Chapter XLV: Front Matter (45)

This was the first of the decisive series of battles in which
the Arab followers of Mohammed effected the overthrow of the
Persian Empire (the Sassannian) and the conquest of its
dominions. It was desperately fought, A. D. 636, under the
walls of the fortified town of Cadesia (Kadisiyeh in the
Arabic) situated near the Sea of Nedjef, between the Euphrates
and the Arabian desert. The Persians numbered 120,000 men,
under Rustam, their best general. The Arabs were but 30,000
strong at first, but were reinforced the second day. They were
commanded by Sa'ad and led by the redoubtable Kaled. The
battle was obstinately prolonged through four days, but ended
in the complete rout of the Persians and the death of Rustam,
with 40,000 of his men.

_G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, chapter 26._

See, also, MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-651.

CADIZ: Origin.

See UTICA, and GADES.

CADIZ: A. D. 1596.
Taken and sacked by the English and Dutch.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1596.

CADIZ: A. D. 1702.
Abortive English and Dutch expedition against.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1702.

CADIZ: A. D. 1810-1811.
Siege by the French.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1810-1812.

CADIZ: A. D. 1823.
Siege, bombardment and capture by the French.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

CADMEA (KADMEIA), The.

See GREECE: B. C. 383.

CADMEANS, OR KADMEIANS.

See BŒOTIA.

CADURCI, The.

The Cadurci were one of the tribes of ancient Gaul whose chief
place was Divona, now Cahors on the Lot.

_G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapter 17._

CADUSIANS, The.

An ancient people so-called by the Greeks, whose territory was
on the south-western border of the Caspian Sea,--the district
of modern Persians called Ghilan or Ghulan. Their native name
was "Gaels."

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 8, chapter 1._

CADWALLON, Death of.

See HEVENFIELD, BATTLE OF THE.

CÆLLAN HILL, The.

See SEVEN HILLS OF ROME.

CAERLAVEROCK, Siege of.

A famous siege and reduction of the Scottish castle of
Caerlaverock, in Dumfriesshire, by Edward I. A. D. 1300.

CAERLEON.

"Caer," like the "Ceaster" of the Saxons, is a corruption by
Celtic tongues of the Roman "Castrum." "In memory of the
second legion, which had been so long established at the
Silurian Isca, they [the Welsh] gave to the ruins of that city
the name of Caer-Legion, the city of the legion, now softened
to Caerleon."

_T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5._

CÆSAR, JULIUS, Career and death of.

See ROME: B. C. 69-63, to 44;
GAUL: B. C. 58-51;
and BRITAIN: B. C. 55-54.

CÆSAR, The title.

"Octavius was the adopted heir of Julius Cæsar; from the
moment of his adoption the surname Cæsar became appropriated
to him, and it was by this name accordingly that he was most
familiarly known to his own contemporaries. Modern writers for
the sake of distinction have agreed for the most part to
confine this illustrious title to the first of the Cæsarian
dynasty; but we should doubtless gain a clearer conception of
the gradual process by which the idea of a dynastic succession
fixed itself in the minds of the Romans, if we followed their
own practice in this particular, and applied the name of
Cæsar, not to Augustus only, but also to his adopted son
Tiberius, to the scions of the same lineage who succeeded him,
and even to those of later and independent dynasties. As late
indeed as the reign of Diocletian, the Roman monarch was still
eminently the Cæsar. It was not till the close of the third
century of our era that that illustrious title was deposed
from its preeminence, and restricted to a secondary and
deputed authority. Its older use was however revived and
perpetuated, though less exclusively, through the declining
ages of the empire, and has survived with perhaps unbroken
continuity even to our own days. The Austrian Kaiser still
retains the name, though he has renounced the succession, of
the Cæsars of Rome, while the Czar of Muscovy pretends to
derive his national designation by direct inheritance from the
Cæsars of Byzantium."

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 31._

See, also, ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14.

CÆSAR-AUGUSTA.

One of the fortified posts established in Spain by the Emperor
Augustus, B. C. 27, and in which the veterans of the legions
were settled. The place and its name (corrupted) survive in
modern Saragossa.

_C. Merivale, History of the Roman, chapter 34._

{346}

CÆSAREA IN CAPPADOCIA: Origin.

See MAZACA.

CÆSAREA IN CAPPADOCIA: A. D. 260.
Capture, massacre and pillage by Sapor, king of Persia.

See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

CÆSAREA IN PALESTINE: Massacre of Jews.

See JEWS: A. D. 66-70.

CÆSAREA IN PALESTINE: The Church in.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 100-312.

CÆSAROMAGUS IN BRITAIN.

A Roman town identified, generally, with modern Chelmsford.

_T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5._

CÆSAROMAGUS IN GAUL.
Modern Beauvais.

See BELGÆ.

CÆSARS, The Twelve.

See ROME: A. D. 68-96.

CÆSAR'S TOWER.

See TOWER OF LONDON.

CAFFA.

See GENOA: A. D. 1261-1299.

CAHORS:
Origin.

See CADURCI.

CAHORS: A. D. 1580.
Siege and capture by Henry of Navarre.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1578-1580.

CAIRN.

See BARROW.

CAIRO: A. D. 641.
Origin.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 640-646.

CAIRO: A. D. 967-1171.
Capital of the Fatimite Caliphs.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE: A. D. 908-1171.

CAIRO: A. D. 1517.
Capture, sack and massacre by the Ottoman Turks.

See TURKS: A. D. 1481-1520.

CAIRO: A. D. 1798.
Occupied by the French under Bonaparte.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798 (MAY-AUGUST).

CAIRO: A. D. 1800.
Revolt suppressed by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800 (JANUARY-JUNE).

CAIRO: A. D. 1801-1802.
Surrender to the English.
Restoration to Turkey.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802.

CAIRO: A. D. 1805-1811.
Massacres of the Mamelukes.

See EGYPT: A. D. 1803-1811.

CAIRO: A. D. 1879-1883.
Revolt against the Khedive and the foreign control.
Occupation by the British.

See EGYPT: A. D. 1875-1882, and 1882-1883.

----------CAIRO: End----------

CAIROAN.

See KAIRWAN.

CAIUS, called Caligula,
Roman Emperor, A. D. 37-41.

CAKCHIQUELS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: QUICHES, and MAYAS.

CALABRIA:
Transfer of the name.

"After the loss of the true Calabria [to the Lombards] the
vanity of the Greeks substituted that name instead of the more
ignoble appellation of Bruttium; and the change appears to
have taken place before the time of Charlemagne."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 45; note.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

CALABRIA: A. D. 1080.
Norman duchy.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1000-1090.

----------CALABRIA: End----------

CALAIS: A. D. 1346-1347.
Siege and capture by Edward III.

Immediately after his great victory won at Creci, the English
king, Edward III. laid siege to the strong city of Calais. He
built a town of huts round the city, "which he called 'Newtown
the Bold,' and laid it out with a market, regular streets and
shops, and all the necessary accommodation for an army, and
hither were carried in vast stores of victuals and other
necessaries, obtained by ravaging the country round and by
shipment from England." Calais held out for a year, and
angered the king so by its obstinacy that when, in August,
1347, starvation forced its people to surrender, he required
that six of the chief burgesses should be given up to him,
with halters round their necks, for execution. Eustache St.
Pierre and five others nobly offered themselves for the
sacrifice, and it was only by the weeping intercession of
Queen Philippa that Edward was induced to spare their lives.
He expelled all the inhabitants who refused to take an oath of
fealty to him and repeopled the town with Englishmen.

_W. Warburton, Edward III., Second Decade, chapter 3._

See, also, FRANCE: A. D. 1337-1360.

CALAIS: A. D. 1348.
The Staple for English trade.

See STAPLE.

CALAIS: A. D. 1558.
Recovery from the English by France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

CALAIS: A. D. 1564.
Final surrender of English claims.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1563-1564.

CALAIS: A. D. 1596-1598.
Surprise and capture by the Spaniards.
Restoration to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1593-1598.

----------CALAIS: End----------

CALATRAVA AND SANTIAGO, Knights of.

"It was to repress the never-ceasing incursions of the
Mohammedans, as well as to return these incursions with
interest, that, in the time of Fernando [Fernando II. of the
early Spanish kingdom of Leon], two military orders, those of
Calatrava and Santiago [or St. Jago--or St. James of
Compostella], were instituted. The origin of the former order
was owing to the devotion of two Cistercian monks; St.
Raymond, abbot of Fitero, and his companion, the friar Diego
Velasquez. These intrepid men, who had both borne arms
previous to their monastic profession, indignant at the
cowardice of the Templars, who resigned into the king of
Castile's hands the fortress of Calatrava, which had been
confided to their defense by the emperor Alfonso, proposed, in
1158, to the regency of that kingdom, to preserve that
position against the assailants. The proposal was readily
accepted. The preaching of the warlike abbot was so
efficacious, that in a short time he assembled 20,000 men,
whom he conducted to Calatrava, and among whom were not a few
of his own monks. There he drew up the institutions of the
order, which took its name from the place, and which in its
religious government long followed the Cistercian rule, and
wore the same monastic habit,--a white robe and scapulary. [By
pope Benedict XIII. the habit was dispensed with, and the
knights allowed to marry 'once.'--_Foot-note_.] The other
order commenced in 1161. Some robbers of Leon, touched with
their past enormities, resolved to make reparation for them,
by defending the frontiers against the incursions of the
Mohammedans. Don Pedro Fernandez--if the 'don' has not been
added to give something like respectability to the origin--was
the chief founder of the order. He engaged the brethren to
assume the rule of St. Augustine, in addition to the ordinary
obligations of knighthood. His military and monastic
fraternity was approved by king Fernando; at whose suggestion
the knights chose Santiago as their patron, whose bloody
sword, in form of a cross, became their professional symbol.
These two orders were richly endowed by successive kings of
Leon and Castile, until their possessions became immense."

_S. A. Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal, book 3,
section 2, chapter 1, division. 2._

{347}

In 1396 the knights of the order of St. James of Compostella
"received permission to marry. In 1493, the Grand Mastership
was united to the crown of Spain." In 1523 the right of
nomination to the Grand Mastership of the Order of Calatrava
was transferred from the Pope to the crown of Spain, "and
since that time the order has gradually merged into a court
institution. The state dress is a white robe, with a red cross
on the left breast. The permission to marry has been enjoyed
since 1540."

_F. C. Woodhouse, Military Religious Orders, part 4._

CALAURIA,
Confederation of.

A naval confederation, formed at a very early period of Greek
history, by the seven maritime cities of Orchomenus, Athens,
Ægina, Epidaurus, Hermione, Prasiæ and Nauplia against the
kings of Argos. The island of Calauria, off the eastern point
of Argolis, was the center of the confederacy.

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, V. 1, book 1, chapter 3._

CALCINATO, Battle of (1706).

See ITALY (SAVOY AND PIEDMONT): A. D. 1701-1713.

CALCUTTA: A. D. 1698.
The founding of the city.

See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702.

CALCUTTA: A. D. 1756.
Capture by Surajah Dowlah.
The tragedy of the Black Hole.

See INDIA: A. D. 1755-1757.

----------CALCUTTA: End----------

CALDERON, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1810-1819.

CALEDONIA, The name.

See SCOTLAND, THE NAME.

CALEDONIA,
Ancient Tribes.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CALEDONIA,
Wars of the Romans.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 78-84.

----------CALEDONIA: End----------

CALEDONIA SYLVA.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CALEDONII, The.

One of the wild tribes which occupied the Highlands of
Scotland when the Romans held Britain, and whose name they
gave finally to all the Highland tribes and to that part of
the island.

_W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, volume 1._

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CALENDAR, The French Republican.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER).

CALENDAR,
Gregorian.
Gregorian Era.

"This was a correction and improvement of the Julian [see
CALENDAR, JULIAN]. It was discovered at length, by more
accurate astronomical observations, that the true solar or
tropical year was 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 57
seconds; whence it fell short of the Julian or Egyptian
computation of 365 days and 6 hours by an interval of 11
minutes, 3 seconds, . . . which, in the course of 130 years,
amounted to a whole day. At the end of 130 years, therefore,
the tropical year began a day earlier than the civil, or fell
back a day behind it. . . . In the time of Pope Gregory XIII.,
A. D. 1582, . . . the [vernal] equinox was found to be on the
11th of March, having fallen back ten days. In order,
therefore, to bring it forward to its former place of the
21st, he left out ten days in October, calling the 5th the
15th day of that month. Whence in that year of confusion, the
22d day of December became the first of January, A. D. 1583,
which was the first year of the Gregorian Era. In making this
correction, he was principally assisted by the celebrated
mathematician Clavius. But to prevent the repetition of this
error in future, a further reformation of the Julian Calendar
was wanting. Because the vernal equinox fell backwards three
days in the course of 390 years, Gregory, chiefly by the
assistance of Aloysius Lillius, decreed that three days should
be omitted in every four centuries: namely, that every first,
second and third centurial year, which would otherwise be
bissextile, should be a common year; but that every fourth
centurial year should remain bissextile. Thus, the years A. D.
1700, 1800, 1900, and 2100, 2200, 2300, were to be common
years; but A. D. 1600, 2000, 2400, to remain leap years. By
this ingenious reform, the Julian Calendar is rendered
sufficiently accurate for all the purposes of chronology, and
even of astronomy, for 6000 years to come. ... The Gregorian
or reformed Julian year was not adopted in England until A. D.
1751, when, the deficiency from the time of the Council of
Nice then amounting to eleven days, this number was struck out
of the month of September, by Act of Parliament; and the 3d
day was counted the 14th, in that year of confusion. The next
year A. D. 1752, was the first of the new style, beginning
January 1, instead of March 25."

_W. Hales, New Analysis of Chronology, V. 1, book I._

The change from Old Style, as the Julian Calendar, and dates
according with it, now came to be called to New Style, or the
reformed, Gregorian Calendar, was made in Spain, Portugal,
part of Italy, part of the Netherlands, France, Denmark, and
Lorraine, in A. D. 1582; in Poland in 1586; in Hungary in 1587;
in Catholic Switzerland in 1583; in Catholic Germany in 1584;
in most parts of Protestant Germany, and Switzerland in 1700
and 1701, and, lastly, in England, in 1751. In Russia, Greece,
and the East generally, the Old Style is still retained.

_Sir H. Nicolas, Chronology of History._

CALENDAR,
Julian.
Julian Era.

"The epoch of the Julian Era, which precedes the common or
Christian Era by forty-five years, is the reformation of the
Roman calendar by Julius Cæsar, who ordained that the Year of
Rome 707 should consist of 15 months, forming altogether 445
days; that the ensuing year, 708, should be composed of 365
days; and that every fourth year should contain 366 days, the
additional day being introduced after the 6th of the calends
of March, i. e., the 24th of February, which year he called
Bissextile, because the 6th of the calends of March were then
doubled. Julius Cæsar also divided the months into the number
of days which they at present contain. The Roman calendar,
which was divided into calends, nones and ides, was used in
most public instruments throughout Europe for many centuries.
... The calend is the 1st day of each month. The ides were
eight days in each month: in March, May, July and October the
ides commence on the 15th, and in all other months on the 13th
day. The nones are the 5th day of each month, excepting in
March, May, July and October, when the nones fall on the 7th
day. The days of the month were reckoned backwards instead of
forwards: thus, the 3d calends of February is the 30th of
January; the 4th calends of February the 29th January. ...
Excepting July and August, which were named after Julius and
Augustus Cæsar, having been called Quintilis and Sextilis, the
Roman months bore their present names.
{348}
An error prevailed for 37 years after the death of Julius
Cæsar, from reckoning every third instead of every fourth year
a bissextile, or leap year, as if the year contained 365 days,
8 hours. When this mistake was detected, thirteen
intercalations had occurred instead of ten, and the year
consequently began three days too late: the calendar was,
therefore, again corrected, and it was ordered that each of
the ensuing twelve years should contain 365 days only, and
that there should not be any leap year until A. U. C. 760 or
A. D. 7. From that time the years have been calculated without
mistakes, and the Roman year has been adopted by all Christian
nations, though about the sixth century they began to date
from the birth of our Saviour."

_Sir H. Nicolas, Chronology of History, page 4._

"It might naturally have been expected that Julius Cæsar would
have so ordered his reformed solar year, as to begin on the
day of the winter solstice, which, in the 'Year of Confusion'
[i. e., the year in which the error of the calendar was
corrected] was supposed to fall on Dec. 25. But he chose to
begin his new year on the first of January following, because
on that day the moon was new, or in conjunction with the sun,
at 7 hours, 6 minutes and 35 seconds after noon. By this means
he began his year on a most high or holy day among the ancient
Druids, with whose usages he was well acquainted, and also
made his new year the first of a lunar cycle."

_T. Hales, New Analysis of Chronology, volume 1, book 1._

ALSO IN:
_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 20._

For an account of the subsequent correction of the Julian
calendar, see CALENDAR, GREGORIAN

CALENDS.

See CALENDAR, JULIAN.

CALETI, The.

See BELGÆ.

CALHOUN, John C.,
And the War of 1812.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1810-1812.

CALHOUN, John C.
And the Nullification Movement.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1828-1833.

CALIFORNIA:
The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY, and MODOCS AND
THEIR CALIFORNIA NEIGHBORS.

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1543-1781.
Origin of the name.
Early Spanish exploration and settlement.
The founding of the Franciscan missions.

"The settlements of the Spanish missionaries within the
present limits of the State of California date from the first
foundation of San Diego in 1769. The missions that were later
founded north of San Diego were, with the original
establishment itself, for a time known merely by some
collective name, such as the Northern Missions. But later the
name California, already long since applied to the country of
the peninsular missions to the Southward, was extended to the
new land, with various prefixes or qualifying phrases; and out
of these the definitive name Alta [or Upper] California at
last came, being applied to our present country during the
whole period of the Mexican Republican ownership. As to the
origin of the name California, no serious question remains
that this name, as first applied, between 1535 and 1539 to a
portion of Lower California, was derived from an old printed
romance, the one which Mr. Edward Everett Hale rediscovered in
1862, and from which he drew this now accepted conclusion.
For, in this romance, the name California was already before
1520 applied to a fabulous island, described as near the
Indies and also 'very near the Terrestrial Paradise.'
Colonists whom Cortes brought to the newly discovered
peninsula in 1535, and who returned the next year, may have
been the first to apply the name to this supposed island, on
which they had been for a time resident. The coast of Upper
California was first visited during the voyage of the explorer
Juan Cabrillo in 1542-43. Several landings were then made on
the coast and on the islands, in the Santa Barbara region. ...
In 1579 Drake's famous visit took place [see AMERICA: A. D.
1572-1580]. ... It is ... almost perfectly sure that he did
not enter or observe the Golden Gate, and that he got no sort
of idea of the existence of the Great Bay. ... This result of
the examination of the evidence about Drake's voyage is now
fairly well accepted, although some people will always try to
insist that Drake discovered our Bay of San Francisco. The
name San Francisco was probably applied to a port on this
coast for the first time by Cermeñon, who, in a voyage from
the Philippines in 1595 ran ashore, while exploring the coast
near Point Reyes. It is now, however, perfectly sure that
neither he nor any other Spanish navigator before 1769 applied
this name to our present bay, which remained utterly unknown
to Europeans during all this period. ... In 1602-3, Sebastian
Vizcaino conducted a Spanish exploring expedition along the
California coast. ... From this voyage a little more knowledge
of the character of the coast was gained; and thenceforth
geographical researches in the region of California ceased for
over a century and a half. With only this meagre result we
reach the era of the first settlement of Upper California. The
missions of the peninsula of Lower California passed, in 1767,
by the expulsion of the Jesuits, into the hands of the
Franciscans; and the Spanish government, whose attention was
attracted in this direction by the changed conditions, ordered
the immediate prosecution of a long-cherished plan to provide
the Manilla ships, on their return voyage, with good ports of
supply and repairs, and to occupy the northwest land as a
safeguard against Russian or other aggressions. ... Thus began
the career of Spanish discovery and settlement in California.
The early years show a generally rapid progress, only one
great disaster occurring,--the destruction of San Diego
Mission in 1775, by assailing Indians. But this loss was
quickly repaired. In 1770 the Mission of San Carlos was
founded at Monterey. In 1772, a land expedition, under Fages
and Crespi, first explored the eastern shore of our San
Francisco Bay, in an effort to reach by land the old Port of
San Francisco. ... After 1775, the old name began to be
generally applied to the new Bay, and so, thenceforth, the
name Port of San Francisco means what we now mean thereby. In
1775, Lieutenant Ayala entered the new harbor by water. In the
following year the Mission at San Francisco was founded, and
in October its church was dedicated. Not only missions,
however, but pueblos, inhabited by Spanish colonists, lay in
the official plan of the new undertakings. The first of these
to be established was San Jose, founded in November, 1777. The
next was Los Angeles, founded in September, 1781."

_J. Royce, California, chapter 1, section 2._

ALSO IN:
_H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 13
(California, volume l)._

_F. W. Blackmar, Spanish Institutions of the Southwest,
chapters 5-15._

{349}

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1846-1847.
The American conquest and its unexplained preludes.

"Early in 1846, the Americans in California numbered about
200, mostly able-bodied men, and who in their activity,
enterprise, and audacity, constituted quite a formidable
element in this sparsely inhabited region. The population of
California at this time was 6,000 Mexicans and 200,000
Indians. We now come to a period in the history of California
that has never been made clear, and respecting which there are
conflicting statements and opinions. The following facts were
obtained by careful inquiry of intelligent parties who lived
in California during the period mentioned, and who
participated in the scenes narrated. The native Californians
appear to have entertained no very strong affection for their
own government, or, rather, they felt that under the
influences at work they would inevitably, and at no very
distant period, become a dismembered branch of the Mexican
nation; and the matter was finally narrowed down to this
contested point, namely, whether this state surgery should be
performed by Americans or English, the real struggle being
between these two nationalities. In the northern part of the
territory, such native Californians as the Vallejos, Castros,
etc., with the old American settlers, Leese, Larkin, and
others, sympathized with the United States, and desired
annexation to the American republic. In the south, Pio Pico,
then governor of the territory, and other prominent native
Californians, with James Alexander Forbes, the English consul,
who settled in Santa Clara in 1828, were exerting themselves to
bring the country under English domination. ... This was the
state of affairs for two or three years previous to the
Mexican War. For some months before the news that hostilities
between the United States and Mexico had commenced [see
MEXICO: A. D. 1846-1847] reached California, the belief that
such an event would certainly occur was universal throughout
the territory. This quickened the impulses of all parties, and
stimulated the two rivals--the American and English--in their
efforts to be the first to obtain a permanent hold of the
country. The United States government had sent Colonel Fremont
to the Pacific on an exploring expedition. Colonel Fremont had
passed through California, and was on his way to Oregon, when,
in March, 1846, Lieutenant Gillespie, of the United States
marine service, was sent from Washington with dispatches to
Colonel Fremont. Lieutenant Gillespie went across Mexico to
Mazatlan, and from thence by sea to California. He finally
overtook Fremont early in June, 1846, a short distance on the
road to Oregon, and communicated to him the purport of his
dispatches, they having been committed to memory and the
papers destroyed before he entered Mexico. What these
instructions authorized Colonel Fremont to do has never been
promulgated, but it is said they directed him to remain in
California, and hold himself in readiness to cooperate with
the United States fleet, in case war with Mexico should occur.
Fremont immediately returned to California, and camped a short
time on Feather River, and then took up his headquarters at
Sutter's Fort. A few days after, on Sunday, June 14th, 1846, a
party of fourteen Americans, under no apparent command,
appeared in Sonoma, captured the place, raised the Bear flag,
proclaimed the independence of California, and carried off to
Fremont's headquarters four prominent citizens, namely, the
two Vallejos, J. P. Leese, and Colonel Prudhon. On the
consummation of these achievements, one Merritt was elected
captain. This was a rough party of revolutionists, and the
manner in which they improvised the famous Bear flag shows
upon what slender means nations and kingdoms are sometimes
started. From an estimable old lady they obtained a
fragmentary portion of her white skirt, on which they painted
what was intended to represent a grizzly bear, but not being
artistic in their work ... the Mexicans, with their usual
happy faculty on such occasions, called it the 'Bandera
Colchis,' or 'Hog Flag.' This flag now ornaments the rooms of
the Pioneer Society in San Francisco. On the 18th of June,
1846, William B. Ide, a native of New England, who had
emigrated to California the year previous, issued a
proclamation as commander-in-chief of the fortress of Sonoma.
This proclamation declared the purpose to overthrow the
existing government, and establish in its place the republican
form. ... General Castro now proposed to attack the feebly
manned post at Sonoma, but he was frustrated by a rapid
movement of Fremont, who, on the 4th of July, 1846, called a
meeting of Americans at Sonoma; and this assembly, acting
under his advice, proclaimed the independence of the country,
appointed Fremont Governor, and declared war against Mexico.
During these proceedings at Sonoma, a flag with one star
floated over the headquarters of Fremont at Sutter's Fort. The
meaning of this lone-star flag no one seems to have
understood. ... Just as Fremont, with his company, had started
for the coast to confront Castro, and act on the aggressive
generally, he was suddenly brought to a stand by the
astounding intelligence that Commodore Sloat had arrived at
Monterey, and that, on the 7th of July, 1846, he had raised
the American flag and taken possession of the place; also,
that, by command of Commodore Sloat, Commander Montgomery, of
the United States sloop-of-war Portsmouth, then lying in San
Francisco Bay, had, on the 8th of July, taken possession of
Yerba Buena and raised the American flag on the plaza. This of
course settled the business for all parties. The Mexican flag
and the Bear flag were lowered, and in due time, nolens
volens, all acquiesced in the flying of the Stars and Stripes.
... Commodore Sloat ... had heard of the commencement of
hostilities on the Rio Grande, ... sailed from Mazatlan for
California, took possession of the country and raised the
American flag on his own responsibility. These decisive steps
on the part of Commodore Sloat were not taken a moment too
soon, as on the 14th of July the British man-of-war
Collingwood, Sir George Seymour commanding, arrived at
Monterey," intending, as Sir George acknowledged, "to take
possession of that portion of the country." In August,
Commodore Sloat relinquished the command of the Pacific
squadron to Commodore Stockton, who "immediately instituted
bold and vigorous measures for the subjugation of the
territory. All his available force for land operations was 350
men--sailors and marines.
{350}
But so rapid and skilful were Stockton's movements, and so
efficient was the cooperation of Fremont with his small troop,
that California was effectually conquered in January, 1847.
During all this period the people of the United States were
ignorant of what was transpiring in California and vice versa.
But the action of Commodore Sloat ... and ... Commodore
Stockton ... did but anticipate the wishes of the United
States Government, which had, in June, 1846, dispatched
General Kearney across the country from Fort Leavenworth [see
NEW MEXICO: A. D. 1846], at the head of 1,600 men, with orders
to conquer California, and when conquered to assume the
governorship of the territory. General Kearney arrived in
California via San Pasqual with greatly diminished forces,
December, 1846, a few weeks before active military operations
in that region ceased."

_E. E. Dunbar, The Romance of the Age, pages 29-42._

ALSO IN:
_H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 17
(California, volume 5), chapter 1-16._

_J. C. Fremont, Memoirs of my Life, volume 1, chapter 14-15._

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1848.
Cession to the United States.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1848.

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1848-1849.
The discovery of Gold and the immigration of the Gold-hunters.

"In the summer of 1847 the American residents of California,
numbering perhaps 2,000, and mostly established near San
Francisco Bay, looked forward with hope and confidence to the
future. Their government held secure possession of the whole
territory, and had announced its purpose to hold it
permanently. ... It so happened that at this time one of the
leading representatives of American interests in California
was John A. Sutter, a Swiss by his parentage; a German by the
place of his birth in Baden; an American by residence and
naturalization in Missouri; and a Mexican by subsequent
residence and naturalization in California. In 1839 he had
settled at the junction of the Sacramento and American rivers,
near the site of the present city of Sacramento." His rancho
became known as Sutter's Fort. In the summer of 1847 he
planned the building of a flour-mill, and "partly to get
lumber for it, he determined to build a saw-mill also. Since
there was no good timber in the valley, the saw-mill must be
in the mountains. The site for it was selected by James W.
Marshall, a native of New Jersey, a skilful wheelwright by
occupation, industrious, honest, generous, but 'cranky,' full
of wild fancies, and defective in some kinds of business
sense. ... The place for his mill was in the small valley of
Coloma, 1,500 feet above the level of the sea, and 45 miles
from Sutter's Fort, from which it was accessible by wagon
without expense for road-making." Early in 1848 the saw-mill
was nearly completed; "the water had been turned into the race
to carry away some of the loose dirt and gravel, and then had
been turned off again. On the afternoon of Monday, the 24th of
January, Marshall was walking in the tail-race, when on its
rotten granite bed-rock he saw some yellow particles and
picked up several of them. The largest were about the size of
grains of wheat. ... He thought they were gold, and went to
the mill, where he told the men that he had found a gold mine.
At the time, little importance was attached to his statement.
It was regarded as a proper subject for ridicule. Marshall
hammered his new metal and found it malleable; he put it into
the kitchen fire, and observed that it did not readily melt or
become discolored; he compared its color with gold coin; and
the more he examined it the more he was convinced that it was
gold." He soon found an opportunity to show his discovery to
Sutter, who tested the metal with acid and by careful
weighing, and satisfied himself that Marshall's, conclusion
was correct. In the spring of 1848 San Francisco, a village of
about 700 inhabitants, had two newspapers, the 'Californian'
and the 'California Star,' both weeklies. The first printed
mention of the gold discovery was a short paragraph in the
former, under date of the 15th of March, stating that a gold
mine had been found at Sutter's Mill, and that a package of
the metal worth $30 had been received at New Helvetia. ...
Before the middle of June the whole territory resounded with
the cry of 'gold'! ... Nearly all the men hurried off to the
mines. Workshops, stores, dwellings, wives, and even ripe
fields of grain, were left for a time to take care of
themselves. ... 'The reports of the discovery, which began to
reach the Atlantic States in September, 1849, commanded little
credence there before January; but the news of the arrival of
large amounts of gold at Mazatlan, Valparaiso, Panama, and New
York, in the latter part of the winter, put an end to all
doubt, and in the spring there was such a rush of peaceful
migration as the world had never seen. In 1849,
25,000--according to one authority 50,000--immigrants went by
land, and 23,000 by sea from the region east of the Rocky
Mountains, and by sea perhaps 40,000 from other parts of the
world. ... The gold yield of 1848 was estimated at $5,000,000;
that of 1849 at $23,000,000; that of 1850 at $50,000,000; that
of 1853 at $65,000,000; and then came the decline which has
continued until the present time [1890] when the yield is
about $12,000,000."

_J. S. Hittell, The Discovery of
Gold in California (Century Magazine, February, 1891)._

ALSO IN:
_E. E. Dunbar, The Romance of the Age,
or the Discovery of Gold in California._

_H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States,
volume 18 (California, volume 6) chapter 2-4._

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1850.
Admission to the Union as a free state.
The Compromise.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850.

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1856.
The San Francisco Vigilance Committee.

"The association of citizens known as the vigilance committee,
which was organized in San Francisco on the 15th of May, 1856,
has had such an influence on the growth and prosperity of that
city that now [1877], at the end of 21 years, a true account of
the origin and subsequent action of that association will be
read with interest. For some time the corruption in the courts
of law, the insecurity of the ballot-box at elections, and the
infamous character of many of the public officials, had been
the subject of complaint, not only in San Francisco, but
throughout the State of California. It was evident to the
honest and respectable citizens of, San Francisco that ... it
would become the duty of the people to protect themselves by
reforming the courts of law, and by taking the ballot-box from
the hands of greedy and unprincipled politicians." The latter
were represented by a newspaper called the Sunday Times,
edited by one James P. Casey.
{351}
The opinion of the better classes of citizens was voiced by
the Evening Bulletin, whose editor was James King. On the 14th
of May, 1856, King was shot by Casey, in the public street,
receiving a wound from which he died six days later, and
intense excitement of feeling in the city was produced. Casey
surrendered himself and was lodged in jail. During the evening
of the 14th some of the members of a vigilance committee which
had been formed in 1851, and which had then checked a free
riot of crime in the suddenly populated and unorganized city,
by trying and executing a few desperadoes, came together and
determined the organization of another committee for the same
purpose. "The next day (the 15th) a set of rules and
regulations were drawn up which each member was obliged to
sign. The committee took spacious rooms, and all citizens of
San Francisco having the welfare of the city at heart were
invited to join the association. Several thousands enrolled
themselves in a few days. ... The members of the vigilance
committee were divided into companies of 100, each company
having a captain. Early on Sunday (the 18th) orders were sent
to the different captains to appear with their companies ready
for duty at the headquarters of the committee, in Sacramento
Street, at nine o'clock. When all the companies had arrived,
they were formed into one body, in all about 2,000 men. Sixty
picked men were selected as a guard for the executive
committee. At half-past eleven the whole force moved in the
direction of the jail. A large number of spectators had
collected, but there was no confusion, no noise. They marched
through the city to Broadway, and there formed in the open
space before the jail. ... The houses opposite the jail were
searched for men and arms secreted there, the committee
wishing to prevent any chance of a collision which might lead
to bloodshed. A cannon was then brought forward and placed in
front of the jail, the muzzle pointed at the door." The jailer
was now called upon to deliver Casey to the committee, and
complied, being unable to resist. One Charles Cora, who had
killed a United States marshal the November previous, was
taken from the jail at the same time. The two prisoners were
escorted to the quarters of the vigilance committee and there
confined under guard. Two days afterwards (May 20th) Mr. King
died. Casey and Cora were put on trial before a tribunal which
the committee had organized, were condemned to death, and were
hanged, with solemnity, on the 22d, from a platform erected in
front of the building on Sacramento Street. "The executive
committee, finding that the power they held was perfectly
under control, and that there was no danger of any popular
excesses, determined to continue their work and rid the
country of the gang of ruffians which had for so long a time
managed elections in San Francisco and its vicinity. These men
were all well known, and were ordered to leave San Francisco.
Many went away. Those who refused to go were arrested and
taken to the rooms of the committee, where they were confined
until opportunities offered for shipping them out of the
country. ... The governor of California at this time was Mr.
J. Neely Johnson. ... The major-general of the second division
of state militia (which included the city and county of San
Francisco) was Mr. William T. Sherman [afterwards well known
in the world as General Sherman] who had resigned his
commission in the United States army and had become a partner
in the banking house of Lucas, Turner & Co., in San Francisco.
... Toward the end of May, Governor Johnson ... appealed to
General Sherman for advice and assistance in putting a stop to
the vigilance committee. At this time General Wool was in
command of the United States troops, and Commodore Farragut
had charge of the navy yard." General Wool was applied to for
arms, and Commodore Farragut was asked to station a vessel of
war at anchor off San Francisco. Both officers declined to act
as requested, having no authority to do so. "When Governor
Johnson returned to Sacramento, a writ was issued, at his
request, by Judge Terry of the supreme court, commanding the
sheriff of San Francisco to bring before him one William
Mulligan, who was then in the hands of the vigilance
committee." The vigilance committee refused to surrender their
prisoner to the sheriff, and General Sherman was ordered to
call out the militia of his division to support that officer.
At the same time the governor issued a proclamation declaring
the city of San Francisco in a state or insurrection. General
Sherman found it impossible to arm his militia for service,
and resigned the command. The governor sought and obtained
arms elsewhere; but the schooner which brought them was seized
and the arms possessed by the committee. On attempting to
arrest the person who had charge of the schooner, one of the
vigilance committee's policemen, named Hopkins, was stabbed by
the afterwards notorious Judge Terry, who, with some others,
had undertaken to protect the man. "The signal for a general
meeting under arms was sounded, and in a short time 1,500 men
were reported ready for duty. In an hour 4,000 men were under
arms and prepared to act against the so-caned law-and-order
party, who were collected in force at the different armories.
These armories were surrounded." Judge Terry was demanded and
delivered up, and all the arms and ammunition in the armories
were removed. "In this way was settled the question of power
between the vigilance committee, who wished to restore order
and were working to establish an honest judiciary and a pure
ballot, and their opponents, the law-and-order party, who
wished to uphold the dignity of the law by means of a
butcher's knife in the hands of a judge of the supreme court.
Although the committee were masters in San Francisco, their
position was made more precarious by the very fact of their
having disarmed their opponents. The attention of the whole
Union was attracted to the state of things in California, and
it was rumored that instructions had been sent from Washington
to all the United States vessels in the Pacific to proceed at
once to San Francisco; and that orders were on the way,
placing the United States military force in California at the
disposal of Governor Johnson. The committee went on steadily
with their work. ... All the important changes which they had
undertaken had been carried out successfully, and they would
gladly have given up the responsibility they had assumed had
it not been for the case of Judge Terry. ... At last the
physicians announced that Hopkins was out of danger, and on
the 7th of August Judge Terry was released. ... Having got rid
of Judge Terry the committee prepared to bring their labours to a
close, and on the 18th of August the whole association,
numbering over 5,000 men, after marching through the principal
streets of San Francisco, returned to their headquarters in
Sacramento Street, where after delivering up their arms they
were relieved from duty. ... In the following November there
was an election of city and county officers. Every thing went
off very quietly. A 'people's ticket', bearing the names of
thoroughly trustworthy citizens, irrespective of party, was
elected by a large majority, and for the last 20 years San
Francisco has had the reputation of being one of the best
governed cities in the United States."

_T. G. Cary, The San Francisco Vigilance Committee
(Atlantic Monthly, Dec. 1877)._

ALSO IN:
_H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States,
volume 18 (California, volume 6), chapter 25._

_Gen. W. T. Sherman, Memoirs, chapter 4 (volume 1)._

{352}

CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1877-1880.
Denis Kearney and the Sand Lot Party.
The new state constitution.

"Late in 1877 a meeting was called in San Francisco to express
sympathy with the men then on strike at Pittsburg in
Pennsylvania. ... Some strong language used at this meeting,
and exaggerated by the newspapers, frightened the business men
into forming a sort of committee of public safety. ... The
chief result of the incident was further irritation of the
poorer classes, who perceived that the rich were afraid of
them, and therefore disposed to deal harshly with them.
Shortly after came an election of municipal officers and
members of the State legislature. The contest, as is the
custom in America, brought into life a number of clubs and
other organizations, purporting to represent various parties
or sections of a party, and among others a body calling
itself' 'The Working men's Trade and Labor Union,' the
Secretary of which was a certain Denis Kearney. When the
election was over, Kearney declared that he would keep his
union going, and form a working man's party. He was a drayman
by trade, Irish by birth, brought up a Roman Catholic, but
accustomed to include his religion among the established
institutions he reviled. He had borne a good character for
industry and steadiness till some friend 'put him into
stocks,' and the loss of what he hoped to gain is said to have
first turned him to agitation. He had gained some faculty in
speaking by practice at a Sunday debating club called the
Lyceum of Self Culture. ... Kearney's tongue, loud and
abusive, soon gathered an audience. On the west side of San
Francisco, as you cross the peninsula from the harbor towards
the ocean, there is (or then was) a large open space, laid out
for building, but not yet built on, covered with sand, and
hence called the Sand Lot. Here the mob had been wont to
gather for meetings; here Kearney formed his party. At first
he had merely vagabonds to listen, but one of the two great
newspapers took him up. These two, the Chronicle and the
Morning Call, were in keen rivalry, and the former seeing in
this new movement a chance of going ahead, filling its columns
with sensational matter and increasing its sale among working
men, went in hot and strong for the Sand Lot party. ... The
advertisement which the Chronicle gave him by its reports and
articles, and which he repaid by advising working men to take
it, soon made him a personage; and his position was finally
assured by his being, along with several other speakers,
arrested and prosecuted on a charge of riot, in respect of
inflammatory speeches delivered at a meeting on 'the top of
Nob Hill, one of the steep heights which make San Francisco
the most picturesque of American cities. The prosecution
failed, and Kearney was a popular hero. Clerks and the better
class of citizens now began to attend his meetings, though
many went from mere curiosity, as they would have gone to a
circus; the W. P. C. (Working man's Party of California) was
organized as a regular party, embracing the whole State of
California, with Kearney for its President. ... The Sand Lot
party drew its support chiefly from the Democrats, who here,
as in the East, have the larger share of the rabble: hence its
rise was not unwelcome to the Republicans, because it promised
to divide and weaken their old opponents; while the Democrats,
hoping ultimately to capture it, gave a feeble resistance. Thus
it grew the faster, and soon began to run a ticket of its own
at city and State elections. It carried most of the city
offices, and when the question was submitted to the people
whether a new Constitution should be framed for California, it
threw its vote in favor of having one and prevailed. ... Next
came, in the summer of 1878, the choice of delegates to the
convention which was to frame the new Constitution. The
Working man's Party obtained a substantial representation in
the convention, but its nominees were ignorant men, without
experience or constructive ideas. ... However; the working
men's delegates, together with the more numerous and less
corruptible delegates of the farmers, got their way in many
things and produced that surprising instrument by which
California is now governed. ...

1. It restricts and limits in every possible way the powers of
the State legislature, leaving it little authority except to
carry out by statutes the provisions of the Constitution. It
makes 'lobbying,' i. e., the attempt to corrupt a legislator,
and the corrupt action of a legislator, felony.

2. It forbids the State legislature or local authorities to
incur debts beyond a certain limit, taxes uncultivated land
equally with cultivated, makes sums due on mortgage taxable in
the district where the mortgaged property lies, authorizes an
income tax, and directs a highly inquisitorial scrutiny of
everybody's property for the purposes of taxation.

3. It forbids the 'watering of stock,' declares that the State
has power to prevent corporations from conducting their
business so as to 'infringe the general well-being of the
State'; directs the charges of telegraph and gas companies,
and of water-supplying bodies, to be regulated and limited by
law; institutes a railroad commission with power to fix the
transportation rates on all railroads and examine the books
and accounts of all transportation companies.

4. It forbids all corporations to employ any Chinese, debars
them from the suffrage, forbids their employment on any public
works, annuls all contracts for 'coolie labour,' directs the
legislature to provide for the punishment of any company which
shall import Chinese, to impose conditions on the residence of
Chinese, and to cause their removal if they fail to observe
these conditions. It also declares that eight hours shall
constitute a legal day's work on all public works. When the
Constitution came to be submitted to the vote of the people,
in May 1879, it was vehemently opposed by the monied men. ...
{353}
The struggle was severe, but the Granger party commanded so
many rural votes, and the Sand Lot party so many in San
Francisco (whose population is nearly a third of that of the
entire State) that the Constitution was carried, though by a
small majority, only 11,000 out of a total of 145,000 citizens
voting. ... The next thing was to choose a legislature to
carry out the Constitution. Had the same influences prevailed
in this election as prevailed in that of the Constitutional
Convention, the results might have been serious. But
fortunately there was a slight reaction. ... A series of
statutes was passed which gave effect to the provisions of the
Constitution in a form perhaps as little harmful as could be
contrived, and certainly less harmful than had been feared
when the Constitution was put to the vote. Many bad bills,
particularly those aimed at the Chinese, were defeated, and
one may say generally that the expectations of the Sand Lot
men were grievously disappointed. While all this was passing,
Kearney had more and more declined in fame and power. He did
not sit either in the Constitutional Convention or in the
legislature of 1880. The mob had tired of his harangues,
especially as little seemed to come of them, and as the
candidates of the W. P. C. had behaved no better in office
than those of the old parties. He had quarreled with the
Chronicle. He was, moreover, quite unfitted by knowledge or
training to argue the legal, economical, and political
questions involved in the new Constitution so that the
prominence of these questions threw him into the background.
... Since 1880 he has played no part in Californian politics,
and is indeed so insignificant that no one cares to know where
he goes or what he does."

_J. Bryce, The American Commonwealth, chapter 90 (volume 2),
and appendix to volume 1 (containing the text of the
Constitution of California)._

----------CALIFORNIA: End----------

CALIGULA.

See CAIUS.

CALIPH, The Title.

The title Caliph, or Khalifa, simply signifies in the Arabic
language "Successor." The Caliphs were the successors of
Mahomet.

CALIPHATE, The.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST.

CALIPHS,
The Turkish Sultan becomes successor to the.

See BAGDAD: A. D. 1258.

CALISCH, OR KALISCH, Treaty of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813.

CALIXTINES, The.

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434.

CALLAO: Siege, 1825-1826.

See PERU: A. D. 1820-1826.

CALLAO: A. D. 1866.
Repulse of the Spanish fleet.

See PERU: A. D. 1826-1876.

CALLEVA.

One of the greater towns of Roman Britain, the walls of which,
found at Silchester enclose an area of three miles in circuit.

_T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5._

CALLIAS, Peace of.

See ATHENS: B. C. 460-449.

CALLINICUS, Battle of.

Fought in the wars of the Romans with the Persians, on the
banks of the Euphrates, Easter Eve. A. D. 531. The Romans,
commanded by Belisarius, suffered an apparent defeat, but they
checked an intended advance of the Persians on Antioch.

_G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, chapter 19._

CALLISTUS II., Pope, A. D. 1119-1124.
Callistus III., Pope, A. D. 1455-1458.