Chapter V: Front Matter (5)

See SPAIN: A. D. 1809 (AUGUST-NOVEMBER).

ALBAIS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

ALBAN, Kingdom of.

See ALBION;
also, SCOTLAND: 8TH-9TH CENTURIES.

ALBANI, The.

See BRITAIN, TRIBES OF CELTIC.

ALBANIANS: Ancient.

See EPIRUS and ILLYRIANS.

ALBANIANS: Mediæval.

"From the settlement of the Servian Sclavonians within the
bounds of the empire [during the reign of Heraclius, first
half of the seventh century], we may ... venture to date the
earliest encroachments of the Illyrian or Albanian race on the
Hellenic population. The Albanians or Arnauts, who are now
called by themselves Skiptars, are supposed to be remains of
the great Thracian race which, under various names, and more
particularly as Paionians, Epirots and Macedonians, take an
important part in early Grecian history. No distinct trace of
the period at which they began to be co-proprietors of Greece
with the Hellenic race can be found in history. ... It seems
very difficult to trace back the history of the Greek nation
without suspecting that the germs of their modern condition,
like those of their neighbours, are to be sought in the
singular events which occurred in the reign of Heraclius."

_G. Finlay, Greece Under the Romans, chapter 4, section 6._

ALBANIANS: A. D. 1443-1467.
Scanderbeg's War with the Turks.

"John Castriot, Lord of Emalthia (the modern district of
Moghlene) [in Epirus or Albania] had submitted, like the other
petty despots of those regions, to Amurath early in his reign,
and had placed his four sons in the Sultan's hands as hostages
for his fidelity. Three of them died young. The fourth, whose
name was George, pleased the Sultan by his beauty, strength
and intelligence. Amurath caused him to be brought up in the
Mahometan creed; and, when he was only eighteen, conferred on
him the government of one of the Sanjaks of the empire. The
young Albanian proved his courage and skill in many exploits
under Amurath's eye, and received from him the name of
Iskanderbeg, the lord Alexander. When John Castriot died,
Amurath took possession of his principalities and kept the son
constantly employed in distant wars. Scanderbeg brooded over
this injury; and when the Turkish armies were routed by
Hunyades in the campaign of 1443, Scanderbeg determined to
escape from their side and assume forcible possession of his
patrimony. He suddenly entered the tent of the Sultan's chief
secretary, and forced that functionary, with the poniard at
his throat, to write and seal a formal order to the Turkish
commander of the strong city of Croia, in Albania, to deliver
that place and the adjacent territory to Scanderbeg, as the
Sultan's viceroy. He then stabbed the secretary and hastened
to Croia, where his strategem gained him instant admittance
and submission. He now publicly abjured the Mahometan faith,
and declared his intention of defending the creed of his
forefathers, and restoring the independence of his native
land. The Christian population flocked readily to his banner
and the Turks were massacred without mercy. For nearly
twenty-five years Scanderbeg contended against all the power
of the Ottomans, though directed by the skill of Amurath and
his successor Mahomet, the conqueror of Constantinople."

_Sir E. S. Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks, chapter 4._

"Scanderbeg died a fugitive at Lissus on the Venetian
territory [A. D. 1467]. His sepulchre was soon violated by the
Turkish conquerors; but the janizaries, who wore his bones
enchased in a bracelet, declared by this superstitious amulet
their involuntary reverence for his valour. ... His infant son
was saved from the national shipwreck; the Castriots were
invested with a Neapolitan dukedom, and their blood continues
to flow in the noblest families of the realm."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 67.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

ALSO IN
_A. Lamartine, History of Turkey, book 11, sections 11-25._

ALBANIANS: A. D. 1694-1696.
Conquests by the Venetians.

See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.

----------ALBANIANS: End----------

ALBANY, NEW YORK: A. D. 1623.
The first Settlement.

In 1614, the year after the first Dutch traders had
established their operations on Manhattan Island, they built a
trading house, which they called Fort Nassau, on Castle
Island, in the Hudson River, a little below the site of the
present city of Albany. Three years later this small fort was
carried away by a flood and the island abandoned. In 1623 a
more important fortification, named Fort Orange, was erected
on the site afterwards covered by the business part of Albany.
That year, "about eighteen families settled themselves at Fort
Orange, under Adriaen Joris, who 'staid with them all winter,'
after sending his ship home to Holland in charge of his son.
As soon as the colonists had built themselves 'some huts of
bark' around the fort, the Mahikanders or River Indians
[Mohegans], the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the
Cayugas, and the Senecas, with the Mahawawa or Ottawawa
Indians, 'came and made covenants of friendship ... and
desired that they might come and have a constant free trade
with them, which was concluded upon.'"

_J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of N. Y., volume 1,
pages 55 and 151._

ALBANY, NEW YORK: A. D. 1630.-
Embraced in the land-purchase of Patroon Van Rensselaer.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1621-1646.

ALBANY, NEW YORK: A. D. 1664.
Occupied and named by the English.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1664.

ALBANY, NEW YORK: A. D. 1673.
Again occupied by the Dutch.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1673.

ALBANY, NEW YORK: A. D. 1754.
The Colonial Congress and its plans of Union.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1754.

----------ALBANY, NEW YORK: End----------

ALBANY AND SCHENECTADY RAILROAD OPENING.

See STEAM LOCOMOTION ON LAND.

ALBANY REGENCY, The.

See NEW YORK; A. D. 1823.

ALBEMARLE, The Ram, and her destruction.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (APRIL-MAY: NORTH
CAROLINA), and (OCTOBER: N. CAROLINA).

ALBERONI, Cardinal, The Spanish Ministry of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725;
and ITALY: A. D. 1715-1735.

{32}

ALBERT,
King of Sweden, A. D. 1365-1388.
Albert, Elector of Brandenburg, A. D. 1470-1486.
Albert I., Duke of Austria and
King of Germany, A. D. 1298-1308.
Albert II., Duke of Austria, King of Hungary and
Bohemia, A. D. 1437-1440;
King of Germany, A. D. 1438-1440.

ALBERTA, The District of.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORIES OF CANADA.

ALBERTINE LINE OF SAXONY.

See SAXONY: A. D. 1180-1553.

ALBICI, The.

A Gallic tribe which occupied the hills above Massilia
(Marseilles) and who are described as a savage people even in
the time of Cæsar, when they helped the Massiliots to defend
their city against him.

_G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 5, chapter 4._

ALBIGENSES, OR ALBIGEOIS, The.

"Nothing is more curious in Christian history than the
vitality of the Manichean opinions. That wild, half poetic,
half rationalistic theory of Christianity, ... appears almost
suddenly in the 12th century, in living, almost irresistible
power, first in its intermediate settlement in Bulgaria, and
on the borders of the Greek Empire, then in Italy, in France,
in Germany, in the remoter West, at the foot of the Pyrenees.
... The chief seat of these opinions was the south of France.
Innocent III., on his accession, found not only these daring
insurgents scattered in the cities of Italy, even, as it were,
at his own gates (among his first acts was to subdue the
Paterines of Viterbo), he found a whole province, a realm, in
some respects the richest and noblest of his spiritual domain,
absolutely dissevered from his Empire, in almost universal
revolt from Latin Christianity. ... In no [other] European
country had the clergy so entirely, or it should seem so
deservedly, forfeited its authority. In none had the Church
more absolutely ceased to perform its proper functions."

_H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity,
book 9, chapter 8._

"By mere chance, the sects scattered in South France received
the common name of Albigenses, from one of the districts where
the agents of the church who came to combat them found them
mostly to abound,--the district around the town of Alba, or
Alby; and by this common name they were well known from the
commencement of the thirteenth century. Under this general
denomination parties of different tenets were comprehended
together, but the Catharists seem to have constituted a
predominant element among the people thus designated."

_A. Neander, General History of the Christian Religion
and Church, 5th per., division 2, section 4, part 3._

"Of the sectaries who shared the errors of Gnosticism and
Manichæism and opposed the Catholic Church and her hierarchy,
the Albigenses were the most thorough and radical. Their
errors were, indeed, partly Gnostic and partly Manichæan, but
the latter was the more prominent and fully developed. They
received their name from a district of Languedoc, inhabited by
the Albigeois and surrounding the town of Albi. They are
called Cathari and Patarini in the acts of the Council of
Tours (A. D. 1163), and in those of the third Lateran,
Publiciani (i. e., Pauliciani). Like the Cathari, they also
held that the evil spirit created all visible things."

_Johannes Baptist Alzog,
Manual of Universal Church History,
period 2, epoch 2, part 1, chapter 3, section 236.
https://archive.org/details/manualofuniversa02alzo_

"The imputations of irreligion, heresy, and shameless
debauchery, which have been cast with so much bitterness on
the Albigenses by their persecutors, and which have been so
zealously denied by their apologists, are probably not ill
founded, if the word Albigenses be employed as synonymous with
the words Provençaux or Languedocians; for they were
apparently a race among whom the hallowed charities of
domestic life, and the reverence due to divine ordinances and
the homage due to divine truth, were often impaired, and not
seldom extinguished, by ribald jests, by infidel scoffings,
and by heart-hardening impurities. Like other voluptuaries,
the Provençaux (as their remaining literature attests) were
accustomed to find matter for merriment in vices which would
have moved wise men to tears. But if by the word Albigenses be
meant the Vaudois, or those followers (or associates) of Peter
Waldo who revived the doctrines against which the Church of
Rome directed her censures, then the accusation of
dissoluteness of manners may be safely rejected as altogether
calumnious, and the charge of heresy may be considered, if not
as entirely unfounded, yet as a cruel and injurious
exaggeration."

_Sir J. Stephen, Lectures on the History of France,
lecture 7._

ALSO IN _L. Mariotti, Frà Dolcino and his Times._

See, also, Paulicians, and Catharists.

ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1209.
The First Crusade.

"Pope Innocent III., in organizing the persecution of the
Catharins [or Catharists], the Patarins, and the Pauvres de
Lyons, exercised a spirit, and displayed a genius similar to
those which had already elevated him to almost universal
dominion; which had enabled him to dictate at once to Italy
and to Germany; to control the kings of France, of Spain, and
of England; to overthrow the Greek Empire, and to substitute
in its stead a Latin dynasty at Constantinople. In the zeal of
the Cistercian Order, and of their Abbot, Arnaud Amalric; in
the fiery and unwearied preaching of the first Inquisitor, the
Spanish Missionary, Dominic; in the remorseless activity of
Foulquet, Bishop of Toulouse; and above all, in the strong and
unpitying arm of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester,
Innocent found ready instruments for his purpose. Thus aided;
he excommunicated Raymond of Toulouse [A. D. 1207], as Chief
of the Heretics, and he promised remission of sins, and all
the privileges which had hitherto been exclusively conferred
on adventurers in Palestine, to the champions who should
enroll themselves as Crusaders in the far more easy enterprise
of a Holy War against the Albigenses. In the first invasion of
his territories [A. D. 1209], Raymond VI. gave way before the
terrors excited by the 300,000 fanatics who precipitated
themselves on Languedoc; and loudly declaring his personal
freedom from heresy, he surrendered his chief castles,
underwent a humiliating penance, and took the cross against
his own subjects. The brave resistance of his nephew Raymond
Roger, Viscount of Bezières, deserved but did not obtain
success. When the crusaders surrounded his capital, which was
occupied by a mixed population of the two Religions, a
question was raised how, in the approaching sack, the
Catholics should be distinguished from the Heretics. 'Kill
them all,' was the ferocious reply of Amalric; 'the Lord will
easily know His own.' In compliance with this advice, not one
human being within the walls was permitted to survive;
{33}
and the tale of slaughter has been variously estimated, by
those who have perhaps exaggerated the numbers, at 60,000, but
even in the extenuating despatch, which the Abbot himself
addressed to the Pope, at not fewer than 15,000. Raymond Roger
was not included in this fearful massacre, and he repulsed two
attacks upon Carcassonne, before a treacherous breach of faith
placed him at the disposal of de Montfort, by whom he was
poisoned after a short imprisonment. The removal of that young
and gallant Prince was indeed most important to the ulterior
project of his captor, who aimed at permanent establishment in
the South. The family of de Montfort had ranked among the
nobles of France for more than two centuries; and it is traced
by some writers through an illegitimate channel even to the
throne: but the possessions of Simon himself were scanty;
necessity had compelled him to sell the County of Evreux to
Philippe Auguste; and the English Earldom of Leicester which he
inherited maternally, and the Lordship of a Castle about ten
leagues distant from Paris, formed the whole of his revenues."

_E. Smedley, History of France, chapter _4.

ALSO IN
_J. C. L. de Sismondi, History of the Crusades against
the Albigenses, chapter 1._

_H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity,
book 9, chapter 8._

_J. Alzog, Manual of Universal Church History, period 2,
epoch 2, part 1, chapter 3
https://archive.org/details/manualofuniversa02alzo_.

See, also, INQUISITION: A. D. 1203-1525.

ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1210-1213.
The Second Crusade.

"The conquest of the Viscounty of Beziers had rather inflamed
than satiated the cupidity of De Montfort and the fanaticism
of Amalric [legate of the Pope] and of the monks of Citeaux.
Raymond, Count of Toulouse, still possessed the fairest part
of Languedoc, and was still suspected or accused of affording
shelter, if not countenance, to his heretical subjects. ...
The unhappy Raymond was ... again excommunicated from the
Christian Church, and his dominions offered as a reward to the
champions who should execute her sentence against him. To earn
that reward De Montfort, at the head of a new host of
Crusaders, attracted by the promise of earthly spoils and of
heavenly blessedness, once more marched through the devoted
land [A. D. 1210], and with him advanced Amalric. At each
successive conquest, slaughter, rapine, and woes such as may
not be described tracked and polluted their steps. Heretics,
or those suspected of heresy, wherever they were found, were
compelled by the legate to ascend vast piles of burning
faggots. ... At length the Crusaders reached and laid siege to
the city of Toulouse. ... Throwing himself into the place,
Raymond ... succeeded in repulsing De Montfort and Amalric. It
was, however, but a temporary respite, and the prelude to a
fearful destruction. From beyond the Pyrenees, at the head of
1,000 knights, Pedro of Arragon had marched to the rescue of
Raymond, his kinsman, and of the counts of Foix and of
Comminges, and of the Viscount of Béarn, his vassals; and
their united forces came into communication with each other at
Muret, a little town which is about three leagues distant from
Toulouse. There, also, on the 12th of September [A. D. 1213],
at the head of the champions of the Cross, and attended by
seven bishops, appeared Simon de Montfort in full military
array. The battle which followed was fierce, short and
decisive. ... Don Pedro was numbered with the slain. His army,
deprived of his command, broke and dispersed, and the whole of
the infantry of Raymond and his allies were either put to the
sword, or swept a way by the current of the Garonne. Toulouse
immediately surrendered, and the whole of the dominions of
Raymond submitted to the conquerors. At a council subsequently
held at Montpellier, composed of five archbishops and
twenty-eight bishops, De Montfort was unanimously acknowledged
as prince of the fief and city of Toulouse, and of the other
counties conquered by the Crusaders under his command."

_Sir J. Stephen, Lectures on the History of France, lecture 7._

ALSO IN
_J. C. L. de Sismondi, History of Crusades against the
Albigenses, chapter 2._

ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1217-1229.
The Renewed Crusades.
Dissolution of the County of Toulouse.
Pacification of Languedoc.

"The cruel spirit of De Montfort would not allow him to rest
quiet in his new Empire. Violence and persecution marked his
rule; he sought to destroy the Provençal population by the
sword or the stake, nor could he bring himself to tolerate the
liberties of the citizens of Toulouse. In 1217 the Toulousans
again revolted, and war once more broke out betwixt Count
Raymond and Simon de Montfort. The latter formed the siege of
the capital, and was engaged in repelling a sally, when a
stone from one of the walls struck him and put an end to his
existence. ... Amaury de Montfort, son of Simon, offered to
cede to the king all his rights in Languedoc, which he was
unable to defend against the old house of Toulouse. Philip
[Augustus] hesitated to accept the important cession, and left
the rival houses to the continuance of a struggle carried
feebly on by either side." King Philip died in 1223 and was
succeeded by a son, Louis VIII., who had none of his father's
reluctance to join in the grasping persecution of the
unfortunate people of the south. Amaury de Montfort had been
fairly driven out of old Simon de Montfort's conquests, and he
now sold them to King Louis for the office of constable of
France. "A new crusade was preached against the Albigenses;
and Louis marched towards Languedoc at the head of a
formidable army in the spring of the year 1226. The town of
Avignon had proferred to the crusaders the facilities of
crossing the Rhone under her walls, but refused entry within
them to such a host. Louis having arrived at Avignon, insisted
on passing through the town: the Avignonais shut their gates,
and defied the monarch, who instantly formed the siege. One of
the rich municipalities of the south was almost a match for
the king of France. He was kept three months under its walls;
his army a prey to famine, to disease and to the assaults of a
brave garrison. The crusaders lost 20,000 men. The people of
Avignon at length submitted, but on no dishonourable terms.
This was the only resistance that Louis experienced in
Languedoc. ... All submitted. Louis retired from his facile
conquest; he himself, and the chiefs of his army stricken by
an epidemy which had prevailed in the conquered regions. The
monarch's feeble frame could not resist it; he expired at
Montpensier, in Auvergne, in November, 1226." Louis VIII. was
succeeded by his young son, Louis IX. (Saint Louis), then a
boy, under the regency of his energetic and capable mother,
Blanche of Castile.
{34}
"The termination of the war with the Albigenses, and
the pacification, or it might be called the acquisition, of
Languedoc, was the chief act of Queen Blanche's regency. Louis
VIII. had overrun the country without resistance in his last
campaign; still, at his departure, Raymond VI. again appeared,
collected soldiers and continued to struggle against the royal
lieutenant. For upward of two years he maintained himself; the
attention of Blanche being occupied by the league of the
barons against her. The successes of Raymond VII., accompanied
by cruelties, awakened the vindictive zeal of the pope.
Languedoc was threatened with another crusade; Raymond was
willing to treat, and make considerable cessions, in order to
avoid such extremities. In April, 1229, a treaty was signed:
in it the rights of De Montfort were passed over. About
two-thirds of the domains of the count of Toulouse were ceded
to the king of France; the remainder was to fall, after
Raymond's death, to his daughter Jeanne, who by the same
treaty was to marry one of the royal princes: heirs failing
them, it was to revert to the crown [which it did in 1271]. On
these terms, with the humiliating addition of a public
penance, Raymond VII. once more was allowed peaceable
possession of Toulouse, and of the part of his domains
reserved to him. Alphonse, brother of Louis IX., married
Jeanne of Toulouse soon after, and took the title of count of
Poitiers; that province being ceded to him in apanage. Robert,
another brother, was made count of Artois at the same time.
Louis himself married Margaret, the eldest daughter of Raymond
Berenger, count of Provence."

_E. E. Crowe, History of France, volume 1, chapter 2-3._

"The struggle ended in a vast increase of the power of the
French crown, at the expense alike of the house of Toulouse
and of the house of Aragon. The dominions of the count of
Toulouse were divided. A number of fiefs, Beziers, Narbonne,
Nimes, Albi, and some other districts were at once annexed to
the crown. The capital itself and its county passed to the
crown fifty years later. ... The name of Toulouse, except as
the name of the city itself, now passed away, and the new
acquisitions of France came in the end to be known by the name
of the tongue which was common to them with Aquitaine and
Imperial Burgundy [Provence]. Under the name of Languedoc they
became one of the greatest and most valuable provinces of the
French kingdom."

_E. A. Freeman, History Geography of Europe, chapter 9._

The brutality and destructiveness of the Crusades.

"The Church of the Albigenses had been drowned in blood. These
supposed heretics had been swept away from the soil of France.
The rest of the Languedocian people had been overwhelmed with
calamity, slaughter, and devastation. The estimates
transmitted to us of the numbers of the invaders and of the
slain are such as almost surpass belief. We can neither verify
nor correct them; but we certainly know that, during a long
succession of years, Languedoc had been invaded by armies more
numerous than had ever before been brought together in
European warfare since the fall of the Roman empire. We know
that these hosts were composed of men inflamed by bigotry and
unrestrained by discipline; that they had neither military pay
nor magazines; that they provided for all their wants by the
sword, living at the expense of the country, and seizing at
their pleasure both the harvests of the peasants and the
merchandise of the citizens. More than three-fourths of the
landed proprietors had been despoiled of their fiefs and
castles. In hundreds of villages, every inhabitant had been
massacred. ... Since the sack of Rome by the Vandals, the
European world had never mourned over a national disaster so
wide in its extent or so fearful in its character."

_Sir J. Stephen, Lectures on the History of France,
lecture 7._

----------ALBIGENSES: End----------

ALBION.

"The most ancient name known to have been given to this island
[Britain] is that of Albion. ... There is, however, another
allusion to Britain which seems to carry us much further back,
though it has usually been ill understood. It occurs in the
story of the labours of Hercules, who, after securing the cows
of Geryon, comes from Spain to Liguria, where he is attacked
by two giants, whom he kills before making his way to Italy.
Now, according to Pomponius Mela, the names of the giants were
Albiona and Bergyon, which one may, without much hesitation,
restore to the forms of Albion and Iberion, representing,
undoubtedly, Britain and Ireland, the position of which in the
sea is most appropriately symbolized by the story making them
sons of Neptune or the sea-god. ... Even in the time of Pliny,
Albion, as the name of the island, had fallen out of use with
Latin authors; but not so with the Greeks, or with the Celts
themselves, at any rate those of the Goidelic branch; for they
are probably right who suppose that we have but the same word
in the Irish and Scotch Gælic Alba, genitive Alban, the
kingdom of Alban or Scotland beyond the Forth. Albion would be
a form of the name according to the Brythonic pronunciation of
it. ... It would thus appear that the name Albion is one that
has retreated to a corner of the island, to the whole of which
it once applied."

_J. Rhys, Celtic Britain, chapter 6._

ALSO IN _E. Guest, Origines Celticae, chapter 1._

See SCOTLAND: 8TH-9TH CENTURIES.

ALBIS, The.
The ancient name of the river Elbe.

ALBOIN, King of the Lombards, A. D. 569-573.

ALCALDE.--ALGUAZIL.--CORREGIDOR.

"The word alcalde is from the Arabic 'al cadi,' the judge or
governor. ... Alcalde mayor signifies a judge, learned in the
law, who exercises [in Spain] ordinary jurisdiction, civil and
criminal, in a town or district." In the Spanish colonies the
Alcalde mayor was the chief judge. "Irving (Columbus, ii.
331) writes erroneously alguazil mayor, evidently confounding
the two offices. ... An alguacil mayor, was a chief constable
or high sheriff." "Corregidor, a magistrate having civil and
criminal jurisdiction in the first instance ('nisi prius')
and gubernatorial inspection in the political and economical
government in all the towns of the district assigned to him."

_H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States,
volume 1, pages 297 and 250, foot-notes._

ALCANIZ, Battle of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1809 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).

ALCANTARA, Battle of the (1580).

See PORTUGAL; A. D. 1579-1580.

{35}

ALCANTARA, Knights of.

"Towards the close of Alfonso's reign [Alfonso VIII. of
Castile and Leon, who called himself 'the Emperor,'
A. D. 1126-1157], may be assigned the origin of the
military order of Alcantara. Two cavaliers of Salamanca, don
Suero and don Gomez, left that city with the design of
choosing and fortifying some strong natural frontier, whence
they could not only arrest the continual incursions of the
Moors, but make hostile irruptions themselves into the
territories of the misbelievers. Proceeding along the banks of
the Coales, they fell in with a hermit, Amando by name, who
encouraged them in their patriotic design and recommended the
neighbouring hermitage of St. Julian as an excellent site for
a fortress. Having examined and approved the situation, they
applied to the bishop of Salamanca for permission to occupy
the place: that permission was readily granted: with his
assistance, and that of the hermit Amando, the two cavaliers
erected a castle around the hermitage. They were now joined by
other nobles and by more adventurers, all eager to acquire
fame and wealth in this life, glory in the next. Hence the
foundation of an order which, under the name, first, of St.
Julian, and subsequently of Alcantara, rendered good service
alike to king and church."

_S. A. Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal, book 3,
section 2, chapter 1, division. 2._

ALCAZAR, OR "THE THREE KINGS," Battle of (1578 or 1579).

See MAROCCO: THE ARAB CONQUEST AND SINCE.

ALCIBIADES, The career of.

See GREECE: B. C. 421-418, and 411-407;
and ATHENS: B. C. 415, and 413-411.

ALCLYDE.

Rhydderch, a Cumbrian prince of the sixth century who was the
victor in a civil conflict, "fixed his headquarters on a rock
in the Clyde, called in the Welsh Alclud [previously a Roman
town known as Theodosia], whence it was known to the English
for a time as Alclyde; but the Goidels called it Dunbrettan,
or the fortress of the Brythons, which has prevailed in the
slightly modified form of Dumbarton. ... Alclyde was more than
once destroyed by the Northmen."

_J. Rhys; Celtic Britain, chapter 4._

See, also, CUMBRIA.

ALCMÆONIDS, The curse and banishment of the.

See ATHENS: B. C. 612-595.

ALCOLEA, Battle of (1868).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1866-1873.

ALDIE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863
(JUNE-JULY: PENNSYLVANIA).

ALDINE PRESS, The.

See PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1469-1515.

ALEMANNIA: The Mediæval Duchy.

See GERMANY: A. D. 843-962.

ALEMANNI, OR ALAMANNI: A. D. 213.
Origin and first appearance.

"Under Antoninus, the Son of Severus, a new and more severe
war once more (A. D. 213) broke out in Raetia. This also was
waged against the Chatti; but by their side a second people is
named, which we here meet for the first time--the Alamanni.
Whence they came, we known not. According to a Roman writing a
little later, they were a conflux of mixed elements; the
appellation also seems to point to a league of communities, as
well as the fact that, afterwards, the different tribes
comprehended under this name stand forth--more than is the
case among the other great Germanic peoples--in their separate
character, and the Juthungi, the Lentienses, and other
Alamannic peoples not seldom act independently. But that it is
not the Germans of this region who here emerge, allied under the
new name and strengthened by the alliance, is shown as well by
the naming of the Alamanni along side of the Chatti, as by the
mention of the unwonted skilfulness of the Alamanni in
equestrian combat. On the contrary, it was certainly, in the
main, hordes coming on from the East that lent new strength to
the almost extinguished German resistance on the Rhine; it is
not improbable that the powerful Semnones, in earlier times
dwelling on the middle Elbe, of whom there is no further
mention after the end of the second century, furnished a
strong contingent to the Alamanni."

_T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 4._

"The standard quotation respecting the derivation of the name
from 'al'='all' and m-n= man', so that the word (somewhat
exceptionably) denotes 'men of all sorts,' is from Agathias,
who quotes Asinius Quadratus. ... Notwithstanding this, I
think it is an open question, whether the name may not have
been applied by the truer and more unequivocal Germans of
Suabia and Franconia, to certain less definitely Germanic
allies from Wurtemberg and Baden,--parts of the Decumates
Agri--parts which may have supplied a Gallic, a Gallo-Roman,
or even a Slavonic element to the confederacy; in which case,
a name so German as to have given the present French and
Italian name for Germany, may, originally, have applied to a
population other than Germanic. I know the apparently
paradoxical elements in this view; but I also know that, in
the way of etymology, it is quite as safe to translate 'all'
by 'alii' as by 'omnes': and I cannot help thinking that the
'al-' in Ale-manni is the 'al-' in 'alir-arto' (a foreigner
or man of another sort), 'eli-benzo' (an alien), and
'ali-land' (captivity in foreign land).--Grimm, ii.
628.--Rechsalterth, page 359. And still more satisfied am I that
the 'al-' in Al-emanni is the 'al-' in
Alsatia='el-sass'='ali-satz'='foreign settlement.' In other
words, the prefix in question is more probably the 'al-' in
'el-se', than the 'al-' in 'all.' Little, however, of
importance turns on this. The locality of the Alemanni was the
parts about the Limes Romanus, a boundary which, in the time
of Alexander Severus, Niebuhr thinks they first broke through.
Hence they were the Marchmen of the frontier, whoever those
Marchmen were. Other such Marchmen were the Suevi; unless,
indeed, we consider the two names as synonymous. Zeuss admits
that, between the Suevi of Suabia, and the Alemanni, no
tangible difference can be found."

_R. G. Lathan, The Germania of Tacitus; Epilegomena,
section 11._

ALSO IN _T. Smith, Arminius, part 2, chapter 1._

See also, SUEVI, and BAVARIANS.

ALEMANNI: A. D. 259.
Invasion of Gaul and Italy.

The Alemanni, "hovering on the frontiers of the Empire ...
increased the general disorder that ensued after the death of
Decius. They inflicted severe wounds on the rich provinces of
Gaul; they were the first who removed the veil that covered
the feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous body of the Alemanni
penetrated across the Danube and through the Rhætian Alps into
the plains of Lombardy, advanced as far as Ravenna and
displayed the victorious banners of barbarians almost in sight
of Rome [A. D. 259]. The insult and the danger
rekindled in the senate some sparks of their ancient virtue.
Both the Emperors were engaged in far distant wars--Valerian
in the East and Galienus on the Rhine." The senators, however,
succeeded in confronting the audacious invaders with a force
which checked their advance, and they "retired into Germany
laden with spoil."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 10.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

{36}

ALEMANNI: A. D. 270.
Invasion of Italy.

Italy was invaded by the Alemanni, for the second time, in the
reign of Anrelian, A. D. 270. They ravaged the provinces from
the Danube to the Po, and were retreating, laden with spoils,
when the vigorous Emperor intercepted them, on the banks of
the former river. Half the host was permitted to cross the
Danube; the other half was surprised and surrounded. But these
last, unable to regain their own country, broke through the
Roman lines at their rear and sped into Italy again, spreading
havoc as they went. It was only after three great
battles,--one near Placentia, in which the Romans were almost
beaten, another on the Metaurus (where Hasdrubal was
defeated), and a third near Pavia,--that the Germanic
invaders were destroyed.

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 11.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

ALEMANNI: A. D. 355-361.
Repulse by Julian.

See GAUL: A. D. 355-361.

ALEMANNI: A. D. 365-367.
Invasion of Gaul.

The Alemanni invaded Gaul in 365, committing widespread
ravages and carrying away into the forests of Germany great
spoil and many captives. The next winter they crossed the
Rhine, again, in still greater numbers, defeated the Roman
forces and captured the standards of the Herulian and Batavian
auxiliaries. But Valentinian was now Emperor, and he adopted
energetic measures. His lieutenant Jovinus overcame the
invaders in a great battle fought near Chalons and drove them
back to their own side of the river boundary. Two years later,
the Emperor, himself, passed the Rhine and inflicted a
memorable chastisement on the Alemanni. At the same time he
strengthened the frontier defences, and, by diplomatic arts,
fomented quarrels between the Alemanni and their neighbors,
the Burgundians, which weakened both.

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 25.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

ALEMANNI: A. D. 378.
Defeat by Gratian.

On learning that the young Emperor Gratian was preparing to
lead the military force of Gaul and the West to the help of
his uncle and colleague, Valens, against the Goths, the
Alemanni swarmed across the Rhine into Gaul. Gratian instantly
recalled the legions that were marching to Pannonia and
encountered the German invaders in a great battle fought near
Argentaria (modern Colmar) in the month of May, A. D. 378. The
Alemanni were routed with such slaughter that no more than
5,000 out of 40,000 to 70,000, are said to have escaped.
Gratian afterwards crossed the Rhine and humbled his
troublesome neighbors in their own country.

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 26.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

ALEMANNI: A. D. 496-504.
Overthrow by the Franks.

"In the year 496 A. D. the Salians [Salian Franks] began that
career of conquest which they followed up with scarcely any
intermission until the death of their warrior king. The
Alemanni, extending themselves from their original seats on
the right bank of the Rhine, between the Main and the Danube,
had pushed forward into Germanica Prima, where they came into
collision with the Frankish subjects of King Sigebert of
Cologne. Clovis flew to the assistance of his kinsman and
defeated the Alemanni in a great battle in the neighbourhood
of Zülpich [called, commonly, the battle of Tolbiac]. He then
established a considerable number of his Franks in the
territory of the Alemanni, the traces of whose residence are
found in the names of Franconia and Frankfort."

_V. C. Perry, The Franks, chapter 2._

"Clovis had been intending to cross the Rhine, but the hosts
of the Alamanni came upon him, as it seems, unexpectedly and
forced a battle on the left bank of the river. He seemed to be
overmatched, and the horror of an impending defeat
overshadowed the Frankish king. Then, in his despair, he
bethought himself of the God of Clotilda [his queen, a
Burgundian Christian princess, of the orthodox or Catholic
faith]. Raising his eyes to heaven, he said: 'Oh Jesus Christ,
whom Clotilda declares to be the Son of the living God, who
art said to give help to those who are in trouble and who
trust in Thee, I humbly beseech Thy succour! I have called on
my gods and they are far from my help. If Thou wilt deliver me
from mine enemies, I will believe in Thee, and be baptised in
Thy name.' At this moment, a sudden change was seen in the
fortunes of the Franks. The Alamanni began to waver, they
turned, they fled. Their king, according to one account was
slain; and the nation seems to have accepted Clovis as its
over-lord." The following Christmas day Clovis was baptised at
Reims and 3,000 of his warriors followed the royal example.
"In the early years of the new century, probably about 503 or
504, Clovis was again at war with his old enemies, the
Alamanni. ... Clovis moved his army into their territories and
won a victory much more decisive, though less famous than that
of 496. This time the angry king would make no such easy terms
as he had done before. From their pleasant dwellings by the
Main and the Neckar, from all the valley of the Middle Rhine,
the terrified Alamanni were forced to flee. Their place was
taken by Frankish settlers, from whom all this district
received in the Middle Ages the name of the Duchy of Francia,
or, at a rather later date, that of the Circle of Franconia.
The Alamanni, with their wives and children, a broken and
dispirited host, moved southward to the shores of the Lake of
Constance and entered the old Roman province of Rhætia. Here
they were on what was held to be, in a sense, Italian ground;
and the arm of Theodoric, as ruler of Italy, as successor to
the Emperors of the West, was stretched forth to protect them.
... Eastern Switzerland, Western Tyrol, Southern Baden and
Würtemberg and Southwestern Bavaria probably formed this new
Alamannis, which will figure in later history as the 'Ducatus
Alamanniæ,' or the Circle of Swabia."

_T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 4, chapter 9._

ALSO IN
_P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul,
book 3, chapter 11._

See, also, SUEVI: A. D. 460-500;
and FRANKS: A. D. 481-511.

ALEMANNI: A. D. 528-729.
Struggles against the Frank Dominion.

See GERMANY: A. D. 481-768.

ALEMANNI: A. D. 547.
Final subjection to the Franks.

See BAVARIA: A. D. 547.

{37}

ALEPPO: A. D. 638-969.
Taken by the Arab followers of Mahomet in 638, this city was
recovered by the Byzantines in 969.

See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 963-1025.

ALEPPO: A. D. 1260.
Destruction by the Mongols.

The Mongols, under Khulagu, or Houlagou, brother of Mangu
Khan, having overrun Mesopotamia and extinguished the
Caliphate at Bagdad, crossed the Euphrates in the spring of
1260 and advanced to Aleppo. The city was taken after a siege
of seven days and given up for five days to pillage and
slaughter. "When the carnage ceased, the streets were cumbered
with corpses. ... It is said that 100,000 women and children
were sold as slaves. The walls of Aleppo were razed, its
mosques destroyed, and its gardens ravaged." Damascus
submitted and was spared. Khulagu was meditating, it is said,
the conquest of Jerusalem, when news of the death of the Great
Khan called him to the East.

_H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, pages 209-211._

ALEPPO: A. D. 1401.
Sack and Massacre by Timour.

See TIMOUR.

ALESIA, Siege of, by Cæsar.

See GAUL: B. C. 58-51.

ALESSANDRIA: The creation of the city (1168).

See ITALY: A. D. 1174--1183.

ALEUTS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ESKIMO.

ALEXANDER
ALEXANDER the Great, B. C. 334-323.
Conquests and Empire.

See MACEDONIA, &c., B. C. 334-330, and after.

Alexander, King of Poland, A. D. 1501-1507.

Alexander, Prince of Bulgaria.--Abduction and Abdication.

See BULGARIA: A. D. 1878-1886..

Alexander I., Czar of Russia, A. D. 1801-1825..

Alexander I., King of Scotland, A. D. 1107-1124.

Alexander II., Pope, A. D. 1061-1073.

Alexander II., Czar of Russia, A. D. 1855-1881.

Alexander II., King of Scotland, A. D. 1214--1249..

Alexander III., Pope, A. D. 1159-1181.

Alexander III., Czar of Russia, A. D. 1881-.

Alexander III., King of Scotland, A. D. 1249-1286.

Alexander IV., Pope, A. D. 1254--1261.

Alexander V., Pope, A. D. 1409-1410
(elected by the Council of Pisa).

Alexander VI., Pope, A. D. 1492-1503.

Alexander VII., Pope, A. D. 1655-1667.

Alexander VIII., Pope, A. D. 1689-1691.

Alexander Severus, Roman Emperor, A. D. 222-235.

ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 332.
The Founding of the City.

"When Alexander reached the Egyptian military station at the
little town or village of Rhakotis, he saw with the quick eye
of a great commander how to turn this petty settlement into a
great city, and to make its roadstead, out of which ships
could be blown by a change of wind, into a double harbour
roomy enough to shelter the navies of the world. All that was
needed was to join the island by a mole to the continent. The
site was admirably secure and convenient, a narrow strip of
land between the Mediterranean and the great inland Lake
Mareotis. The whole northern side faced the two harbours,
which were bounded east and west by the mole, and beyond by
the long, narrow rocky island of Pharos, stretching parallel
with the coast. On the south was the inland port of Lake
Mareotis. The length of the city was more than three miles,
the breadth more than three-quarters of a mile; the mole was
above three-quarters of a mile long and six hundred feet
broad; its breadth is now doubled, owing to the silting up of
the sand. Modern Alexandria until lately only occupied the
mole, and was a great town in a corner of the space which
Alexander, with large provision for the future, measured out.
The form of the new city was ruled by that of the site, but
the fancy of Alexander designed it in the shape of a
Macedonian cloak or chlamys, such as a national hero wears on
the coins of the kings of Macedon, his ancestors. The
situation is excellent for commerce. Alexandria, with the best
Egyptian harbour on the Mediterranean, and the inland port
connected with the Nile streams and canals, was the natural
emporium of the Indian trade. Port Said is superior now,
because of its grand artificial port and the advantage for
steamships of an unbroken sea route."

_R. S. Poole, Cities of Egypt, chapter 12._--

See, also, MACEDONIA, &c.: B. C. 334-330;
and EGYPT: B. C. 332.

ALEXANDRIA: Reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. 282-246.
Greatness and splendor of the City.
Its Commerce.
Its Libraries.
Its Museum.
Its Schools.

Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy Soter, succeeded to the
throne of Egypt in 282 B. C. when his father retired from it
in his favor, and reigned until 246 B. C. "Alexandria, founded
by the great conqueror, increased and beautified by Ptolemy
Soter, was now far the greatest city of Alexander's Empire. It
was the first of those new foundations which are a marked
feature in Hellenism; there were many others of great size and
importance--above all, Antioch, then Seleucia on the Tigris,
then Nicomedia, Nicæa, Apamea, which lasted; besides such as
Lysimacheia, Antigoneia, and others, which early disappeared.
... Alexandria was the model for all the rest. The
intersection of two great principal thoroughfares, adorned
with colonnades for the footways, formed the centre point, the
omphalos of the city. The other streets were at right angles
with these thoroughfares, so that the whole place was quite
regular. Counting its old part, Rhakotis, which was still the
habitation of native Egyptians, Alexandria had five quarters,
one at least devoted to Jews who had originally settled there
in great numbers. The mixed population there of Macedonians,
Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians gave a peculiarly complex and
variable character to the population. Let us not forget the
vast number of strangers from all parts of the world whom
trade and politics brought there. It was the great mart where
the wealth of Europe and of Asia changed hands. Alexander had
opened the sea-way by exploring the coasts of Media and
Persia. Caravans from the head of the Persian Gulf, and ships
on the Red Sea, brought all the wonders of Ceylon and China,
as well as of Further India, to Alexandria. There, too, the
wealth of Spain and Gaul, the produce of Italy and Macedonia,
the amber of the Baltic and the salt fish of Pontus, the
silver of Spain and the copper of Cyprus, the timber of
Macedonia and Crete, the pottery and oil of Greece--a thousand
imports from all the Mediterranean--came to be exchanged for
the spices of Arabia, the splendid birds and embroideries of
India and Ceylon, the gold and ivory of Africa, the antelopes,
the apes, the leopards, the elephants of tropical climes.
Hence the enormous wealth of the Lagidæ, for in addition to
the marvellous fertility and great population--it is said to
have been seven millions--of Egypt, they made all the profits
of this enormous carrying trade.
{38}
We gain a good idea of what the splendours of the capital were
by the very full account preserved to us by Athenæus of the
great feast which inaugurated the reign of Philadelphus. ...
All this seems idle pomp, and the doing of an idle sybarite.
Philadelphus was anything but that. ... It was he who opened
up the Egyptian trade with Italy, and made Puteoli the great
port for ships from Alexandria, which it remained for
centuries. It was he who explored Ethiopia and the southern
parts of Africa, and brought back not only the curious fauna
to his zoological gardens, but the first knowledge of the
Troglodytes for men of science. The cultivation of science and
of letters too was so remarkably one of his pursuits that the
progress of the Alexandria of his day forms an epoch in the
world's history, and we must separate his University and its
professors from this summary, and devote to them a separate
section. ... The history of the organization of the University
and its staff is covered with almost impenetrable mist. For
the Museum and Library were in the strictest sense what we
should now call an University, and one, too, of the Oxford
type, where learned men were invited to take Fellowships, and
spend their learned leisure close to observatories in science,
and a great library of books. Like the mediæval universities,
this endowment of research naturally turned into an engine for
teaching, as all who desired knowledge flocked to such a
centre, and persuaded the Fellow to become a Tutor. The model
came from Athens. There the schools, beginning with the
Academy of Plato, had a fixed property--a home with its
surrounding garden, and in order to make this foundation sure,
it was made a shrine where the Muses were worshipped, and
where the head of the school, or a priest appointed, performed
stated sacrifices. This, then, being held in trust by the
successors of the donor, who bequeathed it; to them, was a
property which it would have been sacrilegious to invade, and
so the title Museum arose for a school of learning. Demetrius
the Phalerean, the friend and protector of Theophrastus,
brought this idea with him to Alexandria, when his namesake
drove him into exile [see GREECE: B. C. 307-197] and it was no
doubt his advice to the first Ptolemy which originated the
great foundation, though Philadelphus, who again exiled
Demetrius, gets the credit of it. The pupil of Aristotle
moreover impressed on the king the necessity of storing up in
one central repository all that the world knew or could
produce, in order to ascertain the laws of things from a
proper analysis of detail. Hence was founded not only the
great library, which in those days had a thousand times the
value a great library has now, but also observatories,
zoological gardens, collections of exotic plants, and of other
new and strange things brought by exploring expeditions from
the furthest regions of Arabia and Africa. This library and
museum proved indeed a home for the Muses, and about it a most
brilliant group of students in literature and science was
formed. The successive librarians were Zenodotus, the
grammarian or critic; Callimachus, to whose poems we shall
presently return; Eratosthenes, the astronomer, who originated
the process by which the size of the earth is determined
to-day; Appollonius the Rhodian, disciple and enemy of
Callimachus; Aristophanes of Byzantium, founder of a school of
philological criticism; and Aristarchus of Samos, reputed to
have been the greatest critic of ancient times. The study of
the text of Homer was the chief labour of Zenodotus,
Aristophanes, and Aristarchus, and it was Aristarchus who
mainly fixed the form in which the Iliad and Odyssey remain to
this day. ... The vast collections of the library and museum
actually determined the whole character of the literature of
Alexandria. One word sums it all up--erudition, whether in
philosophy, in criticism, in science, even in poetry. Strange
to say, they neglected not only oratory, for which there was
no scope, but history, and this we may attribute to the fact
that history before Alexander had no charms for Hellenism.
Mythical lore, on the other hand, strange uses and curious
words, were departments of research dear to them. In science
they did great things, so did they in geography. ... But were
they original in nothing? Did they add nothing of their own to
the splendid record of Greek literature? In the next
generation came the art of criticism, which Aristarchus
developed into a real science, and of that we may speak in its
place; but even in this generation we may claim for them the
credit of three original, or nearly original, developments in
literature--the pastoral idyll, as we have it in Theocritus;
the elegy, as we have it in the Roman imitators of Philetas
and Callimachus; and the romance, or love story, the parent of
our modern novels. All these had early prototypes in the folk
songs of Sicily, in the love songs of Mimnermus and of
Antimachus, in the tales of Miletus, but still the revival was
fairly to be called original. Of these the pastoral idyll was
far the most remarkable, and laid hold upon the world for
ever."

_J. P. Mahaffy, The Story of Alexander's Empire, chapter 13-14._

"There were two Libraries of Alexandria under the Ptolemies,
the larger one in the quarter called the Bruchium, and the
smaller one, named 'the daughter,' in the Serapeum, which was
situated in the quarter called Rhacotis. The former was
totally destroyed in the conflagration of the Bruchium during
Cæsar's Alexandrian War [see below: B. C. 48-47]; but the
latter, which was of great value, remained uninjured (see
Matter, _Histoire de l'École d'Alexandrie, volume 1, page 133
seg., 237 seq.)_ It is not stated by any ancient writer
where the collection of Pergamus [see PERGAMUM] was placed,
which Antony gave to Cleopatra (Plutarch, Anton., c. 58); but
it is most probable that it was deposited in the Bruchium, as
that quarter of the city was now without a library, and the
queen was anxious to repair the ravages occasioned by the
civil war. If this supposition is correct, two Alexandrian
libraries continued to exist after the time of Cæsar, and this
is rendered still more probable by the fact that during the
first three centuries of the Christian era the Bruchium was
still the literary quarter of Alexandria. But a great change
took place in the time of Aurelian. This Emperor, in
suppressing the revolt of Firmus in Egypt, A. D. 273 [see
below: A. D. 273] is said to have destroyed the Bruchium; and
though this statement is hardly to be taken literally, the
Bruchium ceased from this time to be included within the walls
of Alexandria, and was regarded only as a suburb of the city.
{39}
Whether the great library in the Bruchium with the museum and
its other literary establishments, perished at this time, we
do not know; but the Serapeum for the next century takes its
place as the literary quarter of Alexandria, and becomes the
chief library in the city. Hence later writers erroneously
speak of the Serapeum as if it had been from the beginning the
great Alexandrian library. ... Gibbon seems to think that the
whole of the Serapeum was destroyed [A. D. 389, by order of
the Emperor Theodosius--see below]; but this was not the case.
It would appear that it was only the sanctuary of the god that
was levelled with the ground, and that the library, the halls
and other buildings in the consecrated ground remained
standing long afterwards."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 28. Notes by Dr. William Smith.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

Concerning the reputed final destruction of the Library by the
Moslems,

See below: A. D. 641-646.

ALSO IN
_O. Delepierre, Historical Difficulties, chapter 3._

_S. Sharpe, History of Egypt, chapters 7, 8 and 12._

See, also, NEOPLATONICS.

ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 48-47.
Cæsar and Cleopatra.
The Rising against the Romans.
The Siege.
Destruction of the great Library.
Roman victory.