALSO IN:
_W. M. Leake, Topography of Athens, section 3._

CERESTES, OR KERESTES, Battle of (1596).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1595-1606.

CERIGNOLA, Battle of (1503).

See ITALY: A. D. 1501-1504.

CERISOLES, Battle of (1544).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

CERONES, The.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CERRO GORDO, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1847 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

CESS.

A word, corrupted from "assess," signifying a rate, or tax;
used especially in Scotland, and applied more particularly to
a tax imposed in 1678, for the maintenance of troops, during
the persecution of the Covenanters.

_J. H. Thompson, A Cloud of Witnesses, page 67._

_The Imp. Diet._

CEUTA, A. D. 1415.
Siege and capture by the Portuguese.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1415-1460.

CEUTA: A. D. 1668.
Ceded to Spain.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1637-1668.

----------CEUTA: End----------

CÉVENNES,
The prophets of the (or the Cévenol prophets).
The Camisards.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1702-1710.

CEYLON,
3d Century B. C.
Conversion to Buddhism.

See INDIA: B. C. 312-.

CEYLON: A. D. 1802.
Permanent acquisition by England.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802.

----------CEYLON: End----------

CHACABUCO, Battle of (1817).

See CHILE: A. D. 1810-1818.

CHACO, The Gran.

See GRAN CHACO.

CHÆRONEA, Battles of (B. C. 338).

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

CHÆRONEA:(B. C. 86).

See MITHRIDATIC WARS.

CHAGAN.

See KUAN.

CHA'HTAS, OR CHOCTAWS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

CHALCEDON.

An ancient Greek city, founded by the Megarians on the Asiatic
side of the Bosphorus, nearly opposite to Byzantium, like
which city it suffered in early times many changes of masters.
It was bequeathed to the Romans by the last king of Bithynia.

CHALCEDON: A. D. 258.
Capture by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

CHALCEDON: A. D. 616-625.
The Persians in possession.

See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

----------CHALCEDON: End----------

CHALCEDON, The Council of (A. D. 451).

See NESTORIAN AND MONOPHYSITE CONTROVERSY.

CHALCIS AND ERETRIA.

"The most dangerous rivals of Ionia were the towns of Eubœa,
among which, in the first instance, Cyme, situated in an
excellent bay of the east coast, in a district abounding in
wine, and afterwards the two sister-towns on the Euripus,
Chalcis and Eretria, distinguished themselves by larger
measures of colonization. While Eretria, the 'city of rowers,'
rose to prosperity especially by means of purple-fisheries and
a ferry-navigation conducted on a constantly increasing scale,
Chalcis, the 'bronze city,' on the double sea of the Bœotian
sound, contrived to raise and employ for herself the most
important of the many treasures of the island--its copper. ...
Chalcis became the Greek centre of this branch of industry; it
became the Greek Sidon. Next to Cyprus there were no richer
stores of copper in the Greek world than on Eubœa, and in
Chalcis were the first copper-works and smithies known in
European Greece."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 2, chapter 3._

The Chalcidians were enterprising colonists, particularly in
Thrace, in the Macedonian peninsula, where they are said to
have founded thirty-two towns, which were collectively called
the Chalcidice, and in southern Italy and Sicily. It was the
abundant wealth of Thrace in metallic ores which drew the
Chalcidians to it. About 700 B. C. a border feud between
Chalcis and Eretria, concerning certain "Lelantian fields"
which lay between them, grew to such proportions and so many
other states came to take part in it, that, "according to
Thucydides no war of more universal importance for the whole
nation was fought between the fall of Troja and the Persian
war."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, volume 1, book 2, chapter 1._

Chalcis was subdued by the Athenians in B. C. 506.

See ATHENS: B. C. 509-506;
also KLERUCHS, and EUBŒA.

{405}

CHALCUS.

See TALENT.

CHALDEA.--CHALDEES.

See BABYLONIA.

CHALDEAN CHURCH.

See NESTORIANS.

CHALDIRAN, Battle of (1514).

See TURKS: A. D. 1481-1520.

CHALGROVE FIELD, Fall of Hampden at.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

CHALONS, Battles at (A. D. 271).

Among the many pretenders to the Roman imperial throne--"the
thirty tyrants," as they were called--of the distracted reign
of Gallienus, was Tetricus, who had been governor of
Aquitaine. The dangerous honor was forced upon him, by a
demoralized army, and he reigned against his will for several
years over Gaul, Spain and Britain. At length, when the
iron-handed Aurelian had taken the reins of government at
Rome, Tetricus secretly plotted with him for deliverance from
his own uncoveted greatness. Aurelian invaded Gaul and
Tetricus led an army against him, only to betray it, in a
great battle at Chalons (271), where the rebels were cut to
pieces.

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 11.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

CHALONS: A. D. 366.

See ALEMANNI, INVASION OF GAUL BY THE.

CHALONS: A. D. 451.

See HUNS: A. D. 451, ATTILA'S INVASION OF GAUL.

----------CHALONS: End----------

CHALYBES, The.

The Chalybes, or Chalybians, were an ancient people in Asia
Minor, on the coast of the Euxine, probably east of the Halys,
who were noted as workers of iron.

_E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geog., chapter 22, note A._

CHAMAVI, The.

See BRUCTERI;
also, FRANKS;
also, GAUL: A. D. 355-361.

CHAMBERS OF REANNEXATON, French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1679-1681.

CHAMBERSBURG, Burning of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (JULY:
VIRGINIA-MARYLAND).

CHAMPAGNE:
Origin of the county.

In the middle years of the revolt that dethroned the
Carlovingians and raised the Capetians to a throne which they
made the throne of a kingdom of France, Count Herbert of
Vermandois allied himself with the party of the latter, and
began operations for the expanding of his domain. "The
Champaign of Rheims, the 'Campania Remensis'--a most
appropriate descriptive denomination of the region--an
extension of the plains of Flanders--but not yet employed
politically as designating a province--was protected against
Count Herbert on the Vermandois border by the Castrum
Theodorici--Château Thierry. ... Herbert's profuse promises
induced the commander to betray his duty. ... Herbert, through
this occupation of Château Thierry, obtained the city of
Troyes and all the 'Campania Remensis,' which, under his
potent sway, was speedily developed into the magnificent
County of Champagne. Herbert and his lineage held Champagne
during three generations, until some time after the accession
of the Capets, when the Grand Fief passed from the House of
Vermandois to the House of Blois."

_Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England,
volume 2, page 192._

CHAMPEAUBERT, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

CHAMPIGNY, Sortie of(1870).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.

CHAMPION'S HILL, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (APRIL-JULY: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

CHAMPLAIN, Samuel.
Explorations and Colonizations.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1603-1605; 1608-1611;
and 1611-1616.

CHAMPLAIN, Lake: A. D. 1776.
Arnold's naval battle with Carleton.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1777.

CHAMPLAIN, Lake: A. D. 1814.
Macdonough's naval victory.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (SEPTEMBER).

----------CHAMPLAIN, End----------

CHAMPS DE MARS.--CHAMPS DE MAI.

When the Merovingian kings of the Franks summoned their
captains to gather for the planning and preparing of
campaigns, the assemblies were called at first the Champs de
Mars, because the meeting was in earliest spring--in March.
"But as the Franks, from serving on foot, became cavaliers
under the second [the Carlovingian] race, the time was changed
to May, for the sake of forage, and the assemblies were called
Champs de Mai."

_E. E. Crowe, History of France, chapter 1._

See, also, MALLUM,
and PARLIAMENT OF PARIS.

CHANCAS, The.

See PERU: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

CHANCELLOR, The.

"The name [of the Chancellor], derived probably from the
cancelli or screen behind which the secretarial work of the
royal household was carried on, claims a considerable
antiquity; and the offices which it denotes are various in
proportion. The chancellor of the Karolingian sovereigns,
succeeding to the place of the more ancient referendarius, is
simply the royal notary; the archi-cancellarius is the chief
of a large body of such officers associated under the name of
the chancery, and is the keeper of the royal seal. It is from
this minister that the English chancellor derives his name and
function. Edward the Confessor, the first of our sovereigns
who had a seal, is also the first who had a chancellor; from
the reign of the Conqueror the office has descended in regular
succession. It seems to have been to a comparatively late
period, generally if not always, at least in England, held by
an ecclesiastic who was a member of the royal household and on
a footing with the great dignitaries. The chancellor was the
most dignified of the royal chaplains, if not the head of that
body. The whole secretarial work of the household and court
fell on the chancellor and the chaplains. ... The chancellor
was, in a manner, the secretary of state for all departments."

_William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England,
chapter 11, section 121._

{406}

"In the reign of Edward I. we begin to perceive signs of the
rise of the extraordinary or equitable jurisdiction of the
Chancellor. The numerous petitions addressed to the King and
his Council, seeking the interposition of the royal grace and
favour either to mitigate the harshness of the Common Law or
supply its deficiencies, had been in the special care of the
Chancellor, who examined and reported upon them to the King.
... At length, in 1348, by a writ or ordinance of the 22d year
of Edward III. all such matters as were 'of Grace' were
directed to be dispatched by the Chancellor or by the Keeper
of the Privy Seal. This was a great step in the recognition of
the equitable jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, as
distinct from the legal jurisdiction of the Chancellor and of
the Courts of Common Law; although it was not until the
following reign that it can be said to have been permanently
established."

_T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History,
pages 173-174._

"The Lord Chancellor is a Privy Councillor by his office; a
Cabinet Minister; and, according to Lord Chancellor Ellesmere,
prolocutor [chairman, or Speaker] of the House of Lords by
prescription."

_A. C. Ewald, The Crown and its Advisers, lecture 2._

ALSO IN:
_E. Fischel, The English Constitution, book 5, chapter 7._

CHANCELLOR'S ROLLS.

See EXCHEQUER.--EXCHEQUER ROLLS.

CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battles of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (APRIL-MAY: VIRGINIA).

CHANCERY.

See CHANCELLOR.

CHANDRAGUPTA, OR CANDRAGUPTA, The empire of.

See INDIA: B. C. 327-312, and 312.

CHANEERS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

CHANTILLY, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862
(AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: VIRGINIA).

CHANTRY PRIESTS.

"With the more wealthy and devout [in the 14th, 15th and 16th
centuries] it was the practice to erect little chapels, which
were either added to churches or enclosed by screens within
them, where chantry priests might celebrate mass for the good
of their souls in perpetuity. ... Large sums of money were ...
devoted to the maintenance of chantry priests, whose duty it
was to say mass for the repose of the testator's soul. ... The
character and conduct of the chantry priests must have become
somewhat of a lax order in the 16th century."

_R. R. Sharpe, Introduction to "Calendar of Wills in
the Court of Husting, London," volume 2, page viii._

CHAOUANONS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHAWANESE.

CHAPAS, OR CHAPANECS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZAPOTECS, &c.

CHAPULTEPEC, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1847 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

CHARCAS, Las.

The Spanish province which now forms the Republic of Bolivia.
Also called, formerly, Upper Peru, and sometimes the province
of Potosi.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777;
and BOLIVIA: A. D. 1825-1826.

CHARIBERT I.,
King of Aquitaine, A. D. 561-567.
Charibert II., King of Aquitaine, A. D. 628-631.

CHARITON RIVER, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A.. D. 1862
(JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE.

See
FRANKS (CARLOVINGIAN EMPIRE): A. D. 768-814;
ROMAN EMPIRE: A. D. 800;
LOMBARDS: A. D. 754-774;
SAXONS: A. D. 772-804;
AVARS: 791-805;
and SPAIN: A. D. 778.

CHARLEMAGNE'S SCHOOL OF THE PALACE.

See SCHOOL OF THE PALACE.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1667.
Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1668.
Ceded to France.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A.. D. 1668.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1679.
Restored to Spain.

See NIMEGUEN, THE PEACE OF.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1693.
Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1693 (JULY).

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1697.
Restored to Spain.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1713.
Ceded to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1746-1748.
Taken by French and ceded to Austria.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1746-1747,
and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS.

----------CHARLEROI: End----------

CHARLES
(called The Great--Charlemagne),
King of Neustria, A. D. 768;
of all the Franks, A. D. 771;
of Franks and Lombardy, 774;
Emperor of the West, 800-814.

Charles of Austria, Archduke, Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER);
1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL);
1797 (APRIL-MAY);
1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL);
1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER);
also GERMANY: 1809 (JANUARY-.JUNE), (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

Charles of Bourbon,
King of Naples or the Two Sicilies, 1734-1759.

Charles
(called The Bold), Duke of Burgundy, 1467-1477.

Charles I.,
King of England, 1625-1649.
Trial and execution.

See ENGLAND: A. D.1649 (JANUARY).

Charles I. (of Anjou),
King of Naples and Sicily, 1266-1282;
King of Naples, 1282--1285.

Charles I.,
King of Portugal, 1889-.

Charles II. (called The Bald),
Emperor, and King of Italy, A. D. 875-877;
King of Neustria and Burgundy, 840-877.

Charles II.,
King of England, 1660-1685.
(By a loyal fiction, supposed to have
reigned from 1649, when his father was beheaded;
though the throne was in Cromwell's possession).

Charles II., King of Naples, 1285-1309.

Charles II., King of Navarre, 1349-1387.

Charles II., King of Spain, 1665-1700.

Charles III. (called The Fat),
Emperor, King of the East Franks (Germany),
and King of Italy, A. D. 881-888;
King of the West Franks (France), 884-888.

Charles III. (called The Simple),
King of France, A. D. 892-929.

Charles III., King of Naples, 1381-1386.

Charles III., King of Navarre, 1387-1425.

Charles III., King of Spain, 1759-1788.

Charles IV.,
Emperor, and King of Italy, 1355-1378;
King of Bohemia, 1346-1378;
King of Germany, 1347-1378;
King of Burgundy, 1365-1378.

Charles IV.,
King of France, and of Navarre (Charles I.),1322--1328.

Charles IV., King of Spain, 1788-1808.

Charles V.,
Emperor, 1519-1558;
Duke of Burgundy, 1506-1555;
King of Spain (as Charles I.) and of Naples,
or the Two Sicilies, 1516-1556.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1496-1526.

Charles V. (called The Wise), King of France, 1364-1380.

Charles VI.,
Germanic Emperor, and King of Hungary and Bohemia, 1711-1740.

Charles VI. (called The Well-loved), King of France, 1380-1422.

Charles VII. (of Bavaria) Germanic Emperor, 1742-1745.

Charles VII., King of France, 1422-1461.

{407}

Charles VIII., King of France, 1483-1498.

Charles IX., King of France, 1560-1574.

Charles IX., King of Sweden, 1604-1611.

Charles X., King of France
(the last of the House of Bourbon), 1824-1830.

Charles X., King of Sweden, 1654-1660.

Charles XI., King of Sweden, 1660-1697.

Charles XII., King of Sweden, 1697-1718.

Charles XIII., King of Sweden, 1809-1818.

Charles XIV. (Bernadotte), King of Sweden, 1818-1844.

Charles XV., King of Sweden, 1859-1872.

Charles Albert, Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, 1831-1849.

Charles Emanuel, Duke of Savoy, 1580-1630.

Charles Emanuel II., Duke of Savoy, 1638-1675.

Charles Emanuel III., Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, 1730-1773.

Charles Emanuel IV.,
Duke of Savoy
and King of Sardinia, 1796-1802.

Charles Felix,
Duke of Savoy
and King of Sardinia, 1821-1831.

Charles Martel,
Duke of Austrasia and Mayor of the Palace (of the King of the
Franks), A. D. 715-741.

Charles Robert, or Charobert, or Caribert,
King of Hungary, 1308-1342.

Charles Swerkerson,
King of Sweden, 1161-1167.

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1680.
The founding of the city.

See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1670-1696.

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1706.
Unsuccessful attack by the French.

See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1701-1706.

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1775-1776.
Revolutionary proceedings.

See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1775 and 1776.

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1776.
Sir Henry Clinton's attack and repulse.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JUNE).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1780.
Siege by the British.
Surrender of the city.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780 (FEBRUARY-AUGUST).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1860.
The splitting of the National Democratic Convention.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-NOVEMBER).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1860.
The adoption of the Ordinance of Secession.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860
(NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1860.
Major Anderson at Fort Sumter.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (DECEMBER).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1861 (April).
The Beginning of war.
Bombardment of Fort Sumter.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (MARCH-APRIL).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1863 (April).
The attack and repulse of the Monitor fleet.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (APRIL: SOUTH
CAROLINA).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1863 (July).
The Union troops on Morris Island.
Assault on Fort Wagner.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (JULY: SOUTH CAROLINA).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1863 (August-December).
Siege of Fort Wagner.
Bombardment of the city.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-DECEMBER: SOUTH CAROLINA).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1865 (February).
Evacuation by the Confederates.
Occupation by Federal troops.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY: SOUTH CAROLINA).

----------CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: End----------

CHARLESTOWN, Massachusetts: A. D. 1623.
The first settlement.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1629-1630.

CHARTER OAK, The.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1685-1687.

CHARTER OF FORESTS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274.

CHARTERHOUSE, OR CHARTREUSE.

See CARTHUSIAN ORDER.

CHARTISTS.--CHARTISM.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1838-1842 and 1848.

CHARTRES, Defeat of the Normans at.

The Norman, Rollo, investing the city of Chartres, sustained
there, on the 20th of July, A. D. 911, the most serious
defeat which he and his pirates ever suffered.

_Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England,
book 1, chapter 5._

CHARTREUSE, La Grande.

See CARTHUSIAN ORDER.

CHASIDIM, OR CHASIDEES, OR ASSIDEANS, The.

A name, signifying the godly or pious, assumed by a party
among the Jews, in the second century B. C., who resisted the
Grecianizing tendencies of the time under the influence of the
Græco-Syrian domination, and who were the nucleus of the
Maccabean revolt. The later school of the Pharisees is
represented by Ewald (_History of Israel, book 5, section
2_) to have been the product of a narrowing transformation
of the school of the Chasidim; while the Essenes, in his view,
were a purer residue of the Chasidim "who strove after piety,
yet would not join the Pharisees"; who abandoned "society as
worldly and incurably corrupt," and in whom "the conscience of
the nation, as it were, withdrew into the wilderness."

_H. Ewald, History of Israel, book 5, section 2._

A modern sect, borrowing the name, founded by one Israel Baal
Schem, who first appeared in Podolia, in 1740, is said to
embrace most of the Jews in Galicia, Hungary, Southern Russia,
and Wallachia.

_H. C. Adams, History of the Jews, page 333._

ALSO IN:
_H. Graetz, History of the Jews, volume 5, chapter 9._

CHASUARII, The.

See FRANKS: ORIGIN, ETC.

CHÂTEAU CAMBRESIS, Treaty of (1559):

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

CHÂTEAU GALLAIRD.

This was the name given to a famous castle, built by Richard
Cœur de Lion in Normandy, and designed to be the key to the
defences of that important duchy. "As a monument of warlike
skill, his 'Saucy Castle,' Château Gaillard, stands first
among the fortresses of the Middle Ages. Richard fixed its
site where the Seine bends suddenly at Gaillon in a great
semicircle to the north, and where the Valley of Les Andèlys
breaks the line of the chalk cliffs along its bank. The castle
formed part of an intrenched camp which Richard designed to
cover his Norman capital. . . . The easy reduction of Normandy
on the fall of Chateau Gaillard at a later time [when it was
taken by Philip Augustus, of France] proved Richard's
foresight."

_J. R. Green, Short History
of the English People, chapter 2, section 9._

CHATEAU THIERRY, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

CHATEAUVIEUX, Fête to the soldiers of.

See LIBERTY CAP.

CHATHAM, Lord; Administration of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1757-1760; 1760-1763, and 1765-1768.

And the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (JANUARY-MARCH).

CHATILLON, Battles of (1793).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER).

CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE,
Congress of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

{408}

CHATTANOOGA:
The name.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: TENNESSEE).

CHATTANOOGA: A. D. 1862.
Secured by the Confederates.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JUNE-OCTOBER: TENNESSEE-KENTUCKY).

CHATTANOOGA: A. D. 1863 (August).
Evacuation by the Confederates.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: TENNESSEE).

CHATTANOOGA: A. D. 1863 (October-November).
The siege.
The battle on Lookout Mountain.
The assault of Missionary Ridge.
The Routing of Bragg's army.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE).

----------CHATTANOOGA: End----------

CHATTI, OR CATTI, The.

"Beyond [the Mattiaci] are the Chatti, whose settlements begin
at the Hercynian forest, where the country is not so open and
marshy as in the other cantons into which Germany stretches.
They are found where there are hills, and with them grow less
frequent, for the Hercynian forest keeps close till it has
seen the last of its native Chatti. Hardy frames, close-knit
limbs, fierce countenances, and a peculiarly vigorous courage,
mark the tribe. For Germans, they have much intelligence and
sagacity. ... Other tribes you see going to battle, the Chatti
to a campaign."

"The settlements of the Chatti, one of the chief German
tribes, apparently coincide with portions of Westphalia,
Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Cassel. Dr. Latham assumes
the Chatti of Tacitus to be the Suevi of Cæsar. The fact that
the name Chatti does not occur in Cæsar renders this
hypothesis by no means improbable."

_Tacitus, Germany, translated by Church and Brodribb,
and note._

See, also, SUEVI.

CHAUCER, and his times.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1350-1400.

CHAUCI AND CHERUSCI, The.

"The tribe of the Chauci ... beginning at the Frisian
settlements and occupying a part of the coast, stretches along
the frontier of all the tribes which I have enumerated, till
it reaches with a bend as far as the Chatti. This vast extent
of country is not merely possessed but densely peopled by the
Chauci, the noblest of the German races, a nation who would
maintain their greatness by righteous dealing. Without
ambition, without lawless violence, ... the crowning proof of
their valour and their strength is, that they keep up their
superiority without harm to others. ... Dwelling on one side
of the Chauci and Chatti, the Cherusci long cherished,
unassailed, an excessive and enervating love of peace. This
was more pleasant than safe, ... and so the Cherusci, ever
reputed good and just, are now called cowards and fools, while
in the case of the victorious Chatti success has been
identified with prudence. The downfall of the Cherusci brought
with it also that of the Fosi, a neighbouring tribe."

"The settlements of the Chauci ... must have included almost
the entire country between the Ems and the Weser--that is,
Oldenburg and part of Hanover--and have taken in portions of
Westphalia about Munster and Paderborn. The Cherusci ...
appear to have occupied Brunswick and the south part of
Hanover. Arminius who destroyed the Roman army under Varus,
was a Cheruscan chief. ... The Fosi ... must have occupied
part of Hanover."

_Tacitus, Minor Works, trans. by Church and Brodribb: The
Germany, with Geographical notes._

Bishop Stubbs conjectures that the Chauci, Cherusci, and some
other tribes may have been afterwards comprehended under the
general name "Saxon."

See SAXONS.

CHAZARS, The.

See KHAZARS.

CHEAT SUMMIT, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (AUGUST-DECEMBER: WEST VIRGINIA).

CHEBUCTO.

The original name of the harbor chosen for the site of the
city of Halifax.

See NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1749-1755, and
HALIFAX: A. D. 1749.

CHEIROTONIA.

A vote by show of hands, among the ancient Greeks.

_G. F. Schömann, Antiquity of Greece: The State,
part 3, chapter 3._

CHEMI.

See EGYPT: ITS NAMES.

CHEMNITZ, Battle of (1639).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

CHERBOURG.
Destroyed by the English.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1758 (JULY-AUGUST).

CHEROKEE WAR, The.

See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1759-1761.

CHEROKEES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CHEROKEES.

CHERRONESUS, The proposed State of.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

CHERRY VALLEY, The massacre at.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JUNE-NOVEMBER)

CHERSON.

See BOSPHORUS: A. D. 565-574.

CHERSON: A. D. 988.
Taken by the Russians.

"A thousand years after the rest of the Greek nation was sunk
in irremediable slavery, Cherson remained free. Such a
phenomenon as the existence of manly feeling in one city, when
mankind everywhere else slept contented in a state of
political degradation, deserved attentive consideration. ...
Cherson retained its position as an independent State until
the reign of Theophilus [Byzantine emperor A. D. 829-842], who
compelled it to receive a governor from Constantinople; but,
even under the Byzantine government, it continued to defend
its municipal institutions, and, instead of slavishly
soliciting the imperial favour, and adopting Byzantine
manners, it boasted of its constitution and self government.
But it gradually lost its former wealth and extensive trade,
and when Vladimir, the sovereign of Russia, attacked it in
988, it was betrayed into his hands by a priest, who informed
him how to cut off the water. ... Vladimir obtained the hand
of Anne, the sister of the emperors Basil II. and Constantine
VIII., and was baptised and married in the church of the
Panaghia at Cherson. To soothe the vanity of the Empire, he
pretended to retain possession of his conquest as the dowry of
his wife. Many of the priests who converted the Russians to
Christianity, and many of the artists who adorned the earliest
Russian churches with paintings and mosaics, were natives of
Cherson."

_G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire from 716 to
1057._

CHERSONESE, The Golden.

See CHRYSE.

CHERSONESUS.

The Greek name for a peninsula, or "land-island," applied most
especially to the long tongue of land between the Hellespont
and the Gulf of Melas.

CHERUSCI, The.

See CHAUCI.

{409}

CHESAPEAKE AND SHANNON, The fight of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A.D. 1812-1813.

CHESS, Origin of the game of.

"If we wished to know, for instance, who has taught us the
game of chess, the name of chess would tell us better than
anything else that it came to the West from Persia. In spite
of all that has been written to the contrary, chess was
originally the game of Kings, the game of Shahs. This word
Shah became in Old French eschac, Italian scacco, German
Schach; while the Old French eschecs was further corrupted
into chess. The more original form chec has likewise been
preserved, though we little think of it when we draw a cheque,
or when we suffer a check, or when we speak of the Chancellor
of the Exchequer. The great object of the chess-player is to
protect the king, and when the king is in danger, the opponent
is obliged to say 'check,' i. e., Shah, the king. ... After
this the various meanings of check, cheque, or exchequer
become easily intelligible, though it is quite true that if
similar changes of meaning, which in our case we can watch by
the light of history, had taken place in the dimness of
prehistoric ages, it would be difficult to convince the
sceptic that exchequer, or scaccarium, the name of the
chess-board was afterwards used for the checkered cloth on
which accounts were calculated by means of counters, and that
a checkered career was a life with many cross-lines."

_F. Max Müller, Biog. of Words, chapter 4._

CHESTER, Origin of.

See DEVA.

CHESTER, The Palatine Earldom.

See PALATINE, THE ENGLISH COUNTIES;
also WALES, PRINCE OF.

CHESTER, Battle of.

One of the fiercest of the battles fought between the Welsh
and the Angles, A. D. 613. The latter were the victors.

CHEVY CHASE.

See OTTER BURN, BATTLE OF.

CHEYENNES, OR SHEYENNES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

CHIAPAS: Ruins of ancient civilization in.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS; and MEXICO, ANCIENT.

CHIARI, Battle Of(1701).

See ITALY (SAVOY AND PIEDMONT): A. D. 1701-1713.

CHIBCHAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CHIBCHAS.

CHICAGO: A. D. 1812.

Evacuation of the Fort Dearborn Post, and massacre of most of
the retreating garrison.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-OCTOBER).

CHICAGO: A. D. 1860.
The Republican National Convention.
Nomination of Lincoln.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-NOVEMBER).

CHICAGO: A. D. 1871.
The great Fire.