Chapter XXXVI: Front Matter (36)

"When the Cimbri and their associates, about a century before
our era, made their memorable onslaught upon Rome, the early
inhabitants of the Rhine island of Batavia, who were probably
Celts, joined in the expedition. A recent and tremendous
inundation had swept away their miserable homes. ... The
island was deserted of its population. At about the same
period a civil dissension among the Chatti--a powerful German
race within the Hercynian forest--resulted in the expatriation
of a portion of the people. The exiles sought a new home in
the empty Rhine island, called it 'Bet-auw,' or 'good meadow,'
and were themselves called, thenceforward, Batavi, or
Batavians."

_J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic, introduction.,
section 2._

BATAVIANS: A. D. 69.
Revolt of Civilis.

"Galba [Roman Emperor], succeeding to the purple upon the
suicide of Nero, dismissed the Batavian life-guards to whom he
owed his elevation. He is murdered, Otho and Vitellius contend
for the succession, while all eyes are turned upon the eight
Batavian regiments. In their hands the scales of Empire seem
to rest. They declare for Vitellius and the civil war begins.
Otho is defeated; Vitellius acknowledged by Senate and people.
Fearing, like his predecessors, the imperious turbulence of
the Batavian legions, he, too, sends them into Germany. It was
the signal for a long and extensive revolt, which had
well-nigh overturned the Roman power in Gaul and Lower
Germany. Claudius Civilis was a Batavian of noble race, who
had served twenty-five years in the Roman armies. His Teutonic
name has perished. ... After a quarter of a century's service
he was sent in chains to Rome and his brother executed, both
falsely charged with conspiracy. ... Desire to avenge his own
wrongs was mingled with loftier motives in his breast. He knew
that the sceptre was in the gift of the Batavian soldiery. ...
By his courage, eloquence and talent for political
combinations, Civilis effected a general confederation of all
the Netherland tribes, both Celtic and German. For a brief
moment there was a united people, a Batavian commonwealth. ...
The details of the revolt [A. D. 69] have been carefully
preserved by Tacitus, and form one of his grandest and most
elaborate pictures. ... The battles, the sieges, the defeats,
the indomitable spirit of Civilis, still flaming most brightly
when the clouds were darkest around him, have been described
by the great historian in his most powerful manner. ... The
struggle was an unsuccessful one. After many victories and
many overthrows, Civilis was left alone. ... He accepted the
offer of negotiation from Cerialis [the Roman commander]. ...
A colloquy was agreed upon. The bridge across the Nabalia was
broken asunder in the middle and Cerialis and Civilis met upon
the severed sides. ... Here the story abruptly terminates. The
remainder of the Roman's narrative is lost, and upon that
broken bridge the form of the Batavian hero disappears
forever."

_J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic, introduction.,
sections. 3-4._

ALSO IN: _Tacitus, History, books. 4-5._

----------BATAVIANS: End----------

BATH, The Order of the.

"The present Military Order of the Bath, founded by King
George I. in the year 1725, differs so essentially from the
Knighthood of the Bath, or the custom of making Knights with
various rites and ceremonies, of which one was Bathing, that
it may almost be considered a distinct and new fraternity of
chivalry. The last Knights of the Bath, made according to the
ancient forms, were at the coronation of King Charles II.; and
from that period until the reign of the first George, the old
institution fell into total oblivion. At the latter epoch,
however, it was determined to revive, as it was termed, The
Order of the Bath, by erecting it into a regular Military
Order'; and on the 25th May, 1725, Letters Patent were issued
for that purpose. By the Statutes then promulgated, the number
of Knights, independent of the Sovereign, a Prince of the
Blood Royal, and a Great Master, was restricted to 35." It has
since been greatly increased, and the Order divided into three
classes: First Class, consisting of "Knights Grand Cross," not
to exceed 50 for military and 25 for civil service; Second
Class, consisting of "Knights Commanders," not to exceed 102
for military and 50 for civil service; Third Class,
"Companions," not to exceed 525 for military and 200 for civil
service.

_Sir B. Burke, Book of Orders of Knighthood, page 104._

BATH, in Roman times.

See AQUÆ: SOLIS.

BATHS OF CARACALLA, Nero, etc.

See THERMÆ.

BATONIAN WAR, The.

A formidable revolt of the Dalmatians and Pannonians, A. D. 6,
involved the Roman Empire, under Augustus, in a serious war of
three years duration, which was called the Batonian War, from
the names of two leaders of the insurgents,--Bato the
Dalmatian, and Bato the Pannonian.

_T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 1._

BATOUM:
Ceded to Russia.
Declared a free port.

See TURKS: A. D. 1878.

BATTIADÆ, The.

See CYRENE.

BATTLE ABBEY.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1066 (OCTOBER).

BATTLE ABOVE THE CLOUDS, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863
(OCTOBER-NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE).

BATTLE OF THE CAMEL.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 661.

BATTLE OF THE KEGS, The.

See PHILADELPHIA: A. D. 1777-1778.

{273}

BATTLE OF THE NATIONS (Leipsic).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER), and (OCTOBER).

BATTLE OF THE THREE EMPERORS.
The battle of Austerlitz

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805 (MARCH-DECEMBER)--was so called by
Napoleon.

BATTLES.

The battles of which account is given in this work are so
numerous that no convenience would be served by collecting
references to them under this general heading. They are
severally indexed under the names by which they are
historically known.

BAURE, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

BAUTZEN, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (MAY-AUGUST).

BAUX, Lords of; Gothic Origin of the.

The illustrious Visigothic race of the "Balthi" or "Baltha"
("the bold"), from which sprang Alaric, "continued to flourish
in France in the Gothic province of Septimania, or Languedoc,
under the corrupted appellation of Baux, and a branch of that
family afterwards settled in the kingdom of Naples."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 30, note.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

BAVARIA:
The name.
Bavaria derived its name from the Boii.

_R. G. Latham, The Germania of Tacitus; Epilegomena,
section 20._

See, also, BOIANS.

The Ethnology of.

"Bavaria ... falls into two divisions; the Bavaria of the
Rhine, and the Bavaria of the Danube. In Rhenish Bavaria the
descent is from the ancient Vangiones and Nemetes, either
Germanized Gauls or Gallicized Germans, with Roman
superadditions. Afterwards, an extension of the Alemannic and
Suevic populations from the right bank of the Upper Rhine
completes the evolution of their present Germanic character.
Danubian Bavaria falls into two subdivisions. North of the
Danube the valley of the Naab, at least, was originally
Slavonic, containing an extension of the Slavonic population
of Bohemia. But disturbance and displacement began early. ...
In the third and fourth centuries, the Suevi and Alemanni
extended themselves from the Upper Rhine. ... The northwestern
parts of Bavaria were probably German from the beginning.
South of the Danube the ethnology changes. In the first place
the Roman elements increase; since Vindelicia was a Roman
province. ... Its present character has arisen from an
extension of the Germans of the Upper Rhine."

_R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, chapter 8._

BAVARIA: A. D. 547.
Subjection of the Bavarians to the Franks.

"It is about this period [A. D. 547] that the Bavarians first
become known in history as tributaries of the Franks; but at
what time they became so is matter of dispute. From the
previous silence of the annalists respecting this people, we
may perhaps infer that both they and the Suabians remained
independent until the fall of the Ostrogothic Empire in Italy.
The Gothic dominions were bounded on the north by Rhætia and
Noricum; and between these countries and the Thuringians, who
lived still further to the north, was the country of the
Bavarians and Suabians. Thuringia had long been possessed by
the Franks, Rhætia was ceded by Vitisges, king of Italy, and
Venetia was conquered by Theudebert [the Austrasian Frank
King]. The Bavarians were therefore, at this period, almost
surrounded by the Frankish territories. ... Whenever they may
have first submitted to the yoke, it is certain that at the
time of Theudebert's death [A. D. 547], or shortly after that
event, both Bavarians and Suabians (or Alemannians), had
become subjects of the Merovingian kings."

_W. C. Perry, The Franks, chapter 3._

BAVARIA: A. D. 843-962.
The ancient Duchy.

See GERMANY: A. D. 843-962.

BAVARIA: A. D. 876.
Added to the Austrian March.

See Austria: A. D. 805-1246.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1071-1178.
The Dukes of the House of Guelf.

See GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES;
and SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1101.
Disastrous Crusade of Duke Welf.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1101-1102.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1125-1152.
The origin of the Electorate.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1138-1183.
Involved in the beginnings of the Guelf and Ghibelline
Conflicts.
The struggles of Henry the Proud and Henry the Lion.

See GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES, and SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1156.
Separation of the Austrian March, which becomes a distinct
Duchy.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 805-1246.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1180-1356.
The House of Wittelsbach.
Its acquisition of Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine.
Loss of the Electoral Vote by Bavaria.

When, in 1180, the dominions of Henry the Lion, under the ban
of the Empire, were stripped from him (see SAXONY: A. D.
1178-1183), by the imperial sentence of forfeiture, and were
divided and conferred upon others by Frederick Barbarossa, the
Duchy of Bavaria was given to Otto, Count Palatine of
Wittelsbach. "As he claimed a descent from an ancient royal
family of Bavaria, it was alleged that, in obtaining the
sovereignty of that state, he had only in some measure
regained those rights which in former times belonged to his
ancestors."

_Sir A. Halliday, Annals of the House of Hanover,
volume 1, page 276._

"Otto ... was a descendant of that Duke Luitpold who fell in
combat with the Hungarians, and whose sons and grandsons had
already worn the ducal cap of Bavaria. No princely race in
Europe is of such ancient extraction. ... Bavaria was as yet
destitute of towns: Landshutt and Munich first rose into
consideration in the course of the 13th century; Ratisbon,
already a flourishing town, was regarded as the capital and
residence of the Dukes of Bavaria. ... A further accession of
dignity and power awaited the family in 1214 in the
acquisition of the Palatinate of the Rhine. Duke Ludwig was
now the most powerful prince of Southern Germany. ... His son
Otto the Illustrious, remaining ... true to the imperial
house, died excommunicate, and his dominions were placed for
several years under an interdict. ... Upon the death of Otto a
partition of the inheritance took place. This partition became
to the family an hereditary evil, a fatal source of quarrel
and of secret or open enmity. ... In [the] dark and dreadful
period of interregnum [see GERMANY: A. D. 1250-1272], when all
men waited for the final dissolution of the empire, nothing
appears concerning the Wittelsbach family. ... Finally in 1273
Rudolf, the first of the Hapsburgs, ascended the
long-unoccupied throne. ... He won over the Bavarian princes
by bestowing his daughters upon them in marriage.
{274}
Louis remained faithful and rendered him good
service; but the turbulent Henry, who had already made war
upon his brother for the possession of the electoral vote,
deserted him, and for this Bavaria was punished by the loss of
the vote, and of the territory above the Enns." Afterwards,
for a time, the Duke of Bavaria and the Count Palatine
exercised the right of the electoral vote alternately; but in
1356 by the Golden Bull of Charles IV. [see GERMANY: A. D.
1347-1493], the vote was given wholly to the Count Palatine,
and lost to Bavaria for nearly 300 years.

_J. I. von Döllinger, The House of Wittelsbach (Studies
in European History, chapter 2)._

BAVARIA: A. D. 1314.
Election of Louis to the imperial throne.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1314-1347.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1500.
Formation of the Circle.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1493-1519.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1610.
The Duke at the head of the Catholic League.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1619.
The Duke in command of the forces of the Catholic League.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1618-1620.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1623.
Transfer to the Duke of the Electoral dignity of the Elector
Palatine.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1632.
Occupation by Gustavus Adolphus.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1646-1648.
Ravaged by the Swedes and French.
Truce made and renounced by the Elector.
The last campaigns of the war.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1646-1648.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1648.
Acquisition of the Upper Palatinate in the Peace of
Westphalia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1686.
The League of Augsburg.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1686.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1689-1696.
The war of the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1690; 1689-1691; 1692; 1693 (JULY);
1694; 1695-1696.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1700.
Claims of the Electoral Prince on the Spanish Crown.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1698-1700.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1702.
The Elector joins France against the Allies.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1702.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1703.
Successes of the French and Bavarians.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1703.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1704.
Ravaged, crushed and surrendered by the Elector.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1704.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1705.
Dissolution of the Electorate.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1705.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1714.
The Elector restored to his Dominions.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1740.
Claims of the Elector to the Austrian succession.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1740 (OCTOBER).

BAVARIA: A. D. 1742.
The Elector crowned Emperor.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1741 (OCTOBER).

BAVARIA: A. D. 1743 (April).
The Emperor-Elector recovers his Electoral territory.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1742 (JUNE-DECEMBER), and 1743.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1743 (June).
The Emperor-Elector again a fugitive.
The Austrians in Possession.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1745.
Death of the Emperor-Elector.
Peace with Austria.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1744-1745.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1748.
Termination and results of the war of the Austrian Succession.

See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1767.
Expulsion of the Jesuits.

See JESUITS: A. D. 1761-1769.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1777-1779.
The Succession question.

"With the death of Maximilian Joseph, of Bavaria (30 December,
1777), the younger branch of the house of Wittelsbach became
extinct, and the electorate of Bavaria ... came to an end. By
virtue of the original partition in 1310, the duchy of Bavaria
ought to pass to the elder branch of the family, represented
by Charles Theodore, the Elector Palatine. But Joseph [the
Second, the Emperor], saw the possibility of securing valuable
additions to Austria which would round off the frontier on the
west. The Austrian claims were legally worthless. They were
based chiefly upon a gift of the Straubingen territory which
Sigismund was said to have made in 1426 to his son-in-law,
Albert of Austria, but which had never taken effect and had
since been utterly forgotten. It would be impossible to induce
the diet to recognise such claims, but it might be possible to
come to an understanding with the aged Charles Theodore, who
had no legitimate children and was not likely to feel any very
keen interest in his new inheritance. Without much difficulty
the elector was half frightened, half induced to sign a treaty
(3 January, 1778), by which he recognised the claims put
forward by Austria, while the rest of Bavaria was guaranteed
to him and his successors. Austrian troops were at once
despatched to occupy the ceded districts. The condition of
Europe seemed to assure the success of Joseph's bold venture.
... There was only one quarter from which opposition was to be
expected, Prussia. Frederick promptly appealed to the
fundamental laws of the Empire, and declared his intention of
upholding them with arms. But he could find no supporters
except those who were immediately interested, the elector of
Saxony, whose mother, as a sister of the late elector of
Bavaria, had a legal claim to his allodial property, and
Charles of Zweibrücken, the heir apparent of the childless
Charles Theodore. ... Frederick, left to himself, despatched
an army into Bohemia, where the Austrian troops had been
joined by the emperor in person. But nothing came of the
threatened hostilities. Frederick was unable to force on a
battle, and the so-called war was little more than an armed
negotiation. ... France and Russia undertook to mediate, and
negotiations were opened in 1779 at Teschen, where peace was
signed on the 13th of May. Austria withdrew the claims which
had been recognised in the treaty with the Elector Palatine,
and received the 'quarter of the Inn,' i. e., the district
from Passau to Wildshut. Frederick's eventual claims to the
succession in the Franconian principalities of Anspach and
Baireuth, which Austria had every interest in opposing, were
recognised by the treaty. The claims of Saxony were bought off
by a payment of 4,000,000 thalers. The most unsatisfactory
part of the treaty was that it was guaranteed by France and
Russia. ... On the whole, it was a great triumph for Frederick
and an equal humiliation for Joseph II. His schemes of
aggrandisement had been foiled."

_R. Lodge, History of Modern Europe, chapter 20, section 3,_

ALSO IN: _T. H. Dyer, History of Modern Europe, book 6,
chapter 8 (volume 3)._

BAVARIA: A. D. 1801-1803.
Acquisition of territory under the Treaty of Luneville.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

{275}

BAVARIA: A. D. 1805-1806.
Aggrandized by Napoleon.
Created a Kingdom.
Joined to the Confederation of the Rhine.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806,
and 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).

BAVARIA: A. D. 1809.
The revolt in the Tyrol.
Heroic struggle of Hofer and his countrymen.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809-1810 (APRIL-FEBRUARY).

BAVARIA: A. D. 1813.
Abandonment of Napoleon and the Rhenish Confederation.
Union with the Allies.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER), and
(OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

BAVARIA: A. D. 1814-1815.
Restoration of the Tyrol to Austria.
Territorial compensations.

See VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF, and FRANCE: A. D. 1814
(APRIL-JUNE).

BAVARIA: A. D. 1848 (March).
Revolutionary outbreak.
Expulsion of Lola Montez.
Abdication of the King.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1848 (MARCH).

BAVARIA: A. D. 1866.
The Seven Weeks War.
Indemnity and territorial cession to Prussia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

BAVARIA: A. D. 1870-1871.
Treaty of Union with the Germanic Confederation, soon
transformed into the German Empire.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER), and 1871.

----------BAVARIA: End----------

BAVAY, Origin of.

See NERVII.

BAXAR, OR BAKSAR, OR BUXAR, Battle of (1764).

See INDIA: A. D. 1757-1772.

BAYARD, The Chevalier: His knightly deeds and his death.

See ITALY: A. D. 1501-1504,
and FRANCE: A. D. 1523-1525.

BAYEUX TAPESTRY.

A remarkable roll of mediæval tapestry, 214 feet long and 20
inches wide, preserved for centuries in the cathedral at
Bayeux, Normandy, on which a pictorial history of the Norman
invasion and conquest of England is represented, with more or
less of names and explanatory inscriptions. _Mr. E. A.
Freeman (Norman Conquest, volume 3, note A)_ says: "It will be
seen that, throughout this volume, I accept the witness of the
Bayeux Tapestry as one of my highest authorities. I do not
hesitate to say that I look on it as holding the first place
among the authorities on the Norman side. That it is a
contemporary work I entertain no doubt whatever, and I
entertain just as little doubt as to its being a work fully
entitled to our general confidence. I believe the tapestry to
have been made for Bishop Odo, and to have been most probably
designed by him as an ornament for his newly rebuilt cathedral
church of Bayeux." The precious tapestry is now preserved in
the public library at Bayeux, carefully stretched round the
room under glass.

BAYEUX, The Saxons of.

See SAXONS OF BAYEUX

BAYLEN, Battle of (1808).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (MAY-SEPTEMBER).

BAYOGOULAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

BAYONNE:
Conference of Catharine de'Medici and the Duke of Alva (1565).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1563-1570.

BAZAINE'S SURRENDER AT METZ.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST), (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER),
and (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

BEACONSFIELD (Disraeli) Ministries.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1851-1852; 1858-1859; 1868-1870, and
1873-1880.

BEAR FLAG, The.

See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1846-1847.

BEARN: The rise of the Counts.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1032.

BEARN: A. D. 1620.
Absorbed and incorporated in the Kingdom of France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1620-1622.

BEARN: A. D. 1685.
The Dragonnade.
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1681-1698.

----------BEARN: End----------

BEATOUN, Cardinal, The assassination of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1546.

BEAUFORT, N. C., Capture of, by the National forces (1862).

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-APRIL:
NORTH CAROLINA).

BEAUGÉ, Battle of.

The English commanded by the Duke of Clarence, defeated in
Anjou by an army of French and Scots, under the Dauphin of
France; the Duke of Clarence slain.

BEAUMARCHAIS'S TRANSACTIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1778.

BEAUMONT, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

BEAUREGARD, General G. T.
Bombardment of Fort Sumter.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (MARCH-APRIL).

At the first Battle of Bull Run.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY: VIRGINIA).

Command in the Potomac district.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861-1862 (DECEMBER-
APRIL: VIRGINIA).

Command in the West.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (FEBRUARY-APRIL:
TENNESSEE), and (APRIL-MAY: TENNESSEE--MISSISSIPPI).

The Defence of Charleston.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-DECEMBER:
SOUTH CAROLINA).

BEAUVAIS, Origin of.

See BELGÆ.

BEBRYKIANS, The.

See BITHYNIANS.

BEC, Abbey of.

One of the most famous abbeys and ecclesiastical schools of
the middle ages. Its name was derived from the little beck or
rivulet of a valley in Normandy, on the banks of which a pious
knight, Herlouin, retiring from the world, had fixed his
hermitage. The renown of the piety of Herlouin drew others
around him and resulted in the formation of a religious
community with himself at its head. Among those attracted to
Herlouin's retreat were a noble Lombard scholar, Lanfranc of
Pavia, who afterwards became the great Norman archbishop of
Canterbury, and Anselm of Aosta, another Italian, who
succeeded Lanfranc at Canterbury with still more fame. The
teaching of Lanfranc at Bec raised it, says _Mr. Green in
his Short History of the English People,_ into the most
famous school of Christendom; it was, in fact, the first wave
of the intellectual movement which was spreading from Italy to
the ruder countries of the West. The fabric of the canon law
and of mediaeval scholasticism, with the philosophical
skepticism which first awoke under its influence, all trace
their origin to Bec. "The glory of Bec would have been as
transitory as that of other monastic houses, but for the
appearance of one illustrious man [Lanfranc] who came to be
enrolled as a private member of the brotherhood, and who gave
Bec for a while a special and honorable character with which
hardly any other monastery in Christendom could compare."

_E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, chapter 8._

{276}

BECHUANAS, The.

See SOUTH AFRICA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS;
and AFRICA: THE INHABITING RACES.

BECKET, Thomas, and King Henry II.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170.

BED-CHAMBER QUESTION, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1837-1839.

BED OF JUSTICE.

"The ceremony by which the French kings compelled the
registration of their edicts by the Parliament was called a
'lit de justice' [bed of justice]. The monarch proceeded in
state to the Grand Chambre, and the chancellor, having taken
his pleasure, announced that the king required such and such a
decree to be entered on their records in his presence. It was
held that this personal interference of the sovereign
suspended for the time being the functions of all inferior
magistrates, and the edict was accordingly registered without
a word of objection. The form of registration was as follows:
'Le roi séant en son lit de justice a ordonné et ordonne que
les présents édits seront enregistrés;' and at the end of the
decree, 'Fait en Parlement, le roi y séant en son lit de
justice.'"

_Students' History of France, note to chapter 19._

See, also, PARLIAMENT OF PARIS.

"The origin of this term ['bed of justice'] has been much
discussed. The wits complained it was so styled because there
justice was put to sleep. The term was probably derived from
the arrangement of the throne on which the king sat. The back
and sides were made of bolsters and it was called a bed."

_J. B. Perkins, France under Mazarin, volume 1, page 388,
foot-note._

An elaborate and entertaining account of a notable Bed of
Justice held under the Regency, in the early part of the reign
of Louis XV., will be found in the

_Memoirs of the Duke de Saint Simon, abridged translation
of St. John, volume 4, chapter 5-7._

BEDR, Battle of.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 609-632.

BEDRIACUM, Battles of.

See ROME: A. D. 69.

BEECHY HEAD, Battle of (A. D. 1690).

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1690 (JUNE).

BEEF-EATERS, The.

See YEOMEN OF THE GUARD.

BEEF STEAK CLUB, The.

See CLUBS: THE BEEF STEAK.

BEER-ZATH, Battle of.

The field on which the great Jewish soldier and patriot, Judas
Maccabæus, having but 800 men with him, was beset by an army
of the Syrians and slain, B. C. 161.

_Josephus, Antiquity of the Jews, book 12, chapter 11._

ALSO IN: _H. Ewald, History of Israel, book 5, section 2._

BEG.

A Turkish title, signifying prince or lord; whence, also, Bey.

See BEY.

BEGGARS (Gueux) of the Netherland Revolt.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1562-1566.

BEGGARS OF THE SEA.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1572.

BEGUINES, OR BEGHINES.--BEGHARDS.
Weaving Brothers.
Lollards.
Brethren of the Free Spirit.
Fratricelli.
Bizochi.
Turlupins.

"In the year 1180 there lived in Liege a certain kindly,
stammering priest, known from his infirmity as Lambert le
Bègue. This man took pity on the destitute widows of the town.
Despite the impediment in his speech, he was, as often
happens, a man of a certain power and eloquence in preaching.
... This Lambert so moved the hearts of his hearers that gold
and silver poured in on him, given to relieve such of the
destitute women of Liege as were still of good and pious life.
With the moneys thus collected, Lambert built a little square
of cottages, with a church in the middle and a hospital, and
at the side a cemetery. Here he housed these homeless widows,
one or two in each little house, and then he drew up a half
monastic rule which was to guide their lives. The rule was
very simple, quite informal: no vows, no great renunciation
bound the 'Swestrones Brod durch Got.' A certain time of the
day was set apart for prayer and pious meditation; the other
hours they spent in spinning or sewing, in keeping their
houses clean, or they went as nurses in time of sickness into
the homes of the townspeople. ... Thus these women, though
pious and sequestered, were still in the world and of the
world. ... Soon we find the name' Swestrones Brod durch Got'
set aside for the more usual title of Beguines or Beghines.
Different authorities give different origins of this word. ...
Some have thought it was taken in memory of the founder, the
charitable Lambert le Bègut. Others think that, even as the
Mystics or Mutterers, the Lollards or Hummers, the Popelhards
or Babblers, so the Beguines or Stammerers were thus nicknamed
from their continual murmuring in prayer. This is plausible;
but not so plausible as the suggestion of Dr. Mosheim and M.
Auguste Jundt, who derive the word Beguine from the Flemish
word 'beggen,' to beg. For we know that these pious women had
been veritable beggars; and beggars should they again become.
With surprising swiftness the new order spread through the
Netherlands and into France and Germany. ... Lambert may have
lived to see a beguinage in every great town within his ken;
but we hear no more of him. The Beguines are no longer for
Liege, but for all the world. Each city possessed its quiet
congregation; and at any sick-bed you might meet a woman clad
in a simple smock and a great veil-like mantle, who lived only
to pray and do deeds of mercy. ... The success of the Beguines
had made them an example. ... Before St. Francis and St.
Dominic instituted the mendicant orders, there had silently
grown up in every town of the Netherlands a spirit of
fraternity, not imposed by any rule, but the natural impulse
of a people. The weavers seated all day long alone at their
rattling looms, the armourers beating out their thoughts in
iron, the cross-legged tailors and busy cobblers thinking and
stitching together--these men silent, pious, thoughtful,
joined themselves in a fraternity modelled on that of the
Beguines. They were called the Weaving Brothers. Bound by no
vows and fettered by no rule, they still lived the worldly
life and plied their trade for hire. Only in their leisure
they met together and prayed and dreamed and thought. ... Such
were the founders of the great fraternity of 'Fratres
Textores,' or Beghards as in later years the people more
generally called them."

_A. M. F. Robinson, The End of the Middle Ages, 1._

{277}

"The Lollards differed from the Beghards less in reality than
in name. We are informed respecting them that, at their origin
in Antwerp, shortly after 1300, they associated together for
the purpose of waiting upon patients dangerously sick, and
burying the dead. ... Very early, however, an element of a
different kind began to work in those fellowships. Even about
the close of the 13th century irregularities and extravagances
are laid to their charge. .... The charges brought against the
later Beghards and Lollards, in connection, on the one hand,
with the fanatical Franciscans, who were violently contending
with the Church, and on the other, with the Brethren and
Sisters of the Free Spirit, relate to three particulars, viz.,
an a version to all useful industry, conjoined with a
propensity to mendicancy and idleness, an intemperate spirit
of opposition to the Church, and a skeptical and more or less
pantheistical mysticism. ... They ... declared that the time
of Antichrist was come, and on all hands endeavoured to
embroil the people with their spiritual guides. Their own
professed object was to restore the pure primeval state, the
divine life of freedom, innocence, and nature. The idea they
formed of that state was, that man, being in and of himself
one with God, requires only to act in the consciousness of
this unity, and to follow unrestrained the divinely implanted
impulses and inclinations of his nature, in order to be good
and godly."

_C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation,
volume 2, pages 14-16._

"The names of beghards and beguines came not unnaturally to be
used for devotees who, without being members of any regular
monastic society, made a profession of religious strictness;
and thus the applications of the names to some kinds of
sectaries was easy--more especially as many of these found it
convenient to assume the outward appearance of beghards, in
the hope of disguising their differences from the church. But
on the other hand, this drew on the orthodox beghards frequent
persecutions, and many of them, for the sake of safety, were glad
to connect themselves as tertiaries with the great mendicant
orders. ... In the 14th century, the popes dealt hardly with
the beghards; yet orthodox societies under this name still
remained in Germany; and in Belgium, the country of their
origin, sisterhoods of beguines flourish to the present day.
... Matthias of Janow, the Bohemian reformer, in the end of
the 14th century, says that all who act differently from the
profane vulgar are called beghardi or turlupini, or by other
blasphemous names. ... Among those who were confounded with
the beghards--partly because, like them, they abounded along
the Rhine--were the brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit.
These appear in various places under various names. They wore
a peculiarly simple dress, professed to give themselves to
contemplation, and, holding that labour is a hindrance to
contemplation and to the elevation of the soul to God, they
lived by beggary. Their doctrines were mystical and almost
pantheistic. ... The brethren and sisters of the Free Spirit
were much persecuted, and probably formed a large proportion
of those who were burnt under the name of beghards."

_J. C. Robertson, History of Christian Church,
book 7, chapter 7 (volume 6)_.

"Near the close of this century [the 13th] originated in Italy
the Fratricelli and Bizochi, parties that in Germany and
France were denominated Beguards; and which, first Boniface
VIII., and afterwards other pontiffs condemned, and wished to
see persecuted by the Inquisition and exterminated in every
possible way. The Fratricelli, who also called themselves in
Latin 'Fratres parvi' (Little Brethren), or 'Fraterculi de
paupere vita' (Little Brothers of the Poor Life), were
Franciscan monks, but detached from the great family of
Franciscans; who wished to observe the regulations prescribed
by their founder St. Francis more perfectly than the others,
and therefore possessed no property, either individually or
collectively, but obtained their necessary food from day to
day by begging. ... They predicted a reformation and
purification of the church. ... They extolled Celestine V. as
the legal founder of their sect; but Boniface and the
succeeding pontiffs, who opposed the Fratricelli, they denied
to be true pontiffs. As the great Franciscan family had its
associates and dependents, who observed the third rule
prescribed by St. Francis [which required only certain pious
observances, such as fasts, prayers, continence, a coarse,
cheap dress, gravity of manners, &c., but did not prohibit
private property, marriage, public offices, and worldly
occupations], and who were usually called Tertiarii, so also
the sect of the Fratricelli ... had numerous Tertiarii of its
own. These were called, in Italy, Bizochi and Bocasoti; in
France Beguini; and in Germany Beghardi, by which name all the
Tertiarii were commonly designated. These differed from the
Fratricelli ... only in their mode of life. The Fratricelli
were real monks, living under the rule of St. Francis; but the
Bizochi or Beguini lived in the manner of other people. ...
Totally different from these austere Beguini and Beguinæ, were
the German and Belgic Beguinæ, who did not indeed originate in
this century, but now first came into notice. ... Concerning
the Turlupins, many have written; but none accurately. ... The
origin of the name, I know not; but I am able to prove from
substantial documents, that the Turlupins who were burned at
Paris, and in other parts of France were no other than the
Brethren of the Free Spirit whom the pontiffs and councils
condemned."

_J. L. Von Mosheim, Inst's of Ecclesiastical History,
book 3, century 13, part 2, chapter 2, section 39-41,
and chapter 5, section 9, foot-note._

ALSO IN: _L. Mariotti (A. Gallenga), Fra Dolcino and his
Times._

See, also, PICARDS.

BEGUMS OF OUDE, Warren Hastings and the.

See INDIA: A. D. 1773-1785.

BEHISTUN, Rock of.

"This remarkable spot, lying on the direct route between
Babylon and Ecbatana, and presenting the unusual combination
of a copious fountain, a rich plain and a rock suitable for
sculpture, must have early attracted the attention of the
great monarchs who marched their armies through the Zagros
range, as a place where they might conveniently set up
memorials of their exploits. ... The tablet and inscriptions
of Darius, which have made Behistun famous in modern times,
are in a recess to the right of the scarped face of the rock,
and at a considerable elevation."

_G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Media, chapter 1._

The mountain or rock of Behistun fixes the location of the
district known to the Greeks as Bagistana. "It lies southwest
of Elvend, between that mountain and the Zagrus in the valley
of the Choaspes, and is the district now known as Kirmenshah."

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 8, chapter 1._

BEHRING SEA CONTROVERSY, and Arbitration.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1886-1893.

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BEIRUT, Origin of.

See BERYTUS.

BELA I., King of Hungary, A. D. 1060-1063.
Bela II., A. D. 1131-1141.
Bela III., A. D. 1173-1196.
Bela IV., A. D. 1235-1270.

BELCHITE, Battle of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1809 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).

BELERION, OR BOLERIUM.

The Roman name of Land's End, England.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

BELFORT.
Siege by the Germans (1870-1871).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.

BELGÆ, The.

"This Belgian confederation included the people of all the
country north of the Seine and Marne, bounded by the Atlantic
on the west and the Rhine on the north and east, except the
Mediomatrici and Treviri. ... The old divisions of France
before the great revolution of 1789 corresponded in some
degree to the divisions of the country in the time of Cæsar,
and the names of the people are still retained with little
alteration in the names of the chief towns or the names of the
ante-revolutionary divisions of France. In the country of the
Remi between the Marne and the Aisne there is the town of
Reims. In the territory of the Suessiones between the Marne
and the Aisne there is Soissons on the Aisne. The Bellovaci
were west of the Oise (Isara) a branch of the Seine: their
chief town, which at some time received the name of
Cæsaromagus, is now Beauvais. The Nervii were between and on
the Sambre and the Schelde. The Atrebates were north of the
Bellovaci between the Somme and the upper Schelde: their chief
place was Nemetacum or Nemetocenna, now Arras in the old
division of Artois. The Ambiani were on the Somme (Samara):
their name is represented by Amiens (Samarobriva). The Morini,
or sea-coast men extended from Boulogne towards Dunkerque. The
Menapii bordered on the northern Morini and were on both sides
of the lower Rhine (B. G. iv., 4). The Caleti were north of
the lower Seine along the coast in the Pays de Caux. The
Velocasses were east of the Caleti on the north side of the
Seine as far as the Oise; their chief town was Rotomagus
(Rouen) and their country was afterwards Vexin Normand and
Vexin Français. The Veromandui were north of the Suessiones:
their chief town under the Roman dominion, Augusta
Veromanduorum, is now St. Quentin. The Aduatuci were on the
lower Maas. The Condrusi and the others included under the
name of Germani were on the Maas, or between the Maas and the
Rhine. The Eburones had the country about Tongern and Spa, and
were the immediate neighbours of the Menapii on the Rhine."

_G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapter 3._

"Cæsar ... informs us that, in their own estimation, they [the
Belgæ] were principally descended from a German stock, the
offspring of some early migration across the Rhine. ... Strabo
... by no means concurred in Cæsar's view of the origin of
this ... race, which he believed to be Gaulish and not German,
though differing widely from the Galli, or Gauls of the central
region."

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 5._

ALSO IN: _E. Guest, Origines Celticæ, volume 1, chapter 12._

BELGÆ: B. C. 57.
Cæsar's campaign against the confederacy.

In the second year of Cæsar's command in Gaul, B. C. 57, he
led his legions against the Belgæ, whom he characterized in
his Commentaries as the bravest of all the people of Gaul. The
many tribes of the Belgian country had joined themselves in a
great league to oppose the advancing Roman power, and were
able to bring into the field no less than 290,000 men. The
tribe of the Remi alone refused to join the confederacy and
placed themselves on the Roman side. Cæsar who had quartered
his army during the winter in the country of the Sequani,
marched boldly, with eight legions, into the midst of these
swarming enemies. In his first encounter with them on the
banks of the Aisne, the Belgic barbarians were terribly cut to
pieces and were so disheartened that tribe after tribe made
submission to the proconsul as he advanced. But the Nervii,
who boasted a Germanic descent, together with the Aduatuci,
the Atrebates and the Veromandui, rallied their forces for a
struggle to the death. The Nervii succeeded in surprising the
Romans, while the latter were preparing their camp on the
banks of the Sambre, and very nearly swept Cæsar and his
veterans off the field, by their furious and tremendous
charge. But the energy and personal influence of the one, with
the steady discipline of the other, prevailed in the end over
the untrained valour of the Nervii, and the proud nation was
not only defeated but annihilated. "Their eulogy is preserved
in the written testimony of their conqueror; and the Romans
long remembered, and never failed to signalize their
formidable valour. But this recollection of their ancient
prowess became from that day the principal monument of their
name and history, for the defeat they now sustained well nigh
annihilated the nation. Their combatants were cut off almost
to a man. The elders and the women, who had been left in
secure retreats, came forth of their own accord to solicit the
conqueror's clemency. ... 'Of 600 senators,' they said, 'we
have lost all but three; of 60,000 fighting men 500 only
remain.' Cæsar treated the survivors with compassion."

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 7._

ALSO IN:
_Julius Cæsar, Gallic Wars, book 2._

_G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapter 3._

_Napoleon III., History of Cæsar, book 3, chapter 5._

BELGÆ OF BRITAIN, The.
Supposed to be a colony from the Belgæ of the continent. The
territory which they occupied is now embraced in the counties
of Wiltshire and Somerset.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

BELGIUM: Ancient and Mediaeval History.

See BELGÆ, NERVII, FRANKS, LORRAINE, FLANDERS, LIEGE.
NETHERLANDS.

BELGIUM: Modern History.

See NETHERLANDS.

BELGRADE:
Origin.

During the attacks of the Avars upon the territory of the
Eastern Empire, in the last years of the 6th century, the city
of Singidunum, at the junction of the Save with the Danube,
was taken and totally destroyed. The advantageous site of the
extinct town soon attracted a colony of Sclavonians, who
raised out of the ruins a new and strongly fortified city--the
Belgrade, or the White City of later times. "The Sclavonic
name of Belgrade is mentioned in the 10th century by
Constantine Porphyorgenitus: the Latin appellation of Alba
Græca is used by the Franks in the beginning of the 9th."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 46, note.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

BELGIUM: A. D. 1425.
Acquired by Hungary and fortified against the Turks.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442.

{279}

BELGIUM: A. D. 1442.
First repulse of the Turks.

See TURKS (THE OTTOMANS): A. D. 1402-1451.

BELGIUM: A. D. 1456.
Second repulse of the Turks.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1442-1458;
and TURKS (THE OTTOMANS): A. D. 1451-1481.

BELGIUM: A. D. 1521.
Siege and capture by Solyman the Magnificent.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1487-1526.

BELGIUM: A. D. 1688-1690.
Taken by the Austrians and recovered by the Turks.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

BELGIUM: A. D. 1717.
Recovery from the Turks.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1699-1718.

BELGIUM: A. D. 1739.
Restored to the Turks.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1725-1739.

BELGIUM: A. D. 1789-1791.
Taken by the Austrians and restored to the Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792.

BELGIUM: A. D. 1806.
Surprised and taken by the Servians.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14TH-19TH CENTURIES
(SERVIA).

BELGIUM: A. D. 1862.
Withdrawal of Turkish troops.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14TH-19TH CENTURIES
(SERVIA).

----------BELGIUM: End----------

BELGRADE, The Peace of.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1725-1739.

BELIK, Battle on the (Carrhæ--B. C. 53).

See ROME: B. C. 57-52.

BELISARIUS, Campaigns of.

See VANDALS: A. D. 533-534,
and ROME: A. D. 535-553.

BELIZE, or British Honduras.

See NICARAGUA: A. D. 1850.

BELL ROLAND, The great.

See GHENT: A. D. 1539-1540.

BELLE ALLIANCE, Battle of La.
The battle of Waterloo

See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JUNE)--is so called by the
Prussians.

BELLE ISLE PRISON-PEN, The.

See PRISONS AND PRISON-PENS, CONFEDERATE.

BELLOVACI, The.

See BELGÆ.

BELLVILLE, Battle, of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY: KENTUCKY).

BELMONT, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861
(SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

Bema, The.

See PNYX.

BEMIS HEIGHTS, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

BENARES.

"The early history of Benares is involved in much obscurity.
It is, indisputably, a place of great antiquity, and may even
date from the time when the Aryan race first spread itself
over Northern India. ... It is certain that the city is
regarded by all Hindus as coeval with the birth of Hinduism, a
notion derived both from tradition and from their own
writings. Allusions to Benares are exceedingly abundant in
ancient Sanskrit literature; and perhaps there is no city in
all Hindustan more frequently referred to. By reason of some
subtle and mysterious charm, it has linked itself with the
religious sympathies of the Hindus through every century of
its existence. For the sanctity of its inhabitants--of its
temples and reservoirs--of its wells and streams--of the very
soil that is trodden--of the very air that is breathed--and of
everything in and around it, Benares has been famed for
thousands of years. ... Previously to the introduction of the
Buddhist faith into India, she was already the sacred city of
the land,--the centre of Hinduism, and chief seat of its
authority. Judging from the strong feelings of veneration and
affection with which the native community regard her in the
present day, and bearing in mind that the founder of Buddhism
commenced his ministry at this spot, it seems indisputable
that, in those early times preceding the Buddhist reformation,
the city must have exerted a powerful and wide-spread
religious influence over the land. Throughout the Buddhist
period in India--a period extending from 700 to 1,000
years--she gave the same support to Buddhism which she had
previously given to the Hindu faith. Buddhist works of that
era ... clearly establish the fact that the Buddhists of
those days regarded the city with much the same kind of
veneration as the Hindu does now."

_M. A. Sherring, The Sacred City of the Hindus, chapter
1._

For an account of the English annexation of Benares,

See INDIA: A. D. 1773-1785.

BENEDICT II., Pope, A. D. 684-685.
Benedict III., Pope, A. D. 855-858.
Benedict IV., Pope, A. D. 900-903.
Benedict V., Pope, A. D. 964-965.
Benedict VI., Pope, A. D. 972-974.
Benedict VII., Pope, A. D. 975-984.
Benedict VIII., Pope, A. D. 1012-1024.
Benedict IX., Pope, A. D. 1033-1044, 1047-1048.
Benedict X., Antipope, A. D. 1058-1059.
Benedict XI., Pope, A. D. 1303-1304.
Benedict XII., Pope, A. D. 1334-1342.
Benedict XIII., Pope, A. D. 1394-1423 (at Avignon).
Benedict XIII., Pope, A. D. 1724-1730.
Benedict XIV., Pope, A. D. 1740-1758.

BENEDICTINE ORDERS.
The rule of St. Benedict.

"There were many monasteries in the West before the time of
St. Benedict of Nursia (A. D. 480); but he has been rightly
considered the father of Western monasticism; for he not only
founded an order to which many religious houses became
attached, but he established a rule for their government
which, in its main features, was adopted as the rule of
monastic life by all the orders for more than five centuries,
or until the time of St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assisi.
Benedict was first a hermit, living in the mountains of
Southern Italy, and in that region he afterwards established
in succession twelve monasteries, each with twelve monks and a
superior. In the year 520 he founded the great monastery of
Monte Casino as the mother-house of his order, a house which
became the most celebrated and powerful monastery, according
to Montalembert, in the Catholic universe, celebrated
especially because there Benedict prepared his rule and formed
the type which was to serve as a model to the innumerable
communities submitting to that sovereign code. ... Neither in
the East nor in the West were the monks originally
ecclesiastics; and it was not until the eighth century that
they became priests, called regulars, in contrast with the
ordinary parish clergy, who were called seculars. ... As
missionaries, they proved the most powerful instruments in
extending the authority and the boundaries of the church. The
monk had no individual property: even his dress belonged to
the monastery. ... To enable him to work efficiently, it was
necessary to feed him well; and such was the injunction of
Benedict, as opposed to the former practice of strict
asceticism."

_C. J. Stillé, Studies in Mediæval History, chapter 12._

{280}

"Benedict would not have the monks limit themselves to
spiritual labour, to the action of the soul upon itself; he
made external labour, manual or literary, a strict obligation
of his rule. ... In order to banish indolence, which he called
the enemy of the soul, he regulated minutely the employment of
every hour of the day according to the seasons, and ordained
that, after having celebrated the praises of God seven times
a-day, seven hours a-day should be given to manual labour, and
two hours to reading. ... Those who are skilled in the
practice of an art or trade, could only exercise it by the
permission of the abbot, in all humility; and if anyone prided
himself on his talent, or the profit which resulted from it to
the house, he was to have his occupation changed until he had
humbled himself. ... Obedience is also to his eyes a work,
obedientiae laborem, the most meritorious and essential of
all. A monk entered into monastic life only to make the
sacrifice of self. This sacrifice implied especially that of
the will. ... Thus the rule pursued pride into its most secret
hiding-place. Submission had to be prompt, perfect, and
absolute. The monk must obey always, without reserve, and
without murmur, even in those things which seemed impossible
and above his strength, trusting in the succour of God, if a
humble and seasonable remonstrance, the only thing permitted
to him, was not accepted by his superiors."

_The Count de Montalembert, The Monks of the West, book 4,
section 2 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN:
_E. L. Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages,
chapter 2._

_S. R. Maitland, The Dark Ages, No. 10._

_J. H. Newman, Mission of St. Benedict (Hist. Sketches,
volume 2)_.

_P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church,
volume 2, chapter 4, section 43-45._

_E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the
Middle Ages, book 3, no. 1._

See, also, CAPUCHINS.

BENEFICIUM.--COMMENDATION.

Feudalism "had grown up from two great sources--the
beneficium, and the practice of commendation, and had been
specially fostered on Gallic soil by the existence of a
subject population which admitted of any amount of extension
in the methods of dependence. The beneficiary system
originated partly in gifts of land made by the kings out of
their own estates to their kinsmen and servants, with a
special undertaking to be faithful; partly in the surrender by
landowners of their estates to churches or powerful men, to be
received back again and held by them as tenants for rent or
service. By the latter arrangement the weaker man obtained the
protection of the stronger, and he who felt himself insecure
placed his title under the defence of the Church. By the
practice of commendation, on the other hand, the inferior put
himself under the personal care of a lord, but without
altering his title or divesting himself of his right to his
estate; he became a vassal and did homage. The placing of his
hands between those of his lord was the typical act by which
the connexion was formed."

_William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 9,
section 93._

ALSO IN: _H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, chapter 2, part 1._

See, also, SCOTLAND: 10TH-11TH CENTURIES.

BENEFIT OF CLERGY.