Chapter XVII: Front Matter (17)

"The trade of the Plate River had enormously increased since
the substitution of register ships for the annual flotilla,
and the erection of Buenos Ayres into a viceroyalty in 1778;
but it was not until the war of 1797 that the English became
aware of its real extent. The British cruisers had enough to
do to maintain the blockade: and when the English learned that
millions of hides were rotting in the warehouses of Monte
Video and Buenos Ayres, they concluded that the people would
soon see that their interests would be best served by
submission to the great naval power. The peace put an end to
these ideas; but Pitt's favourite project for destroying
Spanish influence in South America by the English arms was
revived and put in execution soon after the opening of the
second European war in 1803. In 1806 ... he sent a squadron to
the Plate River, which offered the best point of attack to the
British fleet, and the road to the most promising of the
Spanish colonies. The English, under General Beresford, though
few in number, soon took Buenos Ayres, for the Spaniards,
terrified at the sight of British troops, surrendered without
knowing how insignificant the invading force really was. When
they found this out, they mustered courage to attack Beresford
in the citadel; and the English commander was obliged to
evacuate the place. The English soon afterwards took
possession of Monte Video, on the other side of the river.
Here they were joined by another squadron, who were under
orders, after reducing Buenos Ayres, to sail round the Horn,
to take Valparaiso, and establish posts across the continent
connecting that city with Buenos Ayres, thus executing the
long-cherished plan of Lord Anson. Buenos Ayres was therefore
invested a second time. But the English land forces were too
few for their task. The Spaniards spread all round the city
strong breastworks of ox hides, and collected all their forces
for its defence. Buenos Ayres was stormed by the English at
two points on the 5th of July, 1807; but they were unable to
hold their ground against the unceasing fire of the Spaniards,
who were greatly superior in numbers, and the next day they
capitulated, and agreed to evacuate the province within two
months.
{127}
The English had imagined that the colonists would readily
flock to their standard, and throw off the yoke of Spain. This
was a great mistake; and it needed the events of 1808 to lead
the Spanish colonists to their independence. ... In 1810, when
it came to be known that the French armies had crossed the
Sierra Morena, and that Spain was a conquered country, the
colonists would no longer submit to the shadowy authority of
the colonial officers, and elected a junta of their own to
carry on the Government. Most of the troops in the colony went
over to the cause of independence, and easily overcame the
feeble resistance that was made by those who remained faithful
to the regency in the engagement of Las Piedras. The leaders
of the revolution were the advocate Castelli and General
Belgrano; and under their guidance scarcely any obstacle
stopped its progress. They even sent their armies at once into
Upper Peru and the Banda Oriental, and their privateers
carried the Independent flag to the coasts of the Pacific; but
these successes were accompanied by a total anarchy in the
Argentine capital and provinces. The most intelligent and
capable men had gone off to fight for liberty elsewhere; and
even if they had remained it would have been no easy task to
establish a new government over the scattered and
half-civilized population of this vast country. ... The first
result of independence was the formation of a not very
intelligent party of country proprietors, who knew nothing of
the mysteries of politics, and were not ill-content with the
existing order of things. The business of the old viceroyal
government was delegated to a supreme Director; but this
functionary was little more than titular. How limited the
aspirations of the Argentines at first were may be gathered
from the instructions with which Belgrano and Rivadavia were
sent to Europe in 1814. They were to go to England, and ask
for an English protectorate; if possible under an English
prince. They were next to try the same plan in France,
Austria, and Russia, and lastly in Spain itself: and if Spain
still refused, were to offer to renew the subjection of the
colony, on condition of certain specified concessions being
made. This was indeed a strange contrast to the lofty
aspirations of the Colombians. On arriving at Rio, the
Argentine delegates were assured by the English minister, Lord
Strangford, that, as things were, no European power would do
anything for them: nor did they succeed better in Spain
itself. Meanwhile the government of the Buenos Ayres junta was
powerless outside the town, and the country was fast lapsing
into the utmost disorder and confusion. At length, when
Government could hardly be said to exist at all, a general
congress of the provinces of the Plate River assembled at
Tucuman in 1816. It was resolved that all the states should
unite in a confederation to be called the United Provinces of
the Plate River: and a constitution was elaborated, in
imitation of the famous one of the United States, providing
for two legislative chambers and a president. ... The
influence of the capital, of which all the other provinces
were keenly jealous, predominated in the congress; and
Puyrredon, an active Buenos Ayres politician, was made supreme
Director of the Confederation. The people of Buenos Ayres
thought their city destined to exercise over the rural
provinces a similar influence to that which Athens, under
similar circumstances, had exercised in Greece; and able
Buenos Ayreans like Puyrredon, San Martin, and Rivadavia, now
became the leaders of the unitary party. The powerful
provincials, represented by such men as Lopez and Quiroga,
soon found out that the Federal scheme meant the supremacy of
Buenos Ayres, and a political change which would deprive them
of most of their influence. The Federal system, therefore,
could not be expected to last very long; and it did in fact
collapse after four years. Artigas led the revolt in the Banda
Oriental [now Uruguay], and the Riverene Provinces soon
followed the example. For a long time the provinces were
practically under the authority of their local chiefs, the
only semblance of political life being confined to Buenos
Ayres itself."

_E. J. Payne, History of European Colonies, chapter 17._

ALSO IN:
_M. G. Mulhall, The English in South America, chapter 10-13,
and 16-18._

_J. Miller, Memoirs of General Miller, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

_T. J. Page, La Plata, the Argentine Confederation and
Paraguay, chapter 31._

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1819-1874.
Anarchy, civil war, despotism.
The long struggle for order and Confederation.

"A new Congress met in 1819 and made a Constitution for the
country, which was never adopted by all the Provinces.
Pueyrredon resigned, and on June 10th, 1819, José Rondeau was
elected, who, however, was in no condition to pacify the civil
war which had broken out during the government of his
predecessors. At the commencement of 1830, the last 'Director
General' was overthrown; the municipality of the city of
Buenos-Aires seized the government; the Confederation was
declared dissolved, and each of its Provinces received liberty
to organize itself as it pleased. This was anarchy officially
proclaimed. After the fall in the same year of some military
chiefs who had seized the power, Gen. Martin Rodriguez was
named Governor of Buenos-Aires, and he succeeded in
establishing some little order in this chaos. He chose M. J.
Garcia and Bernardo Rivadavia--one of the most enlightened
Argentines of his times--as his Ministers. This
administration did a great deal of good by exchanging
conventions of friendship and commerce, and entering into
diplomatic relations with foreign nations. At the end of his
term General Las Heras--9th May, 1824--took charge of the
government, and called a Constituent Assembly of all the
Provinces, which met at Buenos-Aires, December 16th, and
elected Bernardo Rivadavia President of the newly Confederated
Republic on the 7th February, 1825. This excellent Argentine,
however, found no assistance in the Congress. No understanding
could be come to on the form or the test of the Constitution, nor
yet upon the place of residence for the national Government.
Whilst Rivadavia desired a centralized Constitution--called
here 'unintarian'--and that the city of Buenos-Aires should be
declared capital of the Republic, the majority of Congress
held a different opinion, and this divergence caused the
resignation of the President on the 5th July, 1827. After this
event, the attempt to establish a Confederation which would
include all the Provinces was considered as defeated, and each
Province went on its own way, whilst Buenos-Aires elected
Manuel Dorrego, the chief of the federal party, for its
Governor.
{128}
He was inaugurated on the 13th August, 1827, and at once
undertook to organize a new Confederation of the Provinces,
opening relations to this end with the Government of Cordoba,
the most important Province of the interior. He succeeded in
reëstablishing repose in the interior, and was instrumental in
preserving a general peace, even beyond the limits of his
young country. The Emperor of Brazil did not wish to
acknowledge the rights of the United Provinces over the
Cisplatine province, or Banda Oriental [now Uruguay]. He
wished to annex it to his empire, and declared war to the
Argentine Republic on the 10th of December, 1826. An army was
soon organized by the latter, under the command of General
Alvear, which on the 20th of February, 1827, gained a complete
victory over the Brazilian forces--twice their number--at the
plains of Ituzaingó, in the Brazilian province of Rio Grande
do Sul. The navy of the Argentines also triumphed on several
occasions, so that when England offered her intervention,
Brazil renounced all claim to the territory of Uruguay by the
convention of the 27th August, 1828, and the two parties
agreed to recognize and to maintain the neutrality and
independence of that country. Dorrego, however, had but few
sympathies in the army, and a short time after his return from
Brazil, the soldiers under Lavalle rebelled and forced him to
fly to the country on the 1st December of the same year. There
he found aid from the Commander General of the country
districts, Juan Manuel Rosas, and formed a small battalion
with the intention of marching on the city of Buenos-Aires.
But Lavalle triumphed, took him prisoner, and shot him without
trial on the 13th December. ... Not only did the whole
interior of the province of Buenos-Aires rise against Lavalle,
under the direction of Rosas, but also a large part of other
Provinces considered this event as a declaration of war, and
the National Congress, then assembled at Santa-Fé, declared
Lavalle's government illegal. The two parties fought with real
fury, but in 1829, after an interview between Rosas and
Lavalle, a temporary reconciliation was effected. ... The
legislature of Buenos-Aires, which had been convoked on
account of the reconciliation between Lavalle and Rosas,
elected the latter as Governor of the Province, on December
6th, 1829, and accorded to him extraordinary powers. ...
During this the first period of his government he did not
appear in his true nature, and at its conclusion he refused a
re-election and retired to the country. General Juan R.
Balcarce was then--17th December, 1832--named Governor, but
could only maintain himself some eleven months: Viamont
succeeded him, also for a short time only. Now the moment had
come for Rosas. He accepted the almost unlimited Dictatorship
which was offered to him on the 7th March, 1835, and reigned
in a horrible manner, like a madman, until his fall. Several
times the attempt was made to deliver Buenos-Aires from his
terrible yoke, and above all the devoted and valiant efforts
of General Lavalle deserve to be mentioned; but all was in
vain; Rosas remained unshaken. Finally, General Justo José De
Urquiza, Governor of the province of Entre-Rios, in alliance
with the province of Corrientes and the Empire of Brazil, rose
against the Dictator. He first delivered the Republic of
Uruguay, and the city of Monte Video--the asylum of the
adversaries of Rosas--from the army which besieged it, and
thereafter passing the great river Parana, with a relatively
large army, he completely defeated Rosas at Monte-Caseros,
near Buenos-Aires, on the 3rd February, 1852. During the same
day, Rosas sought and received the protection of an English
war-vessel which was in the road of Buenos-Aires, in which he
went to England, where he still [1876] resides. Meantime
Urquiza took charge of the Government of the United Provinces,
under the title of 'Provisional Director,' and called a
general meeting of the Governors at San Nicolás, a frontier
village on the north of the province of Buenos-Aires. This
assemblage confirmed him in his temporary power, and called a
National Congress which met at Santa-Fé and made a National
Constitution under date of 25th May, 1853. By virtue of this
Constitution the Congress met again the following year at
Parana, a city of Entre-Rios, which had been made the capital,
and on the 5th May, elected General Urquiza the first
President of the Argentine Confederation. ... The important
province of Buenos-Aires, however, had taken no part in the
deliberations of the Congress. Previously, on the 11th
September 1852, a revolution against Urquiza, or rather
against the Provincial Government in alliance with him, had
taken place and caused a temporary separation of the Province
from the Republic. Several efforts to pacify the disputes
utterly failed, and a battle took place at Cepeda in Santa-Fé,
wherein Urquiza, who commanded the provincial troops, was
victorious, although his success led to no definite result. A
short time after, the two armies met again at Pavon--near the
site of the former battle--and Buenos-Aires won the day. This
secured the unity of the Republic of which the victorious
General Bartolomé Mitre was elected President for six years
from October, 1862. At the same time the National Government
was transferred from Paraná to Buenos-Aires, and the latter
was declared the temporary capital of the Nation. The Republic
owes much to the Government of Mitre, and it is probable that
he would have done more good, if war had not broken out with
Paraguay, in 1865 [see PARAGUAY]. The Argentines took part in
it as one of the three allied States against the Dictator of
Paraguay, Francisco Solano Lopez. On the 12th October, 1868,
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento succeeded Gen. Mitre in the
Presidency. ... The 12th October, 1874, Dr. Nicolas Avellaneda
succeeded him in the Government."

_R. Napp, The Argentine Republic, chapter 2._

ALSO IN:
_D. F. Sarmiento, Life in the Argentine Republic in the
Days of the Tyrants._

_J. A. King, Twenty-four years in the Argentine
Republic._

{129}

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1880-1891.
The Constitution and its working.
Governmental corruption.
The Revolution of 1890, and the financial collapse.

"The Argentine constitutional system in its outward form
corresponds closely to that of the United States. ... But the
inward grace of enlightened public opinion is lacking, and
political practice falls below the level of a self-governing
democracy. Congress enacts laws, but the President as
commander-in-chief of the army, and as the head of a civil
service dependent upon his will and caprice, possesses
absolute authority in administration. The country is governed
by executive decrees rather than by constitutional laws.
Elections are carried by military pressure and manipulation of
the civil service. ... President Roca [who succeeded
Avellaneda in 1880] virtually nominated, and elected his
brother-in-law, Juarez Célman, as his successor. President
Juarez set his heart upon controlling the succession in the
interest of one of his relatives, a prominent official; but
was forced to retire before he could carry out his purpose.
... Nothing in the Argentine surprised me more than the
boldness and freedom with which the press attacked the
government of the day and exposed its corruption. ... The
government paid no heed to these attacks. Ministers did not
trouble themselves to repel charges affecting their integrity.
... This wholesome criticism from an independent press had one
important effect. It gave direction to public opinion in the
capital, and involved the organization of the Unión Cívica. If
the country had not been on the verge of a financial
revulsion, there might not have been the revolt against the
Juarez administration in July, 1890; but with ruin and
disaster confronting them, men turned against the President
whose incompetence and venality would have been condoned if
the times had been good. The Unión Cívica was founded when the
government was charged with maladministration in sanctioning
an illegal issue of $40,000,000 of paper money. ... The
government was suddenly confronted with an armed coalition of
the best battalions of the army, the entire navy, and the Unión
Cívica. The manifesto issued by the Revolutionary Junta was a
terrible arraignment of the political crimes of the Juarez
Government. ... The revolution opened with every prospect of
success. It failed from the incapacity of the leaders to
co-operate harmoniously. On July 19, 1890, the defection of
the army was discovered. On July 26 the revolt broke out. For
four days there was bloodshed without definite plan or
purpose. No determined attack was made upon the government
palace. The fleet opened a fantastic bombardment upon the
suburbs. There was inexplicable mismanagement of the insurgent
forces, and on July 29 an ignominious surrender to the
government with a proclamation of general amnesty. General
Roca remained behind the scenes, apparently master of the
situation, while President Juarez had fled to a place of
refuge on the Rosario railway, and two factions of the army
were playing at cross purposes, and the police and the
volunteers of the Unión Cívica were shooting women and
children in the streets. Another week of hopeless confusion
passed, and General Roca announced the resignation of
President Juarez and the succession of vice-President
Pellegrini. Then the city was illuminated, and for three days
there was a pandemonium of popular rejoicing over a victory
which nobody except General Roca understood. ... In June,
1891, the deplorable state of Argentine finance was revealed
in a luminous statement made by President Pellegrini. ... All
business interests were stagnant. Immigration had been
diverted to Brazil. ... All industries were prostrated except
politics, and the pernicious activity displayed by factions
was an evil augury for the return of prosperity. ... During
thirty years the country has trebled its population, its
increase being relatively much more rapid than that of the
United States during the same period. The estimate of the
present population [1892] is 4,000,000 in place of 1,160,000
in 1857. ... Disastrous as the results of political government
and financial disorder have been in the Argentine, its
ultimate recovery by slow stages is probable. It has a
magnificent railway system, an industrious working population
recruited from Europe, and nearly all the material appliances
for progress."

_I. N. Ford. Tropical America, chapter 6._

See CONSTITUTION, ARGENTINE.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1892.
Presidential Election.

Dr. Luis Saenz-Pena, former Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court, and reputed to be a man of great integrity and ability,
was chosen President, and inaugurated October 12, 1892.

----------ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: End----------

ARGINUSAE, Battle of.

See GREECE: B. C. 406.

ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, The.

"The ship Argo was the theme of many songs during the oldest
periods of the Grecian Epic, even earlier than the Odyssey.
The king Æêtês, from whom she is departing, the hero Jason,
who commands her, and the goddess Hêrê, who watches over him,
enabling the Argo to traverse distances and to escape dangers
which no ship had ever before encountered, are all
circumstances briefly glanced at by Odysseus in his narrative
to Alkinous. ... Jason, commanded by Pelias to depart in quest
of the golden fleece belonging to the speaking ram which had
carried away Phryxus and Hellé, was encouraged by the oracle
to invite the noblest youth of Greece to his aid, and fifty of
the most distinguished amongst them obeyed the call. Hêraklês,
Thêseus, Telamôn and Pêleus, Kastor and Pollux, Idas and
Lynkeus--Zêtês and Kalaïs, the winged sons of
Boreas--Meleager, Amphiaraus, Kêpheus, Laertês, Autolykus,
Menœtius, Aktor, Erginus, Euphêmus, Ankæus, Pœas,
Periklymenus, Augeas, Eurytus, Admêtus, Akastus, Kæneus,
Euryalus, Pêneleôs and Lêitus, Askalaphus and Ialmenus, were
among them. ... Since so many able men have treated it as an
undisputed reality, and even made it the pivot of systematic
chronological calculations, I may here repeat the opinion long
ago expressed by Heyne, and even indicated by Burmann, that
the process of dissecting the story, in search of a basis of
fact, is one altogether fruitless."

_G. Grote, History of Greece, volume 1, part 1, chapter 13._

"In the rich cluster of myths which surround the captain of
the Argo and his fellows are preserved to us the whole life
and doings of the Greek maritime tribes, which gradually
united all the coasts with one another, and attracted Hellenes
dwelling in the most different seats into the sphere of their
activity. ... The Argo was said to have weighed anchor from a
variety of ports--from Iplcus in Thessaly, from Anthedon and
Siphæ in Bœotia: the home of Jason himself was on Mount Pelion
by the sea, and again on Lemnos and in Corinth; a clear proof
of how homogeneous were the influences running on various
coasts. However, the myths of the Argo were developed in the
greatest completeness on the Pagasean gulf, in the seats of
the Minyi; and they are the first with whom a perceptible
movement of the Pelasgian tribes beyond the sea--in other
words, a Greek history in Europe--begins."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 2-3._

{130}

ARGOS.--ARGOLIS.--ARGIVES.

"No district of Greece contains so dense a succession of
powerful citadels in a narrow space as Argolis [the eastern
peninsular projection of the Peloponnesus]. Lofty Larissa,
apparently designed by nature as the centre of the district,
is succeeded by Mycenæ, deep in the recess of the land; at the
foot of the mountain lies Midea, at the brink of the sea-coast
Tiryns; and lastly, at a farther distance of half an hour's
march, Nauplia, with its harbour. This succession of ancient
fastnesses, whose indestructible structure of stone we admire
to this day [see Schliemann's 'Mycenæ' and 'Tiryns'] is clear
evidence of mighty conflicts which agitated the earliest days
of Argos; and proves that in this one plain of Inachus several
principalities must have arisen by the side of one another,
each putting its confidence in the walls of its citadel; some,
according to their position, maintaining an intercourse with
other lands by sea, others rather a connection with the inland
country. The evidence preserved by these monuments is borne
out by that of the myths, according to which the dominion of
Danaus is divided among his successors. Exiled Prœtus is
brought home to Argos by Lycian bands, with whose help he
builds the coast-fortress of Tiryns, where he holds sway as
the first and mightiest in the land. ... The other line of the
Danaidæ is also intimately connected with Lycia; for Perseus.
... [who] on his return from the East founds Mycenæ, as the
new regal seat of the united kingdom of Argos, is himself
essentially a Lycian hero of light, belonging to the religion
of Apollo. ... Finally, Heracles himself is connected with the
family of the Perseidæ, as a prince born on the Tirynthian
fastness. ... During these divisions in the house of Danaus,
and the misfortunes befalling that of Prœtus, foreign families
acquire influence and dominion in Argos: these are of the race
of Æolus, and originally belong to the harbour-country of the
western coast of Peloponnesus--the Amythaonidæ. ... While the
dominion of the Argive land was thus sub-divided, and the
native warrior nobility subsequently exhausted itself in
savage internal feuds, a new royal house succeeded in grasping
the supreme power and giving an entirely new importance to the
country. This house was that of the Tantalidæ [or PELOPIDS,
which see], united with the forces of Achæan population. ...
The residue of fact is, that the ancient dynasty, connected by
descent with Lycia, was overthrown by the house which derived
its origin from Lydia. ... The poetic myths, abhorring long
rows of names, mention three princes as ruling here in
succession, one leaving the sceptre of Pelops to the other,
viz., Atreus, Thyestes and Agamemnon. Mycenæ is the chief seat
of their rule, which is not restricted to the district of
Argos."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 3._

After the Doric invasion of the Peloponnesus (see GREECE: THE
MIGRATIONS; also, DORIANS AND IONIANS), Argos appears in Greek
history as a Doric state, originally the foremost one in power
and influence, but humiliated after long years of rivalry by
her Spartan neighbours. "Argos never forgot that she had once
been the chief power in the peninsula, and her feeling towards
Sparta was that of a jealous but impotent competitor. By what
steps the decline of her power had taken place, we are unable
to make out, nor can we trace the succession of her kings
subsequent to Pheidon [8th century B. C.]. ... The title [of
king] existed (though probably with very limited functions) at
the time of the Persian War [B. C. 490-479]. ... There is some
ground for presuming that the king of Argos was even at that
time a Herakleid--since the Spartans offered to him a third
part of the command of the Hellenic force, conjointly with
their own two kings. The conquest of Thyreates by the Spartans
[about 547 B. C.] deprived the Argeians of a valuable portion
of their Periœkis, or dependent territory. But Orneæ and the
remaining portion of Kynuria still continued to belong to
them: the plain round their city was very productive; and,
except Sparta, there was no other power in Peloponnesus
superior to them. Mykenæ and Tiryns, nevertheless, seem both
to have been independent states at the time of the Persian
War, since both sent contingents to the battle of Platæa, at a
time when Argos held aloof and rather favoured the Persians."

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 8 (volume 2)._

ARGOS: B. C. 496-421.
Calamitous War with Sparta.
Non-action in the Persian War.
Slow recovery of the crippled State.

"One of the heaviest blows which Argos ever sustained at the
hand of her traditional foe befell her about 496 B. C., six
years before the first Persian invasion of Greece. A war with
Sparta having broken out, Cleomenes, the Lacedæmonian king,
succeeded in landing a large army, in vessels he had extorted
from the Æginetans, at Nauplia, and ravaged the Argive
territory. The Argeians mustered all their forces to resist
him, and the two armies encamp cd opposite each other near
Tiryns. Cleomenes, however, contrived to attack the Argeians
at a moment when they were unprepared, making use, if
Herodotus is to be credited, of a stratagem which proves the
extreme incapacity of the opposing generals, and completely
routed them. The Argeians took refuge in a sacred grove, to
which the remorseless Spartans set fire, and so destroyed
almost the whole of them. No fewer than 6,000 of the citizens
of Argos perished on this disastrous day. Cleomenes might have
captured the city itself; but he was, or affected to be,
hindered by unfavourable omens, and drew off his troops. The
loss sustained by Argos was so severe as to reduce her for
some years to a condition of great weakness; but this was at
the time a fortunate circumstance for the Hellenic cause,
inasmuch as it enabled the Lacedæmonians to devote their whole
energies to the work of resistance to the Persian invasion
without fear of enemies at home. In this great work Argos took
no part, on the occasion of either the first or second attempt
of the Persian kings to bring Hellas under their dominion.
Indeed, the city was strongly suspected of 'medising'
tendencies. In the period following the final overthrow of the
Persians, while Athens was pursuing the splendid career of
aggrandisement and conquest that made her the foremost state
in Greece, and while the Lacedæmonians were paralyzed by the
revolt of the Messenians, Argos regained strength and
influence, which she at once employed and increased by the
harsh policy ... of depopulating Mycenæ and Tiryns, while she
compelled several other semi-independent places in the Argolid
to acknowledge her supremacy. During the first eleven years of
the Peloponnesian war, down to the peace of Nicias (421 B.
C.), Argos held aloof from all participation in the struggle,
adding to her wealth and perfecting her military organization.
As to her domestic conditions and political system, little is
known; but it is certain that the government, unlike that of
other Dorian states, was democratic in its character, though
there was in the city a strong oligarchic and philo-Laconian
party, which was destined to exercise a decisive influence at
an important crisis."

_C. H. Hanson, The Land of Greece, chapter 10._

ALSO IN:
_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 36 (volume 4)._

{131}

ARGOS: B. C. 421-418.
League formed against Sparta.
Outbreak of War.
Defeat at Mantinea.
Revolution in the Oligarchical and Spartan interest.

See GREECE: B. C. 421-418.

ARGOS: B. C. 395-387.
Confederacy against Sparta.
The Corinthian War.
Peace of Antalcidas.

See GREECE: B. C. 399-387.

ARGOS: B. C. 371.
Mob outbreak and massacre of chief citizens.

See GREECE: B. C. 371-362.

ARGOS: B. C. 338.
Territories restored by Philip of Macedon.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

ARGOS: B. C. 271.
Repulse and death of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 277-244.

ARGOS: B. C. 229.
Liberated from Macedonian control.

See GREECE: B. C. 280-146.

ARGOS: A. D. 267.--Ravaged by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

ARGOS: A. D. 395.--Plundered by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 395.

ARGOS: A. D. 1463.
Taken by the Turks, retaken by the Venetians.

See GREECE: A. D. 1454-1479.

ARGOS: A. D. 1686.--Taken by the Venetians.

See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.

----------ARGOS: End----------

ARGYRASPIDES, The.

"He [Alexander the Great] then marched into India, that he
might have his empire bounded by the ocean, and the extreme
parts of the East. That the equipments of his army might be
suitable to the glory of the Expedition, he mounted the
trappings of the horses and the arms of the soldiers with
silver, and called a body of his men, from having silver
shields, Argyraspides."

_Justin, History (translated by J. S. Watson),
book 12, chapter 7._

ALSO IN:
_C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 58._

See, also, MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316.

ARGYRE.

See CHRYSE.

ARIA.--AREIOS.--AREIANS.

The name by which the Herirud and its valley, the district of
modern Herat, was known to the ancient Greeks. Its inhabitants
were known as the Areians.

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 7, chapter 1._

ARIANA.

"Strabo uses the name Ariana for the land of all the nations
of Iran, except that of the Medes and Persians, i. e., for the
whole eastern half of Iran."--Afghanistan and Beloochistan.

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity,
volume 5, book 7, chapter 1._

ARIANISM.--ARIANS.

From the second century of its existence, the Christian church
was divided by bitter controversies touching the mystery of
the Trinity. "The word Trinity is found neither in the Holy
Scriptures nor in the writings of the first Christians; but it
had been employed from the beginning of the second century,
when a more metaphysical turn had been given to the minds of
men, and theologians had begun to attempt to explain the
divine nature. ... The Founder of the new religion, the Being
who had brought upon earth a divine light, was he God, was he
man, was he of an intermediate nature, and, though superior to
all other created beings, yet himself created? This latter
opinion was held by Arius, an Alexandrian priest, who
maintained it in a series of learned controversial works
between the years 318 and 325. As soon as the discussion had
quitted the walls of the schools, and been taken up by the
people, mutual accusations of the gravest kind took the place
of metaphysical subtleties. The orthodox party reproached the
Arians with blaspheming the deity himself, by refusing to
acknowledge him in the person of Christ. The Arians accused
the orthodox of violating the fundamental law of religion; by
rendering to the creature the worship due only to the Creator.
... It was difficult to decide which numbered the largest body
of followers; but the ardent enthusiastic spirits, the
populace in all the great cities (and especially at
Alexandria) the women, and the newly-founded order of the
monks of the desert ... were almost without exception
partisans of the faith which has since been declared orthodox.
... Constantine thought this question of dogma might be
decided by an assembly of the whole church. In the year 325,
he convoked the council of Nice [see NICÆA, COUNCIL OF], at
which 300 bishops pronounced in favour of the equality of the
Son with the Father, or the doctrine generally regarded as
orthodox, and condemned the Arians to exile and their books to
the flames."

_J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 4._

"The victorious faction [at the Council of Nice] ... anxiously
sought for some irreconcilable mark of distinction, the
rejection of which might involve the Arians in the guilt and
consequences of heresy. A letter was publicly read and
ignominiously torn, in which their patron, Eusebius of
Nicomedia, ingeniously confessed that the admission of the
homoousion, or consubstantial, a word already familiar to the
Platonists, was incompatible with the principles of their
theological system. The fortunate opportunity was eagerly
embraced. ... The consubstantiality of the Father and the Son
was established by the Council of Nice, and has been
unanimously received as a fundamental article of the Christian
faith by the consent of the Greek, the Latin, the Oriental and
the Protestant churches." Notwithstanding the decision of the
Council of Nice against it, the heresy of Arius continued to
gain ground in the East. Even the Emperor Constantine became
friendly to it, and the sons of Constantine, with some of the
later emperors who followed them on the eastern throne, were
ardent Arians in belief. The Homoousians, or orthodox, were
subjected to persecution, which was directed with special
bitterness against their great leader, Athanasius, the famous
bishop of Alexandria. But Arianism was weakened by
hair-splitting distinctions, which resulted in many diverging
creeds. "The sect which asserted the doctrine of a 'similar
substance' was the most numerous, at least in the provinces of
Asia. ... The Greek word which was chosen to express this
mysterious resemblance bears so close an affinity to the
orthodox symbol, that the profane of every age have derided
the furious contests which the difference of a single
diphthong excited between the Homoousians and the
Homoiousians."
{132}
The Latin churches of the West, with Rome at their head,
remained generally firm in the orthodoxy of the Homoousian
creed. But the Goths, who had received their Christianity from
the East, tinctured with Arianism, carried that heresy
westward, and spread it among their barbarian neighbors--
Vandals, Burgundians and Sueves--through the influence of the
Gothic Bible of Ulfilas, which he and his missionary
successors bore to the Teutonic peoples. "The Vandals and
Ostrogoths persevered in the profession of Arianism till the
final ruin [A. D. 533 and 553] of the kingdoms which they had
founded in Africa and Italy. The barbarians of Gaul submitted
[A. D. 507] to the orthodox dominion of the Franks: and Spain
was restored to the Catholic Church by the voluntary
conversion of the Visigoths [A. D. 589]."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapters 21 and 37.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

Theodosius formally proclaimed his adhesion to Trinitarian
orthodoxy by his celebrated edict of A. D. 380, and commanded
its acceptance in the Eastern Empire.

See ROME: A. D. 379-395.

_A. Neander, General History of Christian. Religion
and Church, translated by Torry, volume 2, section 4._

ALSO IN:
_J. Alzog, Manual of Univ. Ch. History, section 110-114._

_W. G. T. Shedd, History of Christian Doctrine, book 3._

_J. H. Newman, Arians of the Fourth Century._

_A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the History of the
Eastern Church, lectures 3-7._

_J. A. Dorner, History of the Development of the Doctrine
of the Person of Christ, division 1 (volume 2)._

See, also,
GOTHS: A. D. 341-381;
FRANKS: A. D. 481-511;
also, GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 507-509.

ARICA, Battle of (1880).

See CHILE: A. D. 1833-1884.

ARICIA, Battle of.

A victory won by the Romans over the Auruncians, B. C. 497,
which summarily ended a war that the latter had declared
against the former.

_Livy, History of Rome, book 2, chapter 26._

ARICIAN GROVE, The.

The sacred grove at Aricia (one of the towns of old Latium,
near Alba Longa) was the center and meeting-place of an early
league among the Latin peoples, about which little is known.

_W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 2, chapter 3._

_Sir. W. Gell, Topography of Rome, volume 1._

"On the northern shore of the lake [of Nemi] right under the
precipitous cliffs on which the modern village of Nemi is
perched, stood the sacred grove and sanctuary of Diana
Nemorensis, or Diana of the Wood. ... The site was excavated
in 1885 by Sir John Saville Lumley, English ambassador at
Rome. For a general description of the site and excavations,
see the _Athenæum_, 10th October, 1885. For details of
the finds see _'Bulletino dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza
Archeologica,' 1885_.--The lake and the grove were
sometimes known as the lake and grove of Aricia. But the town
of Aricia (the modern La Riccia) was situated about three
miles off, at the foot of the Alban Mount. ... According to
one story, the worship of Diana at Nemi was instituted by
Orestes, who, after killing Thoas, King of the Tauric
Chersonese (the Crimea), fled with his sister to Italy,
bringing with him the image of the Tauric Diana. ... Within
the sanctuary at Nemi grew a certain tree, of which no branch
might be broken. Only a runaway slave was allowed to break
off, if he could, one of its boughs. Success in the attempt
entitled him to fight the priest in single combat, and if he
slew him he reigned in his stead with the title of King of the
Wood (Rex Nemorensis). Tradition averred that the fateful
branch was that Golden Bough which, at the Sibyl's bidding,
Æneas plucked before he essayed the perilous journey to the
world of the dead. ... This rule of succession by the sword
was observed down to imperial times; for amongst his other
freaks Caligula, thinking that the priest of Nemi had held
office too long, hired a more stalwart ruffian to slay him."

_J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, chapter 1, section 1._

ARICONIUM.
A town of Roman Britain which appears to have been the
principal mart of the iron manufacturing industry in the
Forest of Dean.

_T. Wright, The Celt, the Roman and the Saxon,
page 161._

ARII, The.

See LYGIANS.

ARIKARAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

ARIMINUM.

The Roman colony, planted in the third century B. C., which
grew into the modern city of Rimini. See ROME: B. C.
295-191.--When Cæsar entered Italy as an invader, crossing the
frontier of Cisalpine Gaul--the Rubicon--his first movement
was to occupy Ariminum. He halted there for two or three
weeks, making his preparations for the civil war which he had
now entered upon and waiting for the two legions that he had
ordered from Gaul.

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 14._

ARIOVALDUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 626-638.

ARISTEIDES, Ascendancy of.

See ATHENS: B. C. 477-462.

ARISTOCRACY.--OLIGARCHY.

"Aristocracy signifies the rule of the best men. If, however,
this epithet is referred to an absolute ideal standard of
excellence, it is manifest that an aristocratical government
is a mere abstract notion, which has nothing in history, or in
nature, to correspond to it. But if we content ourselves with
taking the same terms in a relative sense, ... aristocracy ...
will be that form of government in which the ruling few are
distinguished from the multitude by illustrious birth,
hereditary wealth, and personal merit. ... Whenever such a
change took place in the character or the relative position of
the ruling body, that it no longer commanded the respect of
its subjects, but found itself opposed to them, and compelled
to direct its measures chiefly to the preservation of its
power, it ceased to be, in the Greek sense an aristocracy; it
became a faction, an oligarchy."

_C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 10._

ARISTOMNEAN WAR.

See MESSENIAN WARS, FIRST AND SECOND.

ARIZONA: The Name.

"Arizona, probably Arizonac in its original form, was the
native and probably Pima name of the place of a hill, valley,
stream, or some other local feature--just south of the modern
boundary, in the mountains still so called, on the head waters
of the stream flowing past Saric, where the famous Planchas de
Plata mine was discovered in the middle of the 18th century,
the name being first known to Spaniards in that connection and
being applied to the mining camp or real de minas. The
aboriginal meaning of the term is not known, though from the
common occurrence in this region of the prefix 'ari,' the root
'son,' and the termination 'ac,' the derivation ought not to
escape the research of a competent student. Such guesses as
are extant, founded on the native tongues, offer only the
barest possibility of a partial and accidental accuracy; while
similar derivations from the Spanish are extremely absurd. ...
The name should properly be written and pronounced Arisona, as
our English sound of the z does not occur in Spanish."

_H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States,
volume 12, page 520._

{133}

ARIZONA:
Aboriginal Inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUEBLOS, APACHE GROUP, SHOSHONEAN
FAMILY, AND UTAHS.

ARIZONA: A. D. 1848.
Partial acquisition from Mexico.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1848.

ARIZONA: A. D. 1853.
Purchase by the United States of the southern part from Mexico.
The Gadsden Treaty.

"On December 30, 1853, James Gadsden, United States minister
to Mexico, concluded a treaty by which the boundary line was
moved southward so as to give the United States, for a
monetary consideration of $10,000,000, all of modern Arizona
south of the Gila, an effort so to fix the line as to include
a port on the gulf being unsuccessful. ... On the face of the
matter this Gadsden treaty was a tolerably satisfactory
settlement of a boundary dispute, and a purchase by the United
States of a route for a southern railroad to California."

_H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 12,
chapter 20._

----------ARIZONA: End----------

ARKANSAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1542
Entered by Hernando de Soto.

See FLORIDA: A. D. 1528-1542.

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1803.
Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1819-1836.
Detached from Missouri.
Organized as a Territory.
Admitted as a State.

"Preparatory to the assumption of state government, the limits
of the Missouri Territory were restricted on the south by the
parallel of 36° 30' North. The restriction was made by an act
of Congress, approved March 3, 1819, entitled an 'Act
establishing a separate territorial government in the southern
portion of the Missouri Territory.' The portion thus separated
was subsequently organized into the second grade of territorial
government, and Colonel James Miller, a meritorious and
distinguished officer of the Northwestern army, was appointed
first governor. This territory was known as the Arkansas
Territory, and, at the period of its first organization,
contained an aggregate of nearly 14,000 inhabitants. Its
limits comprised all the territory on the west side of the
Mississippi between the parallels 33° and 36° 30', or between
the northern limit of Louisiana and the southern boundary of
the State of Missouri. On the west it extended indefinitely to
the Mexican territories, at least 550 miles. The Post of
Arkansas was made the seat of the new government. The
population of this extensive territory for several years was
comprised chiefly in the settlements upon the tributaries of
White River and the St. Francis; upon the Mississippi, between
New Madrid and Point Chicot; and upon both sides of the
Arkansas River, within 100 miles of its mouth, but especially
in the vicinity of the Post of Arkansas. ... So feeble was the
attraction in this remote region for the active, industrious,
and well-disposed portion of the western pioneers, that the
Arkansas Territory, in 1830, ten years after its organization,
had acquired an aggregate of only 30,388 souls, including
4,576 slaves. ... The western half of the territory had been
erected, in 1824, into a separate district, to be reserved for
the future residence of the Indian tribes, and to be known as
the Indian Territory. From this time the tide of emigration
began to set more actively into Arkansas, as well as into
other portions of the southwest. ... The territory increased
rapidly for several years, and the census of 1835 gave the
whole number of inhabitants at 58,134 souls, including 9,630
slaves. Thus the Arkansas Territory in the last five years had
doubled its population. ... The people, through the General
Assembly, made application to Congress for authority to
establish a regular form of state government. The assent of
Congress was not withheld, and a Convention was authorized to
meet at Little Rock on the first day of January, 1836, for the
purpose of forming and adopting a State Constitution. The same
was approved by Congress, and on the 13th of June following
the State of Arkansas was admitted into the Federal Union as
an independent state, and was, in point of time and order, the
twenty-fifth in the confederacy. ... Like the Missouri
Territory, Arkansas had been a slaveholding country from the
earliest French colonies. Of course, the institution of negro
slavery, with proper checks and limits, was sustained by the
new Constitution."

_J. W. Monette, Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of
the Mississippi, book 5, chapter 17 (volume 2)._

See, also, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1818-1821.

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1861 (March).
Secession voted down.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (MARCH-APRIL).

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1861 (April).
Governor Rector's reply to President Lincoln's call for
troops.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (APRIL).

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1862 (January-March).
Advance of National forces into the State.
Battle of Pea Ridge.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862
(JANUARY-MARCH: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1862 (July-September).
Progress of the Civil War.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

ARKANSAS: A. D.1862(December).
The Battle of Prairie Grove.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D.
1862 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1863 (January).
The capture of Arkansas Post from the Confederates.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JANUARY: ARKANSAS).

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1863 (July).
The defence of Helena.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863
(JULY: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1863 (August-October).
The breaking of Confederate authority.
Occupation of Little Rock by National forces.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863
(AUGUST-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-Missouri).

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1864 (March-October).
Last important operations of the War.
Price's Raid.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864
(MARCH-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

{134}

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1864.
First steps toward Reconstruction.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863-1864 (DECEMBER-JULY).

ARKANSAS: A. D. 1865-1868.
Reconstruction completed.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D.1865 (MAY-JULY), to 1868-1870.

----------ARKANSAS: End----------

ARKITES, The.

A Canaanite tribe who occupied the plain north of Lebanon.

ARKWRIGHT'S SPINNING MACHINE, OR WATER-FRAME, The invention of.

See COTTON MANUFACTURE.

ARLES: Origin.

See SALVES.

ARLES: A. D. 411.--Double siege.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 407.

ARLES: A. D. 425.--Besieged by the Goths.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 419-451.

ARLES: A. D. 508-510.
Siege by the Franks.

After the overthrow of the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse, A.
D. 507, by the victory of Clovis, king of the Franks, at
Voclad, near Poitiers, "the great city of Aries, once the
Roman capital of Gaul, maintained a gallant defence against
the united Franks and Burgundians, and saved for generations
the Visigothic rule in Provence and southern Languedoc. Of the
siege, which lasted apparently from 508 to 510, we have some
graphic details in the life of St. Cæsarius, Bishop of Aries,
written by his disciples." The city was relieved in 510 by an
Ostrogothic army, sent by king Theodoric of Italy, after a
great battle in which 30,000 Franks were reported to be slain.
"The result of the battle of Aries was to put Theodoric in
secure possession of all Provence and of so much of Languedoc
as was needful to ensure his access to Spain"--where the
Ostrogothic king, as guardian of his infant grandson,
Amalaric, was taking care of the Visigothic kingdom.

_T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 4, chapter 9._

ARLES: A. D. 933.
Formation of the kingdom.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 843-933.

ARLES: A. D. 1032-1378.
The breaking up of the kingdom and its gradual absorption in
France.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1032, and 1127-1378.

ARLES: 1092-1207.
The gay court of Provence.

See PROVENCE: A. D. 943-1092, and 1179-1207.

----------ARLES: End----------

ARMADA, The Spanish.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1588.

ARMAGEDDON.

See MEGIDDO.

ARMAGH, St. Patrick's School at.

See IRELAND: 5th to 8th CENTURIES.

ARMAGNAC, The counts of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1327.

ARMAGNACS.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1380-1415, and 1415-1419.

ARMENIA:

"Almost immediately to the west of the Caspian there rises a
high table-land diversified by mountains, which stretches
eastward for more than eighteen degrees, between the 37th and
41st parallels. This highland may properly be regarded as a
continuation of the great Iranean plateau, with which it is
connected at its southeastern corner. It comprises a portion
of the modern Persia, the whole of Armenia, and most of Asia
Minor. Its principal mountain ranges are latitudinal, or from
west to east, only the minor ones taking the opposite or
longitudinal direction. ... The heart of the mountain-region,
the tract extending from the district of Erivan on the east to
the upper course of the Kizil·Irmak river and the vicinity of
Sivas upon the west, was, as it still is, Armenia. Amidst
these natural fastnesses, in a country of lofty ridges, deep
and narrow valleys, numerous and copious streams, and
occasional broad plains--a country of rich pasture grounds,
productive orchards, and abundant harvests--this interesting
people has maintained itself almost unchanged from the time of
the early Persian kings to the present day. Armenia was one of
the most valuable portions of the Persian empire, furnishing,
as it did, besides stone and timber, and several most
important minerals, an annual supply of 20,000 excellent
horses to the stud of the Persian king."

_G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Persia, chapter 1._

Before the Persians established their sovereignty over the
country, "it seems certain that from one quarter or another
Armenia had been Arianized; the old Turanian character had
passed away from it; immigrants had flocked in and a new
people had been formed--the real Armenians of later times,
and indeed of the present day." Submitting to Alexander, on
the overthrow of the Persian monarchy, Armenia fell afterwards
under the yoke of the Seleucidæ, but gained independence about
190 B. C., or earlier. Under the influence of Parthia, a
branch of the Parthian royal family, the Arsacids, was
subsequently placed on the throne and a dynasty established
which reigned for nearly six hundred years. The fourth of
these kings, Tigranes, who occupied the throne in the earlier
part of the last century B. C., placed Armenia in the front
rank of Asiatic kingdoms and in powerful rivalry with Parthia.
Its subsequent history is one of many wars and invasions and
much buffeting between Romans, Parthians, Persians, and their
successors in the conflicts of the eastern world. The part of
Armenia west of the Euphrates was called by the Romans Armenia
Minor. For a short period after the revolt from the Seleucid
monarchy, it formed a distinct kingdom called Sophene.

_G. Rawlinson, Sixth and Seventh Great Oriental
Monarchies._

ARMENIA: B. C. 69-68.
War with the Romans.
Great defeat at Tigranocerta
Submission to Rome.

See ROME: B. C. 78-68, and 69-63.

ARMENIA: A. D. 115-117.

Annexed to the Roman Empire by Trajan and restored to
independence by Hadrian.

See ROME: A. D. 96-138.

ARMENIA: A. D. 422 (?).
Persian Conquest.
Becomes the satrapy of Persarmenia.

See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

ARMENIA: A. D. 1016-1073.
Conquest and devastation by the Seljuk Turks.

See TURKS (SELJUKS): A. D. 1004-1063, and 1063-1073.

ARMENIA: 12th-14th Centuries.
The Mediæval Christian Kingdom.