Chapter CXVI: Section 2 (19)

"During the short period, not more than a year, which
Pestalozzi spent among the children at Stanz, he settled the
main features of the Pestalozzian system. Sickness broke out
among the children, and the wear and tear was too great even
for Pestalozzi. He would probably have sunk under his efforts
if the French, pressed by the Austrians, had not entered
Stanz, in January, 1799, and taken part of the Ursuline
Convent for a military hospital. Pestalozzi was, therefore,
obliged to break up the school, and he himself went to a
medicinal spring on the Gurnigel in the Canton Bern. ... He
came down from the Gurnigel, and began to teach in the primary
schools (i. e., schools for children from four to eight years
old) of Burgdorf, the second town in the Canton. Here the
director was jealous of him, and he met with much opposition.
... In less than a year Pestalozzi left this school in bad
health, and joined Krüsi in opening a new school in Burgdorf
Castle, for which he afterward (1802) obtained Government aid.
Here he was assisted in carrying out his system by Krüsi,
Tobler, and Bluss. He now embodied the results of his
experience in a work which has obtained great celebrity--'How
Gertrude Teaches her Children' [also published in England
under the title of 'Leonard and Gertrude]. In 1802 Pestalozzi,
for once in his life a successful and popular man, was elected
a member of a deputation sent by the Swiss people to Paris. On
the restoration of the Cantons in 1804. the Castle of Burgdorf
was again occupied by one of the chief magistrates, and
Pestalozzi and his establishment were moved to the Monastery
of Buchsee. Here the teachers gave the principal direction to
another, the since celebrated Fellenburg, 'not without my
consent,' says Pestalozzi, 'but to my profound mortification.'
He therefore soon accepted an invitation from the inhabitants
of Yverdun to open an institution there, and within a
twelvemonth he was followed by his old assistants, who had
found government by Fellenburg less to their taste than
no-government by Pestalozzi.
{743}
The Yverdun Institute had soon a world-wide reputation.
Pestalozzian teachers went from it to Madrid, to Naples, to
St. Petersburg. Kings and philosophers joined in doing it
honor. But, as Pestalozzi himself has testified, these praises
were but as a laurel-wreath encircling a skull. The life of
the Pestalozzian institutions had been the love which the old
man had infused into all the members, teachers as well as
children; but this life was wanting at Yverdun. The
establishment was much too large to be carried on successfully
without more method and discipline than Pestalozzi,
remarkable, as he himself says, for his 'unrivalled incapacity
to govern,' was master of. The assistants began each to take
his own line, and even the outward show of unity was soon at
an end. ... Thus the sun went down in clouds, and the old man,
when he died at the age of eighty, in 1827, had seen the
apparent failure of all his toils. He had not, however, failed
in reality. It has been said of him that his true fortune was
to educate ideas, not children, and when twenty years later
the centenary of his birth was celebrated by school-masters,
not only in his native country, but throughout Germany, it was
found that Pestalozzian ideas had been sown, and were bearing
fruit, over the greater part of central Europe."

_R. H. Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers, chapter 8._

EDUCATION: A. D. 1804-1891.
Co-education and the Higher Education of
Women in the United States.

"When to a few daring minds the conviction came that education
was a right of personality rather than of sex, and when there
was added to this growing sentiment the pressing demand for
educated women as teachers and as leaders in philanthropy, the
simplest means of equipping women with the needful preparation
was found in the existing schools and colleges. ... In nearly
every State west of the Alleghanies, 'Universities' had been
founded by the voluntary tax of the whole population.
Connected with all the more powerful religious denominations
were schools and colleges which called upon their adherents
for gifts and students. These democratic institutions had the
vigor of youth, and were ambitious and struggling. 'Why,'
asked the practical men of affairs who controlled them,
'should not our daughters go on with our sons from the public
schools to the university which we are sacrificing to equip
and maintain?' It is not strange that with this and much more
practical reasoning of a similar kind, co-education was
established in some colleges at their beginning, in others
after debate, and by a radical change in policy. When once the
chivalrous desire was aroused to give girls as good an
education as their brothers, Western men carried out the
principle unflinchingly. From the kindergarten to the
preparation for the doctorate of philosophy, educational
opportunities are now practically alike for men and women. The
total number of colleges of arts and sciences empowered by law
to give degrees, reporting to Washington in 1888, was three
hundred and eighty-nine. Of these, two hundred and
thirty-seven, or nearly two-thirds, were co-educational. Among
them are nearly all the State universities, and nearly all the
colleges under the patronage of the Protestant sects. Hitherto
I have spoken as if co-education were a Western movement; and
in the West it certainly has had greater currency than
elsewhere. But it originated, at least so far as concerns
superior secondary training, in Massachusetts. Bradford
Academy, chartered in 1804, is the oldest incorporated
institution in the country to which boys and girls were from
the first admitted; but it closed its department for boys in
1836, three years after the foundation of co-educational
Oberlin, and in the very year when Mount Holyoke was opened by
Mary Lyon, in the large hope of doing for young women what
Harvard had been founded to do for young men just two hundred
years before. Ipswich and Abbot Academies in Massachusetts had
already been chartered to educate girls alone. It has been the
dominant sentiment in the East that boys and girls should be
educated separately. The older, more generously endowed, more
conservative seats of learning, inheriting the complications
of the dormitory system, have remained closed to women. ... In
the short period of the twenty years after the war the four
women's colleges which are the richest in endowments and
students of any in the world were founded and set in motion.
These colleges--Vassar, opened in 1865, Wellesley and Smith in
1875, and Bryn Mawr in 1885--have received in gifts of every
kind about $6,000,000, and are educating nearly two thousand
students. For the whole country the Commissioner of Education
reports two hundred and seven institutions for the superior
instruction of women, with more than twenty-five, thousand
students. But these resources proved inadequate. There came an
increasing demand, especially from teachers, for education of
all sorts. ... In an attempt to meet a demand of this sort the
Harvard Annex began twelve years ago [in 1879] to provide a
few women with instruction from members of the Harvard
faculty. ... Barnard College in New York is an annex of
Columbia only in a sense, for not all her instruction is given
by Columbia's teaching force, though Columbia will confer
degrees upon her graduates. The new woman's college at
Cleveland sustains temporarily the same relations to, Adelbert
College, though to a still greater extent she provides
independent instruction."

_A. F. Palmer, Review of the Higher Education of Women
(Woman and the Higher Education, pages 105-127)._

"The Cleveland College for Women, Cleveland, Ohio, was first
opened for instruction in 1888 as a department of Western
Reserve University. At the same time the trustees of the
university decided to receive no more women into Adelbert
College. That the success of the new school might be assured,
the faculty of Adelbert College generously offered their
services for a term of years as instructors. During the first
year twenty-three young women were admitted, but two of whom
were in the regular courses. During 1889-90 the number of
students increased to thirty-eight. ... In 1887 Evelyn
College, an institution for women, was opened at Princeton, N.
J. Its location at this place gives the institution very great
advantages, inasmuch as the use of the libraries and museums
of the College of New Jersey, popularly known as Princeton
College, are granted to the students."

_U. S. Commissioner of Education, Report,
1889-90, volume 2, page 744._

{744}

"The latest report of the United States Commissioner of
Education contains over two hundred institutions for the
superior education of women. The list includes colleges and
seminaries entitled to confer degrees, and a few seminaries,
whose work is of equal merit, which do not give degrees. Of
these more than two hundred institutions for the education of
women exclusively, only 47 are situated within [western
states]. ... Of these 47, but 30 are chartered with authority
to confer degrees. ... The extent to which the higher
education of women is in the West identified with
co-education, can be seen by comparing the two statements
above given. Of the total 212 higher institutions receiving
women, and of the total 195 such institutions which confer the
regular degrees in arts, science, and letters, upon their
graduates, 165 are co-educational. ... Among colleges
characterized from birth by a liberal and progressive spirit
may be mentioned 'The Cincinnati Wesleyan Woman's College.'
This institution was chartered in 1842, and claims to be 'the
first liberal collegiate institution in the world for the
exclusive education of women.' ... The West is committed to
co-education, excepting only the Roman Catholic, the Lutheran,
and the Protestant Episcopal sects,--which are not yet, as
sects, committed to the collegiate education of women at
all,--and the Presbyterian sect, whose support, in the West,
of 14 co-educational colleges against 4 for the separate
education of young men, almost commits it to the
co-educational idea. ... In 1853, Antioch College was opened
at Yellow Springs, Ohio. It was the first endeavor in the West
to found a college under Christian but non-sectarian auspices.
Its president, Horace Mann, wrote of it: 'Antioch is now the
only first-class college in all the West that is really an
unsectarian institution.' ... Antioch was from the first
avowedly co-educational."

_M. W. Sewall, Education of Women in the Western
States (Woman's Work in America, pages 61-70)._

"Most people would probably be ready to say that except for
the newly founded Woman's College in Baltimore and Tulane
University [State university of Louisiana], the collegiate
education of women does not exist in the South. But as matter
of fact, there are no less than one hundred and fifty
institutions in the South which are authorized by the
Legislatures of their respective States to confer the regular
college degrees upon women. Of these, forty-one are
co-educational, eighty-eight are for women alone, and
twenty-one are for colored persons of both sexes. The bureau
of education makes no attempt to go behind the verdict of the
State Legislatures, but on looking over the catalogues of all
these institutions it is, as might have been expected, easy to
see that the great majority of them are not in any degree
colleges, in the ordinary sense of the word. Not a single one
of the so-called female colleges presents a real college
course, and many of the co-educational colleges are colleges
only in name."

_C. L. Franklin, Education of Women in the Southern
States (Woman's Work in America, pages 93-94)._

EDUCATION: A. D. 1816-1892,
Froebel and the Kindergarten.

"Frœbel (Friedrich Wilhelm August) was born April 21, 1782, at
Oberweissbach, in the principality of Schwanburg-Rudolstadt.
His mother died when he was so young that he never even
remembered her; and he was left to the care of an ignorant
maid-of-all-work, who simply provided for his bodily wants.
... Not until he was ten years of age did he receive the
slightest regular instruction. He was then sent to school, to
an uncle who lived in the neighborhood, ... He pronounced the
boy to be idle (which, from his point of view, was quite true)
and lazy (which certainly was not true)--a boy, in short, that
you could do nothing with. ... It was necessary for him to
earn his bread, and we next find him a sort of apprentice to a
woodsman in the great Thuringian forest. Here, as he afterward
tells us, he lived some years in cordial intercourse with
nature and mathematics, learning even then, though
unconsciously, from the teaching he received, how to teach
others. ... In 1801 he went to the University of Jena, where
he attended lectures on natural history, physics, and
mathematics; but, as he tells us, gained little from them. ...
This ... was put an end to by the failure of means to stay at
the University. For the next few years he tried various
occupations. ... While engaged in an architect's office at
Frankfort, he formed an acquaintance with the Rector of the
Model School, a man named Gruner. Gruner saw the capabilities
of Frœbel, and detected also his entire want of interest in
the work that he was doing; and one day suddenly said to him:
'Give up your architect's business; you will do nothing at it.
Be a teacher. We want one now in the school; you shall have
the place.' This was the turning point in Frœbel's life. He
accepted the engagement, began work at once, and tells us that
the first time he found himself in the midst of a class of 30
or 40 boys, he felt that he was in the element that he had
missed so long--'the fish was in the water.' He was
inexpressibly happy. ... In a calmer mood he severely
questioned himself as to the means by which he was to satisfy
the demands of his new position. About this time he met with
some of Pestalozzi's writings, which so deeply impressed him
that he determined to go to Yverdun and study Pestalozzi on
the spot. He accomplished his purpose, and lived and worked
for two years with Pestalozzi. His experience at Yverdun
impressed him with the conviction that the science of
education had still to draw out from Pestalozzi's system those
fundamental principles which Pestalozzi himself did not
comprehend. 'And therefore,' says Schmidt, 'this genial
disciple of Pestalozzi supplemented his system by advancing
from the point which Pestalozzi had reached through pressure
from without, to the innermost conception of man, and arriving
at the thought of the true development and culture of
mankind.' ... His educational career commenced November 13th,
1816, in Greisheim, a little village near Stadt-Ilm, in
Thuringia; but in 1817, when his Pestalozzian friend,
Middendorf, joined him ... the school was transferred to the
beautiful village of Keilhau, near Rudolstadt, which may be
considered as his chief starting-place. ... Langenthal,
another Pestalozzian, associated himself with them, and they
commenced building a house. The number of pupils rose to
twelve in 1818. Then the daughter of war-counselor Hoffman of
Berlin, from enthusiasm for Frœbel's educational ideas, became
his wife. She had a considerable dowry, which, together with
the accession of Frœbel's elder brother, increased the funds
and welfare of the school. In 1831 he was invited by the
composer, Schnyder von Wartensee, to erect a similar garden on
his estate, near the lake of Sempach, in the canton Luzern. It
was done. Frœbel changed his residence the next year, from
Keilhau to Switzerland. In,1834 the government of Bern invited
him to arrange a training course for teachers in Burgdorf. In
1835 he became principal of the orphan asylum in Burgdorf, but
in 1836 he and his wife wished to return to Germany. There he
was active in Berlin, Keilhau, Blankenburg, Dresden,
Liebenstein in Thuringia, Hamburg, (1849,) and Marienthal,
near Liebenstein, where he lived until his decease in 1852,
among the young ladies, whom he trained as nurses for the
kindergarten, and the little children who attended his
school."

_H. Barnard, editor, Papers on Froebel's Kindergarten:
Memoir._

{745}

"The child thinks only through symbols. In other words, it
explains all it sees not by the recorded experience of others,
as does an adult, but by marshaling and comparing its own
concept or symbol of what it has itself seen. Its sole
activity is play. 'The school begins with teaching the
conventionalities of intelligence. Froebel would have the
younger children receive a symbolic education in plays, games,
and occupations which symbolize the primitive arts of man.'
For this purpose, the child is led through a series of
primitive occupations in plaiting, weaving, and modeling,
through games and dances, which bring into play all the social
relations, and through songs and the simple use of number,
form and language. The 'gifts' all play their manifold
purpose, inspiring the child, awakening its interest, leading
the individual along the path the race has trod, and teaching
social self-control. The system has its palpable dangers. The
better and more intricate the tool, the more skill needed in
its safe use. ... The kindergarten requires trained hands.
With trivial teachers its methods may easily degenerate into
mere amusement, and thwart all tendency to attention,
application, or industry. Valuable as it is in its hints for
the care and development of children, its gay round needs to
be ballasted with the purpose and theory uppermost in
Froebel's mind when he opened his first school in a German
peasant village, down whose main street a brook tumbled, and
through whose lanes the halberdier still walked by night and
sang the hours. It is idle to suppose that Froebel founded a
perfect system, or to insist on all the details of the
professional kindergartner's creed. Here as elsewhere, and
aforetime, it has taken only forty years from the founder's
death for faith to degenerate into religion and sect. But the
central purpose he had in view must be steadily maintained. He
sought his ends through play, and not through work. It is as
dangerous for this method to harden into an approach to the
primary school as it is for it to soften into a riot of
misrule, and lax observance of order. ... Switzerland, then
the only republic in Europe, was the first country to adopt
Froebel's method, though in some Swiss towns the kindergarten
is still supported by private associations. France, another
republic, has more children beginning school under an
adaptation of Froebel than all the rest of the world put
together. It was Froebel's own opinion that 'the spirit of
American nationality was the only one in the world with which
his method was in complete harmony, and to which its
legitimate institutions would present no barriers.' The
figures given below of the growth of the kindergarten in this
country are the best possible proof of the truth of Froebel's
prescient assertion. ... In 1870 there were in this country
only five kindergarten schools, and in 1872 the National
Education Association at its Boston meeting appointed a
committee which reported a year later recommending the system.
Between 1870 and 1873, experimental kindergartens were
established in Boston, Cleveland, and St. Louis, public
attention was enlisted by the efforts of Miss Elizabeth Palmer
Peabody, the most important worker in the early history of the
kindergarten in this country, and the system began a rapid
growth. Taking private and public kindergartens together, the
advance of the system has displayed this most rapid progress:

1875 1880 1885 1891-2
Schools. 95 232 413 1,001
Teachers. 216 524 902 2,242
Pupils. 2,809 8,871 18,780 50,423

Down to 1880, these figures, outside of St. Louis, relate
almost altogether to private schools. By 1885 the public
kindergartens were not over a fifth in number of the schools,
and held not over a fourth of the pupils. In the figures last
given in this table there are 724 private kindergartens with
1,517 teachers and 29,357 pupils, and 277 public kindergartens
with 725 teachers and 21,066 pupils, so that the latter have
now 27 per cent. of the schools, 33 per cent. of the teachers,
and 42 per cent. of the pupils. ... Yet great as is this
advance, the kindergarten as yet plays but an infinitesimal
part in our educational system as a whole. ... Of the sixteen
American cities with a population of over 200,000 in 1890,
only four--Philadelphia, Boston, Milwaukee, and St. Louis
have incorporated the kindergarten on any large scale in their
public-school systems. Four more--New York, Chicago, Brooklyn,
and Buffalo--have kindergarten associations organized to
introduce the new method as a part of free public education."

_T. Williams, The Kindergarten Movement
(The Century, January, 1893)._

EDUCATION: A. D. 1865-1883.
The Higher Education of Women in England.

The movement in England to secure a higher education for women
dates from 1865. "In that year a Royal Commission was
appointed to inquire into and report on the endowed grammar
schools of England and Wales, and on what is called
'secondary' education generally. Several ladies who were
already alive to the deficiencies in the education of their
own sex, memorialized this Commission to extend the scope of
its inquiry to girls' schools, and the Commission taking what
was then thought quite a bold step, consented to do so. ...
One of the points brought out was the absence of any
institutions doing for women what the universities did for
men, and the consequent difficulty in which women stood of
obtaining the highest kind of education--a difficulty which
told on girls' schools by making it hard for them to procure
thoroughly competent mistresses. This led in the course of the
next year or two--the report of the Commission having been
published in 1868--to the establishment of a college for
women, which was first placed at Hitchin, a town on the Great
Northern Railway, between London and Cambridge, and in a
little while, when money had been collected sufficient for the
erection of buildings, this college was finally settled at
Girton, a spot about two miles from Cambridge, whence it takes
the name of Girton College. Its purpose was to provide for
women the same teaching in the same subjects as men receive in
Cambridge University, and the teachers were nearly all of them
professors or tutors there, men in some cases of high
eminence.
{746}
Meanwhile, in Cambridge itself, a system of day classes for
women, taught by University teachers, had been created, at
first as an experiment for one year only. When several years
had passed, when the number attending had increased, and it
was found that women came to lodge in Cambridge in order to
profit by these lectures, a house was hired in which to
receive them, and ultimately a company was formed and a
building erected a little way out of Cambridge, under the name
of Newnham Hall, to which the lectures, now mainly designed
for these students coming from a distance, were attached.
Thus, at about the same time, though from somewhat different
origins, Girton and Newnham came into being and began their
course of friendly rivalry. Both have greatly developed since
then. Their buildings have been repeatedly enlarged. Their
numbers have risen steadily. ... In Girton the charge for
lodging, board and instruction is £100 per annum, in Newnham a
little less. The life in both is very similar, a lady being
placed at the head as resident principal, while the affairs
are managed by a committee including both men and women. The
lectures are delivered partly by Cambridge men, professors in
the University, or tutors or lecturers in some of the
colleges, partly by ladies, who, having once been students
themselves, have come back as teachers. These lectures cover
all the subjects required in the degree examinations of the
University; and although students are not obliged to enter
themselves for those examinations, they are encouraged to do
so, and do mostly set the examinations before them as their
goal. Originally the University took no official notice of the
women students, and their being examined by the regular degree
examiners of the University was a matter of pure favor on the
part of those gentlemen. ... At last, however, some examiners
came into office (for the examiners are changed every two
years) who disapproved of this informal examination of the
women candidates, and accordingly a proposal was made to the
University that it should formally authorize and impose on the
examiners the function heretofore discharged by them in their
individual capacity. This proposal, after some discussion and
opposition, was carried, so that now women may enter both for
the honor examinations and the pass examinations for the
University degree as a matter of right. Their names do not
appear in the official lists among those of the men, but
separately; they are, however, tested by the same question
papers and judged by the same standard. ... Some Oxford
graduates and their friends, stimulated by the success of
Girton and Newnham, have founded two similar institutions in
Oxford, one of which, Episcopalian and indeed High Church in
its proclivities, is called Lady Margaret Hall, while the
other, in compliment to the late Mrs. Somerville, has been
given the title of Somerville Hall. These establishments are
conducted on much the same lines as the two Cambridge
colleges. ... In the large towns where new colleges have been
lately founded or courses of lectures established, such as
Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, steps are usually taken to
provide lectures for women. ... What is called among you the
question of co-education has come up very little in England.
All the lectures given inside the walls of the four English
colleges I have mentioned are, of course, given to women only,
the colleges being just as exclusively places for women as
Trinity and St. John's are places for men. ... At this moment
the principal of one of the two halls of which Newnham
consists is a daughter of the Prime Minister [Miss Helen
Gladstone], while her predecessor was a niece of the Marquis
of Salisbury. The principal of Girton is a niece of the late
Lord Lawrence, the famous Governor-General of India. Of the
students a fair proportion belong to the wealthy classes,
while a somewhat larger proportion mean to take teaching as
their profession."

_Progress of Female Education in England.
(Nation, July 5, 1883)._

See, also, above, SCOTLAND.

EDUCATION: A. D. 1865-1886.
Industrial Education in the United States.

"In 1865 John Boynton of Templeton, Mass., gave $100,000 for
the endowment and perpetual support of a Free Institute for
the youth of Worcester County, Mass. He thus explained his
objects: 'The aim of this school shall ever be the instruction
of youth in those branches of education not usually taught in
the public schools, which are essential and best adapted to
train the young for practical life'; especially such as were
intending to be mechanics, or manufacturers, or farmers. In
furtherance of this object, ten months later, in 1866, Ichabod
Washburn of Worcester gave $25,000, and later $50,000 more to
erect, equip, and endow a machine-shop which should
accommodate twenty apprentices and a suitable number of
skilled workmen to instruct them and to carry on the shop as a
commercial establishment. The apprentices were to be taught
the use of tools in working wood and metals, and to be
otherwise instructed, much as was customary fifty years ago
for boys learning a trade. The Worcester Free Institute was
opened for students in November, 1868, as a technical school
of about college grade; and the use of the shops and shop
instruction was limited to those students in the course of
mechanical engineering. Thus did the Worcester School under
the leadership of Prest. C. O. Thompson incorporate
tool-instruction and shop-practice into the training of
mechanical engineers. ... In the same year, 1868, Victor
Della-Vos introduced into the Imperial Technical (engineering)
School at Moscow the Russian method of class-instruction in
the use of tools. ... The great value of the work of Della-Vos
lay in the discovery of the true method of tool-instruction,
for without his discovery the later steps would have been
impossible. In 1870, under the direction of Professor Robinson and
Prest. J. M. Gregory of the University of Illinois, a
wood-working shop was added to the appliances for the course
in architecture, and an iron-working shop to the course in
mechanical engineering in that institution. In 1871, the
Stevens Institute of Hoboken, N. J., munificently endowed by
Edwin A. Stevens, as a school of mechanical engineering,
fitted up a series of shops for the use of its students. The
next step forward was taken by Washington University in St.
Louis in providing for all its engineering students systematic
instruction in both wood and metals. In 1872, a large shop in the
Polytechnic School was equipped with work-benches, two lathes,
a forge, a gear-cutter and full sets of carpenters',
machinists', and forging tools. ...
{747}
Thus far had we progressed when the Philadelphia Exposition of
1876 was opened. None of us knew anything of the Moscow
school, or of the one in Bohemia in which the Russian method
had been adopted in 1874. ... In his report of 1876, Prest. J.
D. Runkle, of the Mass. Institute of Technology, gave a full
exposition of the theory and practice of tool-instruction of
Della-Vos as exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition, and he
recommended that without delay the course in mechanical
engineering at the Institute be completed by the addition of a
series of Instruction Shops. The suggestion was acted on, and
in the spring of 1877 a class of mechanical engineering
students was given instruction in chipping and filing. ... The
St. Louis Manual Training School was established June 6, 1879.
It embodied hopes long cherished and plans long formed. For
the first time in America the age of admission to school-shops
was reduced to fourteen years as a minimum, and a very general
three-years' course of study was organized. The ordinance by
which the school was established specified its objects in very
general terms:--'Its objects shall be instruction in
mathematics, drawing, and the English branches of a
high-school course, and instruction and practice in the use of
tools. The tool-instruction, as at present contemplated, shall
include carpentry, wood-turning, pattern-making, iron clipping
and filing, forge-work, brazing and soldering, the use of
machine-shop tools, and such other instruction of a similar
character, its it may be deemed advisable to add to the
foregoing from time to time. The students will divide their
working hours, as nearly as possible, equally between mental
and manual exercises.' ... The Baltimore Manual Training
School, a public school, on the same footing as the high
school, was opened in 1883. The Chicago Manual Training
School, established as an incorporated school by the
Commercial Club of that city, was opened in January, 1884. ...
Manual training was introduced into the high school of Eau
Claire, Wisconsin, in 1884. The 'Scott Manual Training School'
was organized as a part of the high school of Toledo in 1884.
... Manual training was introduced into the College (high
school) of the City of New York in 1884. The Philadelphia
Manual Training School, a public high school, was opened in
September, 1885. The Omaha high school introduced manual
training in 1885. ... Dr. Adler's Workingman's School for poor
children has for several years taught manual training to the
very lowest grades. ... The Cleveland Manual Training School
was incorporated in 1885, and opened in connection with the
city high school, in 1886. New Haven, which had for some time
encouraged the use of tools by the pupils of several of its
grammar schools, in September, 1886, opened a regular shop and
furnished systematic instruction in tool-work. The school
board of Chicago added manual training to the course of the
'West Side High School' in September, 1886."

_C. M. Woodward, The Manual Training School, chapter 1._

"Concerning the manual-training school there are two widely
different views. The one insists that it shall teach no trade,
but the rudiments of all of them; the other that the
particular industries may properly be held to maintain schools
to recruit their own ranks. The first would teach the use of
the axe, the saw, the plane, the hammer, the square, the
chisel, and the file; claiming that 'the graduate from such a
course at the end of three years is within from one to three
months of knowing quite as thoroughly as an apprentice who had
served seven years any one of the twenty trades to which he
may choose to turn.' Of this class are, besides most of those
already named, the Haish Manual Training School of Denver;
that of Tulane University, New Orleans; the Felix Adler's
'Workingman's School, of New York City; and the School of
Manual Technology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville. Among
schools of the second class are some interesting institutions.
They include the numerous general and special trade-schools
for boys, instruction in the manifold phases of domestic
economy for girls, and the yet small but rapidly growing class
of industries open alike to both. Sewing is taught in public
or private schools in Baltimore, Boston, Cincinnati, Chicago,
New York, Philadelphia, Providence, St. Louis, and about a
dozen other cities, besides in a number of special
institutions. Cooking-schools are no longer a novelty in half
as many of the larger cities, since their introduction into
New York city in 1876. Printing may be learned in the Kansas
Agricultural College; Cooper Union, New York; Girard College,
Philadelphia, and elsewhere. Telegraphy, stenography,
wood-engraving, various kinds of smithing, and carpentry,
have, especially the last two, numerous representatives. The
New York Kitchen Garden, for the instruction of children in
the work of the household, is an interesting modification of
the Kindergarten along the industrial line. For young ladies,
the Elizabeth Aull Seminary, Lexington, Missouri, is a school
of home-work, in which 'are practically taught the mysteries
of the kitchen and laundry,' and upon whose graduates is
conferred the degree of 'Mistress of Home-Work.' The Lasell
Seminary at Auburndale, Massachusetts, also has recently
(1885) undertaken a similar but more comprehensive experiment,
including lessons and lectures in anatomy and physiology, with
hygiene and sanitation, the principles of common law by an
eminent attorney, instruction and practice in the arts of
domestic life, the principles of dress, artistic
house-furnishing, healthy homes, and cooking. Of
training-schools for nurses there are thirty-one. ... Of
schools of a different character still, there have been or are
the Carriage Builder's Apprenticeship School, New York; those
of Hoe & Co., printing-press manufacturers; and Tiffany & Co.,
jewelers; and the Tailors' 'Trades School' recently
established and flourishing in Baltimore, besides the
Pennsylvania Railroad novitiate system, at Altoona; in which
particular trades or guilds or corporations have sought to
provide themselves with a distinct and specially trained class
of artisans. The latest and in some respects the most
interesting experiment of the kind is that of the 'Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad service' at Mt. Clare, Baltimore. It was
inaugurated in 1885, apprentices being selected from
applicants by competitive examination."

_R. G. Boone, Education in the United States, chapter 13._

{748}

EDUCATION: A. D. 1873-1889.
University Extension in England.

"The University Extension Movement, which has now been before
the country eighteen years, has revealed the existence of a
real need for larger opportunities of higher education amongst
the middle and working classes. From the time of its
inauguration in 1873 by the University of Cambridge, owing
mainly to the enthusiastic advocacy and skill in practical
affairs of Mr. James Stuart (at that time Fellow and Lecturer
of Trinity College), down to the present day, when the
principle has been accepted by all the Universities in Great
Britain and by some in countries beyond the seas, the movement
has shown marvellous vitality and power of adjustment to
changing conditions. From a small beginning in three towns in
the Midlands, it has grown until the centres in connection
with the various branches are to be numbered by hundreds and
the students by tens of thousands. The success attained by
Cambridge in the first three years led, in 1876, to the
formation of the London Society for the Extension of
University Teaching, for the express purpose of carrying on
similar work within the metropolitan area. In 1878 the
University of Oxford undertook to make similar arrangements
for Lectures, but after a year or two, they were for the time
abandoned. Subsequently in 1885 the Oxford work was revived
and has since been carried on with vigour and success. The
University of Durham is associated with Cambridge in this work
in the northeast of England, while courses of Lectures on the
Extension plan have been given for several years in connection
with Victoria University in centres around Manchester. Two or
three years ago the four Scottish Universities united in
forming a like scheme for Scotland, while at the close of 1889
a Society for the Extension of University Teaching was formed
in the north of Ireland. Finally the movement has spread to
Greater Britain and the United States, and there are signs
that work on similar lines is about to be established in
various countries on the continent of Europe."

_R. D. Roberts, Eighteen years of University Extension,
chapter 1._

"One of the chief characteristics of the system is the method
of teaching adopted in connection with it. A working man at
one of the centres in the north of England who had attended
the lectures for several terms, described the method as
follows in a paper read by him at a meeting:--

'Any town or village which is prepared to provide an audience,
and pay the necessary fees, can secure a course of twelve
lectures on any subject taught in the University, by a
lecturer who has been educated at the University, and who is
specially fitted for lecturing work. A syllabus of the course
is printed and put into the hands of students. This syllabus
is a great help to persons not accustomed to note-taking.
Questions are given on each lecture, and written answers can
be sent in by anyone, irrespective of age or sex. All the
lectures, except the first, are preceded by a class, which
lasts about an hour. In this class the students and the
lecturer talk over the previous lecture. The written answers
are returned with such corrections as the lecturer deems
necessary. At the end of the course an examination is held and
certificates are awarded to the successful candidates. These
lectures are called University Extension Lectures.'

Another definition which has been given is this:

'Advanced systematic teaching for the people, without
distinction of rank, sex, or age, given by means of lectures,
classes, and written papers during a connected course,
conducted by men "who believe in their work, and intend to do
it," teachers who connect the country with the University by
manner, method, and information.'"

_R. D. Roberts, The University Extension Scheme, pages 6-7._

EDUCATION: A. D. 1887-1892.
University Extension in the United States.

"The first conscious attempts to introduce English University
Extension methods into this country were made in 1887, by
individuals connected with the Johns Hopkins University. The
subject was first publicly presented to the American Library
Association at their meeting upon one of the Thousand Islands
in September, 1887. The idea was heartily approved," and the
first result of the suggestion was a course of lectures on
economic questions given in one of the lecture-rooms of the
Buffalo Library the following winter by Dr. Edward W. Bemis.
The next winter "Dr. Bemis repeated his course on 'Economic
Questions of the Day' in Canton, Ohio. ... The Canton
experiment was followed in February, 1889, by another course,
conducted by Dr. Bemis, in connection with the Public Library
at St. Louis. ... About the time when these various
experiments were being tried in St. Louis, Canton, and
Buffalo, individual members of Johns Hopkins University were
attempting to introduce University Extension methods in
connection with local lectures in the city of Baltimore. ...
The idea of University Extension in connection with Chautauqua
was conceived by Dr. J. H. Vincent during a visit to England,
in 1886, when he saw the English lecture system in practical
operation and his own methods of encouraging home reading in
growing favor with university men. The first definite American
plan, showing at once the aims, methods, cost, and history, of
University Extension lectures, was drawn up at Chautauqua by
the writer of this article in the early summer of 1888. ...
Contemporary with the development of Chautauqua College and
University Extension was the plan of Mr. Seth T. Stewart, of
Brooklyn, New York, for 'University and School Extension.' ...
Several public meetings were held in New York in 1889-90 for
the promotion of University and School Extension. ... One of
the most gratifying recent experiments in University Extension
in America has been in the city of Philadelphia under the
auspices of the American Society for the Extension of
University Teaching. At various local centres Mr. Richard G.
Moulton, one of the most experienced lecturers from Cambridge,
England, lectured for ten weeks in the winter and spring of
1891 to large and enthusiastic audiences. All the essential
features of English University Extension were methodically and
persistently carried out. ... The American field for
University Extension is too vast for the missionary labors of
any one society or organization. ... The most significant sign
of the times with regard to University Extension in America is
the recent appropriation of the sum of $10,000 for this very
object by the New York legislature. The money is to be
expended under the direction of the Regents of the University
of the State of New York. ... The intention of the New York
act is simply to provide the necessary means for organizing a
State system of University Extension ... and to render such
general assistance and co-operation as localities may
require."

_H. B. Adams, University Extension in America,
(Forum, July, 1891)._

On the opening, in 1892, of the Chicago University,
munificently endowed by Mr. John D. Rockefeller, of Cleveland,
University Extension was made one of the three grand divisions
of its organization.

{749}

EDWARD,
King of Portugal,
A. D. 1433-1438..
Edward, called the Confessor, King of England,
A. D. 1042-1065.
Edward, called the Elder, King of Wessex,
A. D. 901-925.
Edward, called the Martyr, King of Wessex,
A. D. 975.
Edward I., King of England,
A. D. 1274-1307.
Edward II., King of England,
A. D. 1307-1327.
Edward III., King of England,
A. D. 1327-1377.
Edward V., King of England (first king of the House of York),
A. D. 1461-1483.
Edward V., titular King of England,
A. D. 1483 (from April 9, when his father, Edward IV.,
died, until June 22, when he is believed to have been
murdered in the Tower by command of his uncle, the usurper,
Richard III.).
Edward VI., King of England,
A. D. 1547-1553.

EDWARD, Fort: A. D. 1755.
Built by the New England troops.

See CANADA: A. D. 1755 (SEPTEMBER).

EDWARD, Fort: A. D. 1717.
Abandoned to the British.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D.1777(JULY-OCTOBER).

----------EDWARD, Fort: End----------

EDWIG, King of Wessex, A. D. 955-957.

EDWIN, King of Northumbria, A. D. 617-633.

Egesta.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413;
and SICILY: B. C. 409-405.

EGFRITH, King of Northumbria, A. D. 670-685.

EGINA.--EGINETANS.

See ÆGINA.

EGMONT, Count, and the struggle in the Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1562-1566, and 1566-1568.

EGNATIAN WAY, The.

A Roman road constructed from Apollonia on the Adriatic to the
shores of the Hellespont; finally carried to Byzantium.

EGRA: A. D. 1647.
Siege and capture by the Swedes.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1646-1648.

EGYPT:
Its Names.

"Egypt is designated in the old inscriptions, as well as in
the books of the later Christian Egyptians, by a word which
signifies 'the black land,' and which is read in the Egyptian
language Kern, or Kami."

[Footnote: Kamit in the edition of 1891.]

"The ancients had early remarked that the cultivable land of
Egypt was distinguished by its dark and almost black colour.
... The neighbouring region of the Arabian desert bore the
name of Tesher, or the red land. ... The Egyptians designated
themselves simply as 'the people of the black land,' and ...
the inscriptions, so far as we know, have handed down to us no
other appellation. ... A real enigma is proposed to us in the
derivation and meaning of the curious proper name, by which
the foreign peoples of Asia, each in its own dialect, were
accustomed to designate Egypt. The Hebrews gave the land the
name of Mizraim; the Assyrians Muzur; the Persians, Mudraya.
We may feel assured that at the basis of all these
designations there lies an original form which consisted of
the three letters M-z-r, all explanations of which have been
as yet unsuccessful. Although I intend hereafter to consider
more particularly the derivation of this puzzling name, which
is still preserved at the present day in the Arabic
appellation Misr, I will here premise the remark that this
name was originally applied only to a certain definite part of
Egypt, in the east of the Delta, which, according to the
monuments, was covered and defended by many 'zor,' or
fortresses, and was hence called in Egyptian Mazor (that is,
fortified)."

_H. Brugsch-Bey, History of Egypt under the Pharaohs,
chapter 2._

"Brugsch explains the name Egypt by 'ha-ka-ptah,' i. e. 'the
precinct of Ptah.' As Ptah was more especially the god of
Memphis, this name would have come from Memphis."

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 1, chapter 1, note._

"The last use of Kem died out in the form Chemi in Coptic, the
descendant of the classical language, which ceased to be
spoken a century ago. It survives among us in the terms
'chemistry' and 'alchemy,' sciences thought to be of Egyptian
origin."

_R. S. Poole, Cities of Egypt, introduction._

EGYPT:
Its Historical Antiquity.

The lists of Egyptian kings which have been found "agree in
presenting the name of Mena [or Menes] as that of the first
Pharaoh of Egypt, and as such he is unhesitatingly accepted,
although no contemporary monumental record of the fact has yet
been discovered. According to Manetho, the age of Mena dates
back to a period of 5,004 years before the Christian era, a
date which is nearly equal to 7,000 years from the present
day. Brugsch favours a somewhat less interval, namely, 4455 B. C.;
others place it as low as 2700 B. C., whilst Birch and
Chabas adopt a medium date, namely 4000 B. C., which is
equivalent to 6000 years backward from the existing time.
These extreme variations are chiefly referable to the
difficulty of ascertaining the precise length of each
individual reign, and especially to the occasional
contemporaneous reign of two or more kings, and sometimes the
existence of two or more dynasties in different parts of the
empire. ... Lieblein gives full credit to the chronology of
Manetho [a priest of Heliopolis, who wrote about 260 B. C.],
as recorded by the historian Africanus, as likewise did the
distinguished Mariette, and differs very little from the
standard adopted by Birch. He assigns to Mena, as the pioneer
of the first monarchy, a date in round numbers of 3900 years."

_E. Wilson, The Egypt of the Past, chapter 1._

"As to the era ... when the first Pharaoh mounted the throne,
the German Egyptologers have attempted to fix it at the
following epochs: Boeckh, B. C. 5702; Unger, 5613; Brugsch,
4455; Lauth, 4157; Lepsius, 3892; Bunsen, 3623. The difference
between the two extreme points of the series is amazingly
great, for its number of years amounts to no less than 2079.
... The calculations in question are based on the extracts
already often mentioned from a work by the Egyptian priest
Manetho on the history of Egypt. That learned man had then at
his command the annals of his country's history, which were
preserved in the temples, and from them, the best and most
accurate sources, be derived the materials for his work,
composed in the Greek language, on the history of the ancient
Egyptian Dynasties. His book, which is now lost, contained a
general review of the kings of the land, divided into Thirty
Dynasties, arranged in the order of their names, with the
lengths of their reigns, and the total duration of each
dynasty. Though this invaluable work was little known and
certainly but little regarded by the historians of the old
classical age, large extracts were made from it by some of the
ecclesiastical writers. In process of time the copyists,
either by error or designedly, corrupted the names and the
numbers, and thus we only possess at the present day the ruins
instead of the complete building. The truth of the original,
and the authenticity of its sources were first proved by the
deciphering of the Egyptian writings. And thus the Manethonian
list served, and still serves, as a guide for assigning to the
royal names read on the monuments their places in the
Dynasties."

_H. Brugsch-Bey, History of Egypt under the Pharaohs,
chapter 4._

See, also, MANETHO, LIST OF.

{750}

EGYPT:
Origin of the ancient people.

"The Egyptians, together with some other nations, form, as it
would seem, a third branch of that [the Caucasian] race,
namely, the family called Cushite, which is distinguished by
special characters from the Pelasgian and the Semitic
families. Whatever relations may be found always to exist
between these great races of mankind, thus much may be
regarded as certain, that the cradle of the Egyptian people
must be sought in the interior of the Asiatic quarter of the
world. In the earliest ages of humanity, far beyond all
historical remembrance, the Egyptians, for reasons unknown to
us, left the soil of their primeval home, took their way
towards the setting sun, and finally crossed that bridge of
nations, the Isthmus of Suez, to find a new fatherland on the
favoured banks of the holy Nile. Comparative philology, in its
turn, gives powerful support to this hypothesis. The Egyptian
language ... shows in no way any trace of a derivation and
descent from the African families of speech. On the contrary,
the primitive roots and the essential elements of the Egyptian
grammar point to such an intimate connection with the
Indo-Germanic and Semitic languages that it is almost
impossible to mistake the close relations which formerly
prevailed between the Egyptians and the races called
Indo-Germanic and Semitic."

_H. Brugsch-Bey, History of Egypt under the Pharaohs,
chapter 1._

"It has been maintained by some that the immigration was from
the south, the Egyptians having been a colony from Ethiopia
which gradually descended the Nile and established itself in
the middle and lower portions of the valley; and this theory
can plead in its favour, both a positive statement of
Diodorus, and the fact, which is quite certain, of an ethnic
connection between the Egyptians and some of the tribes who
now occupy Abyssinia (the ancient Ethiopia). But modern
research has shown quite unmistakably that the movement of the
Egyptians was in the opposite direction. ... We must look,
then, rather to Syria or Arabia than to Ethiopia as the cradle
of the Egyptian nation. At the same time we must admit that
they were not mere Syrians or Arabs, but had, from the
remotest time whereto we can go back, distinct
characteristics, whereby they have a good claim to be
considered as a separate race."

_G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, chapter 3._

"So far as our knowledge reaches, the northern edge of Africa,
like the valley of the Nile as far as the marshes at the foot
of the Abyssinian hills, was inhabited by nations who in
colour, language, and customs were sharply distinguished from
the negro. These nations belong to the whites: their languages
were most closely allied to the Semitic. From this, and from
their physical peculiarities, the conclusion has been drawn
that these nations at some time migrated from Asia to the soil
of Africa. They formed a vast family, whose dialects still
continue in the language of the Berbers. Assisted by the
favourable conditions of their land, the tribe which settled
on the Lower Nile quickly left their kinsmen far behind.
Indeed the latter hardly rose above a pastoral life. The
descendants of these old inhabitants of the valley of the
Nile, in spite of the numerous layers which the course of
centuries has subsequently laid upon the soil of the land,
still form the larger part of the population of Egypt, and the
ancient language is preserved in the dialect of the Copts."

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 1, chapter 1._

EGYPT:
The Old Empire and the Middle Empire.

The following are the Egyptian Dynasties, from the first
Pharaoh, Mena, to the epoch of the Hyksos, or Shepherd kings,
with the dates and periods assigned to each by Brugsch:

The First Dynasty; of Thinis: B. C. 4400-4166.
The Second; of Thinis: 4133-4000.
The Third; of Memphis: 3966-3766.
The Fourth; of Memphis: 3733-3600.
The Fifth; of Elephantine: 3566-3333.
The Sixth; of Memphis: 3300-3066.
The Seventh to the Eleventh
(a confused and obscure period): 3033-2500.
The Twelfth; of Thebes: 2466-2266.

_H. Brugsch-Bey, History of Egypt under the Pharaohs,
appendix A._