Chapter CVI: Section 2 (9)

"Pliny, alluding to the Druids' predilection for groves of
oak, adds the words: 'ut inde appellati quoque interpretatione
Græca possint Druidæ videri.' ... Had he possessed knowledge
enough of the Gaulish language, he would have seen that it
supplied an explanation which rendered it needless to have
recourse to Greek, namely in the native word 'dru,' which we
have in 'Drunemeton,' or the sacred Oak-grove, given by Strabo
as the name of the place of assembly of the Galatians. In
fact, one has, if I am not mistaken, been skeptic with regard
to this etymology, not so much on phonological grounds as from
failing exactly to see how the oak could have given its name
to such a famous organization as the druidic one must be
admitted to have been. But the parallels just indicated, as
showing the importance of the sacred tree in the worship of
Zeus and the gods representing him among nations other than
the Greek one, help to throw some light on this point.
According to the etymology here alluded to, the Druids would
be the priests of the god associated or identified with the
oak; that is, as we are told, the god who seemed to those who
were familiar with the pagan theology of the Greeks, to stand
in the same position in Gaulish theology that Zeus did in the
former. This harmonizes thoroughly with all that is known
about the Druids."

_J. Rhys, Hibbert Lectures., 1886, on Celtic
Heathendom, lecture 2, part. 2._

"Our traditions of the Scottish and Irish Druids are evidently
derived from a time when Christianity had long been
established. These insular Druids are represented as being
little better than conjurors, and their dignity is as much
diminished as the power of the king is exaggerated. ... He is
a Pharaoh or Belshazzar with a troop of wizards at his
command; but his Druids are sorcerers and rain-doctors. ...
The Druids of Strabo's description walked in scarlet and gold
brocade and wore golden collars and bracelets; but their
doctrines may have been much the same as those of the
soothsayers by the Severn, the Irish medicine-men or those
rustic wizards by the Loire. ... After the conversion of
Ireland was accomplished the Druids disappear from history.
Their mystical powers were transferred without much alteration
to the abbots and bishops who ruled the 'families of the
saints.'"

_C. Elton, Origins of English History, chapter 10._

ALSO IN:
_Julius Cæsar, Gallic War, book 6, chapters 13-18._

_Strabo, Geography, book 4, chapter 4, sections 4-6._

For an account of the final destruction of the Druids, in
their last retreat, on the island of Mona, or Anglesey,

See BRITAIN: A. D. 61.

DRUMCLOG, The Covenanters at.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1679 (MAY-JUNE).

DRURY'S BLUFF, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA)
THE ARMY OF THE JAMES.

DRUSUS, Germanic campaigns of.

See GERMANY: B. C. 12-9.

DRYOPIANS, The.

One of the aboriginal nations of ancient Greece, whose
territory was in the valley of the Spercheus and extended as
far as Parnassus and Thermopylæ; but who were afterwards
widely dispersed in many colonies. It is, says C. O. Müller,
"historically certain that a great part of the Dryopians were
consecrated as a subject people to the Pythian Apollo (an
usage of ancient times, of which there are many instances) and
that for a long time they served as such."

_History and Antiquity of the Doric Race,
book 1, chapter 2._

See, also, DORIS; and HIERODULI.

DUBARRY, Countess, Ascendancy of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1723-1774.

DUBH GALLS.

See IRELAND: 9TH-10TH CENTURIES.

DUBIENKA, Battle of(1792).

See POLAND: A. D. 1791-1792.

DUBITZA: Taken by the Austrians (1787).

See TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792.

DUBLIN: The Danish Kingdom.

See IRELAND: 9TH-10TH CENTURIES:
also NORMANS.
NORTHMEN: 8TH-9TH CENTURIES.

DUBLIN: A. D. 1014.
The battle of Clontarf and the great defeat of the Danes.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1014.

DUBLIN: A. D. 1170
Taken by the Norman-English.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1169-1175.

DUBLIN: A. D. 1646-1649.
Sieges in the Civil War.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1646-1649.

DUBLIN: A. D. 1750.
The importance of the city.

"In the middle of the 18th century it was in dimensions and
population the second city in the empire, containing,
according to the most trustworthy accounts, between 100,000
and 120,000 inhabitants. Like most things in Ireland, it
presented vivid contrasts, and strangers were equally struck
with the crowds of beggars, the inferiority of the inns, the
squalid wretchedness of the streets of the old town, and with
the noble proportions of the new quarter, and the brilliant
and hospitable society that inhabited it. The Liffey was
spanned by four bridges, and another on a grander scale was
undertaken in 1753. St. Stephen's Green was considered the
largest square in Europe. The quays of Dublin were widely
celebrated."

_W. E. H. Lecky, History of England,
18th Century, chapter 7 (volume 2)._

----------DUBLIN: End----------

DUBRIS, OR DUBRÆ.

The Roman port on the east coast of Britain which is now known
as Dover. In Roman times, as now, it was the principal
landing-place on the British side of the channel.

_T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5._

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DUCAT, Spanish.

See SPANISH COINS.

DUCES.

See COUNT AND DUKE.

DUDLEY, Thomas,
and the colony of Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1629-1630, and after.

DUFFERIN, Lord.
The Indian Administration of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1880-1888.

DU GUESCLIN'S CAMPAIGNS:

See FRANCE: A. D. 1360-1380.

DUKE, The Roman.
Origin of the title.

See COUNT AND DUKE.

DUKE'S LAWS, The.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1665.

DULGIBINI AND CHASAURI, The.

"These people [tribes of the ancient Germans] first resided
near the head of the Lippe, and then removed to the
settlements of the Chamavi and the Angrevarii, who had
expelled the Bructeri."

_Tacitus, Germany, chapter 34, Oxford trans., note._

See also, SAXONS.

DUMBARTON, Origin of.

See ALCLYDE.

DUMBARTON CASTLE, Capture of (1571).

Dumbarton Castle, held by the party of Mary Queen of Scots, in
the civil war which followed her deposition and detention in
England, was captured in 1571, for the regent Lennox, by an
extraordinary act of daring on the part of one Capt. Crawford.

_P. F. Tytler, History of Scotland, volume 3, chapter 10._

DUMNONIA, OR DAMNONIA, The kingdom of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 477-527.

DUMNONII, The.

"It is ... a remarkable circumstance that the Dumnonii, whom
we find in the time of Ptolemy occupying the whole of the
southwestern extremity of Britain, including both Devonshire
and Cornwall, and who must therefore have been one of the most
powerful nations in the island, are never once mentioned in
the history of the conquest of the country by the Romans; nor
is their name found in any writer before Ptolemy. ... The
conjecture of Mr. Beale Poste . . . that they were left in
nominal independence under a native king ... appears to me
highly probable."

_E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 23, note B._

There appears to have been a northern branch of the Dumnonii
or Damnonii, which held an extensive territory on the Clyde
and the Forth.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

DUMOURIEZ, Campaigns and treason of.

See FRANCE:
A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER);
1792-1793; and 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

DUNBAR: A. D. 1296.-Battle.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1290-1305.

DUNBAR: A. D. 1339. Siege.

The fortress of Dunbar, besieged by the English under the Earl
of Salisbury in 1339, was successfully defended in the absence
of the governor, the Earl of March, by his wife, known
afterwards in Scotch history and tradition as "Black Agnes of
Dunbar."

DUNBAR: A. D. 1650.-Battle.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1650 (SEPTEMBER).

----------DUNBAR: End----------

DUNCAN I.,
King of Scotland, A. D. 1033-1039..
Duncan II., A. D. 1094-1095.

DUNDALK, Battle of (1318).

See IRELAND: A. D. 1314-1318.

DUNDEE (CLAVERHOUSE) AND THE COVENANTERS.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1679 (MAY-JUNE);
1681-1689; and 1689 (JULY).

DUNDEE: A. D. 1645.
Pillaged by Montrose.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1644-1645.

DUNDEE: A. D. 1651.
Storm and massacre by Monk.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1651 (AUGUST'--SEPTEMBER).

----------DUNDEE: End----------

DUNES, Battle of the (1658).

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1655-1658.

DUNKELD, Battle of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1689 (AUGUST).

DUNKIRK: A. D. 1631.
Unsuccessful siege by the Dutch.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1621-1633.

DUNKIRK: A. D. 1646.
Siege and capture by the French.
Importance of the port.
Its harborage of pirates.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1645-1646.

DUNKIRK: A. D. 1652.
Recovered by the Spaniards.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1652.

DUNKIRK: A. D. 1658.
Acquired by Cromwell for England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1655-1658;
and FRANCE: A. D. 1655-1658.

DUNKIRK: A. D. 1662.
Sold by Charles II. to France.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1662.

DUNKIRK: A. D. 1713.
Fortifications and harbor destroyed.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1713.

DUNKIRK: A. D. 1748.
Demolition of fortifications again stipulated.

See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.

DUNKIRK: A. D. 1763.
The demolition of fortifications pledged once more.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

DUNKIRK: A. D. 1793.
Unsuccessful siege by the English.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER);
PROGRESS OF THE WAR.

----------DUNKIRK: End----------

DUNMORE, Lord,
and the end of royal government in Virginia.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1775 (JUNE); and 1775-1776.

DUNMORE'S WAR.

See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.

DUNNICHEN, Battle of (A. D. 685).

See SCOTLAND: 7TH CENTURY.

DUPLEIX AND THE FRENCH IN INDIA.

See INDIA: A. D. 1743-1752.

DUPONT, Admiral Samuel F.
Naval attack on Charleston.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (APRIL: SOUTH CAROLINA).

DÜPPEL, Siege and capture of (1864).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1861-1866.

DUPPELN, Battle of (1848).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (DENMARK):
A. D. 1848-1862.

DUPPLIN MOOR, Battle of (1332).

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1332-1333.

DUQUESNE, Fort.

See PITTSBURGH.

DURA, Treaty of.

The humiliating treaty of peace concluded with the Persians,
A. D. 363, after the defeat and death of the Roman emperor
Julian, by his successor Jovian.

G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy chapter 10.

DURANEES, OR DOORANEES, The.

See INDIA: A. D. 1747-1761.

DURAZZO, Neapolitan dynasty of.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1343-1389; 1386-1414,
and ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

DURBAR, OR DARBAR.

An audience room in the palace of an East Indian prince. Hence
applied to a formal audience or levee given by the
governor-general of India, or by one of the native princes.

_Century Dictionary_

DURHAM, OR NEVILLE'S CROSS, Battle of (A. D. 1346).

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1333-1370.

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DUROBRIVÆ.

A name given to two Roman towns in Britain; one of which has
been identified with modern Rochester, the other with the town
of Castor, near Peterborough.

DUROBRIVIAN WARE.

See CASTOR WARE.

DUROCOBRIVÆ.

An important market-town in Roman Britain, supposed to have
been situated at or near modern Dunstable.

_T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5._

DUROTRIGES.

One of the tribes of ancient Britain whose home was in the
modern county of Dorset.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

DUROVERNUM.

A Roman town in Britain, identified with the modern
Canterbury. Durovernum was destroyed by the Jutes in 455.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.

DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY.

See EAST INDIA COMPANY, THE DUTCH.

DUTCH GAP CANAL.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

DUTCH REPUBLIC,
The constitution and declared independence of the.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1577-1581, and 1584-1585.

DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1621-1646;
and BRAZIL: A. D. 1510-1661.

DÜTLINGEN, OR TUTTLINGEN, Battle of (1643).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1643-1644.

DYAKS, OR DAYAKS, The.

See MALAYAN RACE.

DYRRHACHIUM: The founding of.

See KORKYRA.

DYRRHACHIUM: Provoking cause of the Peloponnesian War.

See GREECE: B. C. 435-432.

DYRRHACHIUM: B. C. 48.
Cæsar's reverse.

See ROME: B. C. 48.

DYRRHACHIUM: A. D. 1081-1082.
Siege by Robert Guiscard.

See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1081-1085.

DYRRHACHIUM: A. D. 1204.
Acquired by the Despot of Epirus.

See EPIRUS: A. D. 1204-1350.

----------DYRRHACHIUM: End----------

DYRRHACHIUM, Peace of.

See GREECE: B. C. 214-146.

DYVED.

See BRITAIN: 6TH CENTURY.

E.

EADMUND, EADWINE, ETC.

See EDMUND, ETC.

EALDORMAN.

"The chieftains of the first settlers in our own island bore
no higher title than Ealdorman or Heretoga. ... The name of
Ealdorman is one of a large class; among a primitive people
age implies command and command implies age; hence in a
somewhat later stage of language the elders are simply the
rulers and the eldest are the highest in rank, without any
thought of the number of years which they may really have
lived. It is not perfectly clear in what the authority or
dignity of the King exceeded that of the Ealdorman. ... Even
the smallest Kingdom was probably formed by the union of the
districts of several Ealdormen."

_E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, chapter 3, section 1._

"The organisation of the shire was of much the same character
as that of the hundred [each shire containing, however, a
number of hundreds], but it was ruled by an ealdorman as well
as by a gerefa, and in some other respects bore evidence of
its previous existence as an independent unity. Its gemot was
not only the scir-gemot but the folc-gemot also, the assembly
of the people; its ealdorman commanded not merely the military
force of the hundreds, but the lords of the franchises and the
church vassals with their men. Its gerefa or sheriff collected
the fiscal us well as the local imposts. Its ealdorman was one
of the king's witan. The ealdorman, the princeps of Tacitus,
and princeps, or satrapa, or subregulus of Bede, the dux of
the Latin chroniclers and the comes of the Normans, was
originally elected in the general assembly of the nation. ...
The hereditary principle appears however in the early days of
the kingdom as well as in those of Edward the Confessor; in
the case of an under-kingdom being annexed to a greater the
old royal dynasty seems to have continued to hand down its
delegated authority from father to son. The under-kings of
Hwiccia thus continued to act as ealdormen under Mercia for a
century; and the ealdormanship of the Gyrwas or fen-countrymen
seems likewise to have been hereditary. The title of ealdorman
is thus much older than the existing division of shires, nor
was it ever the rule for every shire to have an ealdorman to
itself as it had its sheriff. ... But each shire was under an
ealdorman, who sat with the sheriff and bishop in the
folkmoot, received a third part of the profits of the
jurisdiction, and commanded the military force of the whole
division. From the latter character he derived the name of
heretoga, leader of the host ('here'), or dux, which is
occasionally given him in charters."

_William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England,
chapter 5, sections. 48-49._

EARL.

"The title of earl had begun to supplant that of ealdorman in
the reign of Ethelred; and the Danish jarl, from whom its use
in this sense was borrowed, seems to have been more certainly
connected by the tie of comitatus with his king than the
Anglo-Saxon ealdorman need be supposed to have been."

_William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England,
chapter 6, section 66._

See, also, EORL and EALDORMAN.

EARLDOMS, English:
Canute's creation.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1016-1042.

EARLDOMS:
The Norman change.

See PALATINE, THE ENGLISH COUNTIES.

----------EARLDOMS: End----------

EARLY, General Jubal, Campaigns in the Shenandoah.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA);
(JULY: VIRGINIA-MARYLAND);
(AUGUST-OCTOBER: VIRGINIA);
and 1865 (FEBRUARY-MARCH: VIRGINIA).

EARTHQUAKE: B. C. 464.
Sparta.

See MESSENIAN WAR, THE THIRD.

EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 115.
At Antioch.

See ANTIOCH: A. D. 115.

EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 365.
In the Roman world.

"In the second year of the reign of Valentinian and Valens [A.
D. 365], on the morning of the 21st day of July, the greater
part of the Roman world was shaken by a violent and
destructive earthquake. The impression was communicated to the
waters; the shores of the Mediterranean were left dry by the
sudden retreat of the sea. ... But the tide soon returned with
the weight of an immense and irresistible deluge, which was
severely felt on the coasts of Sicily, of Dalmatia, of Greece
and of Egypt. ... The city of Alexandria annually commemorated
the fatal day on which 50,000 persons had lost their lives in
the inundation."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 26.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

{669}

EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 526.
In the reign of Justinian.

See ANTIOCH: A. D. 526;
also, BERYTUS.

EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 1692.
In Jamaica.

See JAMAICA: A. D. 1692.

EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 1755.
At Lisbon.

See LISBON: A. D. 1755.

EARTHQUAKE: A. D. 1812.
In Venezuela.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1810-1819.

----------EARTHQUAKE: End----------

EAST AFRICA ASSOCIATIONS, British and German.

See AFRICA: A.. D. 1884-1889.

EAST ANGLIA.

The kingdom formed in Britain by that body of the Angles which
settled in the eastern district now embraced in the counties
of Norfolk and Suffolk (North-folk and South-folk).

EAST INDIA COMPANY,
The Dutch: A. D. 1602.

Its formation and first enterprises.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1594-1620.

EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1652.
Settlement at Cape of Good Hope.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1486-1806.

EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1799.
Its dissolution.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

----------EAST INDIA COMPANY (DUTCH): End----------

EAST INDIA COMPANY, The English: A. D. 1600-1702.
Its rise and early undertakings.

See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702.

EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1773.
Constitution of the Company changed by the Acts of Lord North.

See INDIA: A. D. 1770-1773.

EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1813-1833.-
Deprived of its monopoly of trade.
Reconstitution of government.

See INDIA: A. D. 1823-1833.

EAST INDIA COMPANY: A. D. 1858.
The end of its rule.

See INDIA: A. D. 1858.

----------EAST INDIA COMPANY (ENGLISH): End----------

EAST INDIA COMPANY, The French.

See INDIA: A. D. 1665-1743.

EAST INDIES, Portuguese in the.

See INDIA: A. D. 1498-1580.

EASTERN CHURCH, The.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 330-1054.

EASTERN EMPIRE, The.

See ROME: 717-800;
and BYZANTINE EMPIRE.

EASTERN QUESTION, The.

"For a number of generations in Europe there has been one
question that, carelessly or maliciously touched upon, has
never failed to stimulate strife and discord among the
nations. This is 'the Eastern Question,' the problem how to
settle the disputes, political and religious, in the east of
Europe."

_H. Murdock, The Reconstruction of Europe, page 17._

The first occasion in European politics on which the problems
of the Ottoman empire received the name of the Eastern
Question seems to have been that connected with the revolt of
Mehemet Ali in 1831 (see TURKS: A. D. 1831-1840). M. Guizot,
in his "Memoirs," when referring to that complication, employs
the term, and remarks: "I say the Eastern Question, for this
was in fact the name given by all the world to the quarrel
between the Sultan Mahmoud, and his subject the Pacha of
Egypt, Mehemet Ali. Why was this sounding title applied to a
local contest? Egypt is not the whole Ottoman empire. The
Ottoman empire is not the entire East. The rebellion, even the
dismemberment of a province, cannot comprise the fate of a
sovereignty. The great states of Western Europe have
alternately lost or acquired, either by internal dissension or
war, considerable territories; yet under the aspect of these
circumstances no one has spoken of the Western question. Why
then has a term never used in the territorial crises of
Christian Europe, been considered and admitted to be perfectly
natural and legitimate when the Ottoman empire is in argument?
It is that there is at present in the Ottoman empire no local
or partial question. If a shock is felt in a corner of the
edifice, if a single stone is detached, the entire building
appears to be, and is in fact, ready to fall. ... The Egyptian
question was in 1839 the question of the Ottoman empire
itself. And the question of the Ottoman empire is in reality
the Eastern question, not only of the European but of the
Asiatic East; for Asia is now the theatre of the leading
ambitions and rivalries of the great powers of Europe; and the
Ottoman empire is the highway, the gate, and the key of Asia."

_F. P. Guizot, Memoirs to Illustrate the History of My Own
Time, volume 4, page 322._

The several occasions since 1840 on which the Eastern Question
has troubled Europe may be found narrated under the following
captions:

RUSSIA: A. D. 1853-1854, to 1854-1856;
TURKS: A. D. 1861-1877, 1877-1878, and 1878;
also BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.

Among English writers, the term "the Eastern Question" has
acquired a larger meaning, which takes in questions connected
with the advance of Russia upon the Afghan and Persian
frontiers.

_Duke of Argyll, The Eastern Question._

See AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1860-1881.

EATON, Dorman B., and Civil-Service Reform.

See CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM IN THE UNITED STATES.

EBBSDORF, OR LUNEBURG HEATH, Battle of.

A great and disastrous battle of the Germans with the Danes,
or Northmen, fought February 2, 880. The Germans were terribly
beaten, and nearly all who survived the fight were swept away
into captivity and slavery. The slain received "martyrs'
honours; and their commemoration was celebrated in the
Sachsen-land churches till comparatively recent times. An
unexampled sorrow was created throughout Saxony by this
calamity, which, for a time, exhausted the country;
--Scandinavia and Jutland and the Baltic isles resounded with
exultation."

_Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England,
book 1, chapter 4._

EBBSFLEET.

The supposed first landing-place in Britain of the Jutes,
under Hengest, A. D. 449 or 450, when English history, as
English, begins. It was also the landing-place, A. D. 597, of
Augustine and his fellow missionaries when they entered the
island to undertake the conversion of its new inhabitants to
Christianity. Ebbsfleet is in the Isle of Thanet, at the mouth
of the Thames.

See ENGLAND: 449-473, and 597-685.

EBERSBURG, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).

EBIONISM.

The heresy (so branded) of a sect of Jewish Christians, which
spread somewhat extensively in the second, third and fourth
centuries. "The characteristic marks of Ebionism in all its
forms are: degradation of Christianity to the level of
Judaism; the principle of the universal and perpetual validity
of the Mosaic law; and enmity to the apostle Paul." The name
of the Ebionites came from a Hebrew word signifying "poor."

_P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church,
second period, chapter 4, section 68._

{670}

EBLANI, The.

See IRELAND, TRIBES OF EARLY CELTIC INHABITANTS.

EBORACUM, OR EBURACUM.

The military capital of Roman Britain, and afterwards of the
Anglian kingdoms of Deira and Northumbria. In Old English its
name became Eorforwick, whence, by further corruption,
resulted the modern English name York. The city was one of
considerable splendor in Roman times, containing the imperial
palace with many temples and other imposing buildings.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 457-633.

EBURONES, Destruction of the.

The Eburones were a strong Germanic tribe, who occupied in
Cæsar's time the country between Liége and Cologne, and whose
ancestors were said to have formed part of the great migrant
horde of the Cimbri and Teutones. Under a young chief,
Ambiorix, they had taken the lead in the formidable revolt
which occurred among the Belgic tribes, B. C. 54-53. Cæsar,
when he had suppressed the revolt, determined to bring
destruction on the Eburones, and he executed his purpose in a
singular manner. He circulated a proclamation through all the
neighboring parts of Gaul and Germany, declaring the Eburones
to be traitors to Rome and outlaws, and offering them and
their goods as common prey to any who would fall on them. This
drew the surrounding barbarians like vultures to a feast, and
the wretched Eburones were soon hunted out of existence. Their
name disappeared from the annals of Gaul.

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 10._

ALSO IN:
_Cæsar, Gallic Wars,
book 5, chapter 25-58; book 6, chapters 1-34._

_G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapters 13-14._

See, also, BELGÆ.

ECBATANA.

"The Southern Ecbatana or Agbatana,--which the Medes and
Persians themselves knew as Hagmatán,--was situated, as we
learn from Polybius and Diodorus, on a plain at the foot of
Mount Orontes, a little to the east of the Zagros range. The
notices of these authors ... and others, render it as nearly
certain as possible that the site was that of the modern town
of Hamadan. ... The Median capital has never yet attracted a
scientific expedition. ... The chief city of northern Media,
which bore in later times the names of Gaza, Gazaca, or
Canzaca, is thought to have been also called Ecbatana, and to
have been occasionally mistaken by the Greeks for the southern
or real capital."

_G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Media, chapter 1._

ECCELINO, OR EZZELINO DI ROMANO,
The tyranny of, and the crusade against.

See VERONA: A. D. 1236-1259.

ECCLESIA.
The general legislative assembly of citizens in ancient Athens
and Sparta.

_G. F. Schömann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 3._

ALSO IN:
_G. Grote, History of Greece, chapter 31._

See ATHENS: B. C. 445-429.

ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL, The.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1850.

ECENI, OR ICENI, The.

See BRITAIN: A. D. 61.

ECGBERHT, King of Wessex, A. D. 800-836.

ECKMÜHL, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).

ECNOMUS, Naval battle of (B. C. 256).

See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.

ECORCHEURS, Les.

In the later period of the Hundred Years War, after the death
of the Maid of Orleans, when the English were being driven
from France and the authority of the king was not yet
established, lawless violence prevailed widely. "Adventurers
spread themselves over the provinces under a name, 'the
Skinners,' Les Ecorcheurs, which sufficiently betokens the
savage nature of their outrages, if we trace it to even its
mildest derivation, stripping shirts, not skins."

_E. Smedley, History of France, part 1, chapter 14._

ECTHESIS OF HERACLIUS.

See MONOTHELITE CONTROVERSY.

ÉCU, The order of the.

See BOURBON, THE HOUSE OF.

ECUADOR: Aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

ECUADOR:
The aboriginal kingdom of Quito and its conquest by the
Peruvians and the Spaniards.

"Of the old Quitu nation which inhabited the highlands to the
north and south of the present capital, nothing is known to
tradition but the name of its last king, Quitu, after whom his
subjects were probably called. His domains were invaded and
conquered by the nation of the Caras, or Carans, who had come
by sea in balsas (rafts) from parts unknown. These Caras, or
Carans, established the dynasty of the Scyris at Quito, and
extended their conquests to the north and south, until checked
by the warlike nation of the Puruhas, who inhabited the
present district of Riobamba. ... In the reign of Hualcopo
Duchicela, the 13th Scyri, the Peruvian Incas commenced to
extend their conquests to the north. ... About the middle of
the 15th century the Inca Tupac Yupanqui, father of
Huaynacapac, invaded the dominions of the Scyris, and after
many bloody battles and sieges, conquered the kingdom of
Puruha and returned in triumph to Cuzco. Hualcopo survived his
loss but a few years. He is said to have died of grief, and
was succeeded by his son Cacha, the 15th and last of the
Scyris. Cacha Duchicela at once set out to recover his
paternal dominions. Although of feeble health, he seems to
have been a man of great energy and intrepidity. He fell upon
the garrison which the Inca had left at Mocha, put it to the
sword, and reoccupied the kingdom of Puruha, where he was
received with open arms. He even carried his banners further
south, until checked by the Cañares, the inhabitants of what
is now the district of Cuenca, who had voluntarily submitted
to the Inca, and now detained the Scyri until Huaynacapac, the
greatest of the Inca dynasty, came to their rescue." On the
plain of Tiocajas, and again on the plain of Hatuntaqui, great
battles were fought, in both of which the Scyri was beaten,
and in the last of which he fell. "On the very field of battle
the faithful Caranquis proclaimed Pacha, the daughter of the
fallen king, as their Scyri. Huaynacapac now regulated his
conduct by policy. He ordered the dead king to be buried with
all the honors due to royalty, and made offers of marriage to
young Pacha, by whom he was not refused. ... The issue of the
marriage was Atahuallpa, the last of the native rulers of
Peru. ...
{671}
As prudent and highly politic as the conduct of Huaynacapac is
generally reputed to have been, so imprudent and unpolitic was
the division of the empire which he made on his death bed,
bequeathing his paternal dominions to his first-born and
undoubtedly legitimate son, Huascar, and to Atahuallpa the
kingdom of Quito. He might have foreseen the evil consequences
of such a partition. His death took place about the year 1525.
For five or seven years the brothers lived in peace." Then
quarrels arose, leading to civil war, resulting in the defeat
and death of Huascar. Atahuallpa had just become master of the
weakened and shaken empire of the Incas, when the invading
Spaniards, under Pizarro, fell on the doomed land and made its
riches their own. The conquest of the Spaniards did not
include the kingdom of Quito at first, but was extended to the
latter in 1533 by Sebastian de Benalcazar, whom Pizarro had
put in command of the Port of San Miguel. Excited by stories
of the riches of Quito, and invited by ambassadors from the
Canares, the old enemies of the Quito tribes, Benalcazar,
"without orders or permission from Pizarro ... left San
Miguel, at the head of about 150 men. His second in command
was the monster Juan de Ampudia." The fate of Quito was again
decided on the plain of Tiocajas, where Rumiñagui, a chief who
had seized the vacant throne, made a desperate but vain
resistance. He gained time, however, to remove whatever
treasures there may have been at Quito beyond the reach of its
rapacious conquerors, and "where he hid them is a secret to
the present day. ... Traditions of the great treasures hidden
in the mountains by Rumiñagui are eagerly repeated and
believed at Quito. ... Having removed the gold and killed the
Virgins of the Sun, and thus placed two objects so eagerly
coveted by the invaders beyond their reach, Rumiñagui set fire
to the town, and evacuated it with an his troops and
followers. It would be difficult to describe the rage,
mortification and despair of the Spaniards, on finding smoking
ruins instead of the treasures which they had expected. ...
Thousands of innocent Indians were sacrificed to their
disappointed cupidity. ... Every nook and corner of the
province was searched; but only in the sepulchres some little
gold was found. ... Of the ancient buildings of Quito no stone
was left upon the other, and deep excavations were made under
them to search for hidden treasures. Hence there is no vestige
left at Quito of its former civilization; not a ruin, not a
wall, not a stone to which the traditions of the past might
cling. ... On the 28th of August, 1534, the Spanish village of
Quito [San Francisco de Quito] was founded."

_F. Hassaurek, Fours Years among Spanish Americans, chapter 16._

ALSO IN:
_W. H. Prescott, History of Conquest of Peru,
book 3, chapter 2 (volume 1), and chapter 9 (volume 2)._

ECUADOR:
In the empire of the Incas.

See PERU: THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS.

ECUADOR: A. D. 1542.
The Audiencia of Quito established.

See AUDIENCIAS.

ECUADOR: A. D. 1821-1854.
Emancipation of slaves.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1821-1854.

ECUADOR: A. D. 1822-1888.
Confederated with New Granada and Venezuela in the Colombian
Republic.

Dissolution of the Confederacy.

The rule of Flores.

In 1822 "the Province of Quito was incorporated into the
Colombian Republic [see COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1819-1830]. It
was now divided into three departments on the French system:
and the southernmost of these received its name from the
Equator (Ecuador) which passes through it. Shortly after
Venezuela had declared itself independent of the Colombian
Republic [1826--see, as above], the old province of Quito did
the same, and placed its fortunes in the hands of one of
Bolivar's lieutenants, named Flores. The name of Ecuador was
now extended to all three departments. Flores exercised the
chief authority for 15 years. The constitution limited the
Presidency to four: but Flores made an arrangement with one of
his lieutenants called Roca-Fuerte, by which they succeeded
each other, the outgoing President becoming governor of
Guayaquil. In 1843 Flores found himself strong enough to
improve upon this system. He called a convention, which
reformed the constitution in a reactionary sense, and named
him dictator for ten years. In 1845 the liberal reaction had
set in all over Colombia; and it soon became too strong for
Flores. Even his own supporters began to fail him, and he
agreed to quit the country on being paid an indemnity of
$20,000." During the next 15 years Ecuador was troubled by the
plots and attempts of Flores to regain his lost power. In
1860, with Peruvian help, he succeeded in placing one of his
party, Dr. Moreno, in the presidency, and he, himself, became
governor of Guayaquil. In August, 1875, Moreno was
assassinated.

_E. J. Payne, History of European Colonies, pages 251-252._

After the assassination of President Moreno, "the clergy
succeeded in seating Dr. Antonio Barrero in the presidential
chair by a peaceful and overwhelming election. ... Against his
government the liberal party made a revolution, and, September
8, 1876, succeeded in driving him from power, seating in his
place General Ygnacio de Veintemilla, who was one of Barrero's
officers, bound to him by many tics. ... He called an obedient
convention at Ambato, in 1878, which named him President ad
interim, and framed a constitution, the republicanism of which
it is difficult to find. Under this he was elected President
for four years, terminating 30th August, 1882, without right
of re-election except after an interval of four years."

_G. E. Church, Report on Ecuador
(Senate Ex. Doc. 69, U. S. 47th Congress, 2d session, volume 3)._

President Veintemilla seized power as a Dictator, by a
pronunciamento, April 2, 1882; but civil war ensued and he was
overthrown in 1883. Senor José M. P. Caamaño was then chosen
Provisional President, and in February, 1884, he was elected
President, by the Legislative body. He was succeeded in 1888
by Don Antonio Flores.

_Statesman's Year-book, 1889._

----------ECUADOR: End----------

ECUMENICAL, OR ŒCUMENICAL COUNCIL.
A general or universal council of the Christian Church.

See COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH.

EDDAS, The.

"The chief depositories of the Norse mythology are the Elder
or Saemund's Edda (poetry) and the Younger or Snorre's Edda.
(prose). In Icelandic Edda means 'great-grand-mother,' and
some think this appellation refers to the ancient origin of
the myths it contains. Others connect it with the Indian
'Veda' and the Norse 'vide,' (Swedish 'vela,' to know)."

_R. B. Anderson, Norse Mythology, chapter 7._

{672}

"The word Edda is never found at all in any of the dialects of
the Old Northern tongue, nor indeed in any other tongue known
to us. The first time it is met with is in the Lay of Righ,
where it is used as a title for great-grandmother, and from
this poem the word is cited (with other terms from the same
source) in the collection at the end of Scaldscaparmal. How or
why Snorri's book on the Poetic Art came to be called Edda we
have no actual testimony. ... Snorri's work, especially the
second part of it, Scaldscaparmal, handed down in copies and
abridgments through the Middle Ages, was looked on as setting
the standard and ideal of poetry. It seems to have kept up
indeed the very remembrance of court-poetry, the memory of
which, but for it, would otherwise have perished. But though
the mediæval poets do not copy Edda (i. e., Snorri's rules)
they constantly allude to it, and we have an unbroken series
of phrases from 1340 to 1640 in which Edda is used as a
synonym for the technical laws of the court-metre (a use, it
may be observed, entirely contrary to that of our own days)."

_G. Vigfusson and F. Y. Powell, Corpus Poeticum
Boreale, volume 1, introduction, section 4._

EDESSA (Macedonia).

Edessa, or Ægre, the ancient Macedonian capital, "a place of
primitive antiquity, according to a Phrygian legend the site
of the gardens of Midas, at the northern extremity of Mount
Bermius, where the Lydias comes forth from the mountains. ...
Ægre was the natural capital of the land. With its foundation
the history of Macedonia had its beginning; Ægre is the germ
out of which the Macedonian empire grew."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 7, ch 1._

See, also, MACEDONIA.

EDESSA (Mesopotamia).

See OSRHŒNE.

EDESSA: The Church.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100, and 100-312.

EDESSA: The Theological School.

Sec NESTORIANS.

EDESSA: A. D. 260.
Battle of.

See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

EDESSA: A. D. 1097-1144.
The Frank principality.

On the march of the armies of the First Crusade, as they
approached Syria, Baldwin, the able, selfish and self-willed
brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, left the main body of the
crusaders, with a band of followers, and moved off eastwards,
seeking the prizes of a very worldly ambition, and leaving his
devouter comrades to rescue the holy sepulchre without his
aid. Good fortune rewarded his enterprise and he secured
possession of the important city of Edessa. It was governed by
a Greek prince, who owed allegiance to the Byzantine emperor,
but who paid tribute to the Turks. "It had surrendered to
Pouzan, one of the generals of Malek-shah, in the year 1087,
but during the contests of the Turks and Saracens in the north
of Syria it had recovered its independence. Baldwin now
sullied the honour of the Franks, by exciting the people to
murder their governor Theodore, and rebel against the
Byzantine authority [other historians say that he was guilty
of no more than a passive permission of these acts]; he then
took possession of the place in his own name and founded the
Frank principality of Edessa, which lasted about 47 years."

_G. Finlay, History of Byzantine and Greek Empires
A. D. 716-1453, book 3, chapter 2, section 1._

See, also, CRUSADES: A. D, 1006-1099, and 1147-1149;
also, JERUSALEM: A. D. 1099-1144.

----------EDESSA: End----------

EDGAR,
King of Scotland, A. D.1098-1107.
Edgar, King of Wessex, A. D. 958-975.

EDGECOTE, Battle of.

See BANBURY, BATTLE OF.

EDGEHILL OR KEYNTON, Battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1642 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

EDHEL

See ADEL.

EDHILING, OR ÆDHILING, The.

See ETHELING.

EDICT OF NANTES, and its revocation.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1508-1599, and 1681-1608.

EDICT OF RESTITUTION, The.

See GERMANY: A, D. 1627-1620.

EDICTS, Roman imperial.

See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

EDINBURGH:
Origin of the city.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

EDINBURGH:11th Century.
Made the capital of Scotland.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1066-1003.

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1544.
Destroyed by the English.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1544-1548.

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1559-1560.
Seized by the Lords of the Congregation.
The Treaty of July, 1560.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1558-1560.

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1572-1573.
n the civil war.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1570-1573.

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1637.
Laud's Liturgy and the tumult at St. Giles'.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1637.

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1638.
The signing of the National Covenant.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1638.

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1650.
Surrender to Cromwell.
Siege and reduction of the Castle.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1650 (SEPTEMBER);
and 1651 (AUGUST).

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1688.
Rioting and revolution.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1688-1690.

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1707.
The city at the time of the union.

"Edinburgh, though still but a small town, excited the
admiration of travellers who were acquainted with the greatest
cities of England and the Continent; nor was their admiration
entirely due to the singular beauty of its situation. The
quaint architecture of the older houses--which sometimes rose
to the height of nine, ten or eleven stories--indeed, carried
back the mind to very barbarous times; for it was ascribed to
the desire of the population to live as near as possible to
the protection of the castle. The filth of the streets in the
early years of the 18th century was indescribable. ... The new
quarter, which now strikes every stranger by its spacious
symmetry, was not begun till the latter half of the 18th
century, but as early as 1723 an English traveller described
the High Street as 'the stateliest street in the world.' ...
Under the influence of the Kirk the public manners of the town
were marked by much decorum and even austerity, but the
populace were unusually susceptible of fierce political
enthusiasm, and when excited they were extremely formidable.
... A city guard, composed chiefly of fierce Highlanders,
armed and disciplined like regular soldiers, and placed under
the control of the magistrates, was established in 1606; and
it was not finally abolished till the present century.
Edinburgh, at the beginning of the 18th century, was more than
twice as large as any other Scotch town. Its population at the
time of the union slightly exceeded 30,000, while that of
Glasgow was not quite 15,000, that of Dundee not quite 10,000,
and that of Perth about 7,000."

_W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the 18th Century,
chapter 5 (volume 2)._

{673}

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1736.
The Porteous Riot.

"The circumstances of the Porteous Riot are familiar wherever
the English tongue is spoken, because they were made the
dramatic opening of one of his finest stories by that
admirable genius who, like Shakespeare in his plays, has
conveyed to plain men more of the spirit and action of the
past in noble fiction, than they would find in most professed
chronicles of fact. The early scenes of the 'Heart of
Midlothian' are an accurate account of the transaction which
gave so much trouble to Queen Caroline and the minister
[Walpole]. A smuggler who had excited the popular imagination
by his daring and his chivalry was sentenced to be hanged;
after his execution the mob pressed forward to cut down his
body: Porteous, the captain of the City Guard, ordered his men
to fire, and several persons were shot dead: he was tried for
murder, convicted, and sentenced, but at the last moment a
reprieve arrived from London, to the intense indignation of a
crowd athirst for vengeance: four days later, under mysterious
ringleaders who could never afterwards be discovered, fierce
throngs suddenly gathered together at nightfall to the beat of
drum, broke into the prison, dragged out the unhappy Porteous,
and sternly hanged him on a dyer's pole close by the common
place of public execution."

_J. Morley, Walpole, chapter 9._

ALSO IN:
_J. McCarthy, History of the Four Georges,
chapter 24 (volume 2)._

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1745.
The Young Pretender in the city.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1745-1746.

EDINBURGH: A. D. 1779.
No-Popery riots.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1778-1780.

----------EDINBURGH: End----------

EDINGTON, OR ETHANDUN, Battle of (A. D.878).

See ENGLAND: A. D. 855-880.

EDMUND,
King of Wessex, A. D. 940-947.

Edmund Ironside, King of Wessex, A. D. 1016.

EDOMITES, OR lDUMEANS, The.

"From a very early period the Edomites were the chief of the
nations of Arabia Petræa. Amongst the branches sprung,
according to Arab tradition, from the primitive Amalika, they
correspond to the Arcam, and the posterity of Esau, after
settling amongst them as we have seen, became the dominant
family from which the chiefs were chosen. The original
habitation of the Edomites was Mount Seir, whence they spread
over all the country called by the Greeks Gebalene, that is
the prolongation of the mountains joining on the north the
land of Moab, into the Valley of Arabah, and the surrounding
heights. ... Saul successfully fought the Edomites; under
David, Joab and Abishai, his generals, completely defeated
them, and David placed garrisons in their towns. In their
ports of Elath and Eziongeber were built the fleets sent to
India by Hiram and Solomon. ... After the schism of the ten
tribes, the Edomites remained dependent on the King of Judah."

_F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient History of the East,
book 7, chapter 4._

See, also,
NABATHEANS; JEWS: THE EARLY HEBREW
HISTORY; and AMALEKITES.

EDRED, King of Wessex, A. D. 947-955.

EDRISITES, The.

After the revolt of Moorish or Mahometan Spain from the
caliphate of Bagdad, the African provinces of the Moslems
assumed independence, and several dynasties became
seated--among them that of the Edrisites, which founded the
city and kingdom of Fez, and which reigned from A. D. 829 to
907.

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 52.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

See, also, MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-750.

----------EDRISITES: End----------

EDUCATION.

EDUCATION: Ancient.
Egypt.

"In the education of youth [the Egyptians] were particularly
strict; and 'they knew,' says Plato, 'that children ought to
be early accustomed to such gestures, looks, and motions as
are decent and proper; and not to be suffered either to hear
or learn any verses and songs other than those which are
calculated to inspire them with virtue; and they consequently
took care that every dance and ode introduced at their feasts
or sacrifices should be subject to certain regulations.'"

_Sir J. G. Wilkinson, The Manners and Customs
of the Ancient Egyptians, volume 1. page 321._

"The children were educated according to their station and
their future position in life. They were kept in strict
subjection by their parents, and respect to old age was
particularly inculcated; the children of the priests were
educated very thoroughly in writing of all kinds,
hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic, and in the sciences of
astronomy, mathematics, etc. The Jewish deliverer Moses was
educated after the manner of the priests, and the 'wisdom of
the Egyptians' became a proverbial expression among the
outside nations, as indicating the utmost limit of human
knowledge."

_E. A. W. Budge, The Dwellers on the Nile, chapter 10._

"On the education of the Egyptians, Diodorus makes the
following remarks:--'The children of the priests are taught
two different kinds of writing,--what is called the sacred,
and the more general; and they pay great attention to geometry
and arithmetic. For the river, changing the appearance of the
country very materially every year, is the cause of many and
various discussions among neighbouring proprietors about the
extent of their property; and it would be difficult for any
person to decide upon their claims without geometrical
reasoning, founded on actual observation. Of arithmetic they
have also frequent need, both in their domestic economy, and
in the application of geometrical theorems, besides its
utility in the cultivation of astronomical studies; for the
orders and motions of the stars are observed at least as
industriously by the Egyptians as by any people whatever; and
they keep record of the motions of each for an incredible
number of years, the study of this science having been, from
the remotest times, an object of national ambition with them.
... But the generality of the common people learn only from
their parents or relations that which is required for the
exercise of their peculiar professions, ... a few only being
taught anything of literature, and those principally the
better class of artificers.' Hence it appears they were not
confined to any particular rules in the mode of educating
their children, and it depended upon a parent to choose
the degree of instruction he deemed most suitable to their
mode of life and occupations, as among other civilised
nations."

_Sir J. G. Wilkinson, The Manners and Customs of
the Egyptians, volume 1, pages 175-176._

{674}

"There is nothing like being a scribe,' the wise say; 'the
scribe gets all that is upon earth.' ... The scribe is simply
a man who knows how to read and write, to draw up
administrative formulas, and to calculate interest. The
instruction which he has received is a necessary complement of
his position if he belongs to a good family, whilst if he be
poor it enables him to obtain a lucrative situation in the
administration or at the house of a wealthy personage. There
is, therefore, no sacrifice which the smaller folk deem too
great, if it enables them to give their sons the acquirements
which may raise them above the common people, or at least
insure a less miserable fate. If one of them, in his infancy,
displays any intelligence, they send him, when about six or
eight years old, to the district school, where an old
pedagogue teaches him the rudiments of reading, writing, and
arithmetic. Towards ten or twelve years old, they withdraw him
from the care of this first teacher and apprentice him to a
scribe in some office, who undertakes to make him a 'learned
scribe.' The child accompanies his master to his office or
work-yard, and there passes entire months in copying letters,
circulars, legal documents, or accounts, which he does not at
first understand, but which he faithfully remembers. There are
books for his use full of copies taken from well-known
authors, which he studies perpetually. If he requires a brief,
precise report, this is how Ennana worded one of his:--'I
reached Elephantine and accomplished my mission. I reviewed
the infantry and the chariot soldiers from the temples, as
well as the servants and subordinates who are in the houses of
Pharaoh's ... officials. As my journey is for the purpose of
making a report in the presence of his Majesty, ... the course
of my business is as rapid as that of the Nile; you need not,
therefore, feel anxious about me.' There is not a superfluous
word. If, on the other hand, a petition in a poetical style be
required, see how Pentoïrit asked for a holiday. 'My heart has
left me, it is travelling and does not know how to return, it
sees Memphis and hastens there. Would that I were in its
place. I remain here, busy following my heart, which
endeavours to draw me towards Memphis. I have no work in hand,
my heart is tormented. May it please the god Ptah to lead me
to Memphis, and do thou grant that I may be seen walking
there. I am at leisure, my heart is watching, my heart is no
longer in my bosom, languor has seized my limbs; my eye is
dim, my ear hardened, my voice feeble, it is a failure of all
my strength. I pray thee remedy all this.' The pupil copies
and recopies, the master inserts forgotten words, corrects the
faults of spelling, and draws on the margin the signs or
groups unskilfully traced. When the book is duly finished and
the apprentice can write all the formulas from memory,
portions of phrases are detached from them, which he must join
together, so as to combine new formulas; the master then
entrusts him with the composition of a few letters, gradually
increasing the number and adding to the difficulties. As soon
as he has fairly mastered the ordinary daily routine his
education is ended, and an unimportant post is sought for. He
obtains it and then marries, becoming the head of a family,
sometimes before he is twenty years old; he has no further
ambition, but is content to vegetate quietly in the obscure
circle where fate has thrown him."

_G. Maspéro, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, chapter 1._

"In the schools, where the poor scribe's child sat on the
same bench beside the offspring of the rich, to be trained in
discipline and wise learning, the masters knew how by timely
words to goad on the lagging diligence of the ambitious
scholars, by holding out to them the future reward which
awaited youths skilled in knowledge and letters. Thus the
slumbering spark of self-esteem was stirred to a flame in the
youthful breast, and emulation was stimulated among the boys.
The clever son of the poor man, too, might hope by his
knowledge to climb the ladder of the higher offices, for
neither his birth nor position raised any barrier, if only
the youth's mental power justified fair hopes for the future.
In this sense, the restraints of caste did not exist, and
neither descent nor family hampered the rising career of the
clever. Many a monument consecrated to the memory of some
nobleman gone to his long home, who during life had held high
rank at the court of Pharaoh, is decorated with the simple
but laudatory inscription, 'His ancestors were unknown
people.' It is a satisfaction to avow that the training and
instruction of the young interested the Egyptians in the
highest degree. For they fully recognised in this the sole
means of cultivating their national life, and of fulfilling
the high civilizing mission which Providence seemed to have
placed in their hands. But above all things they regarded
justice, and virtue had the highest price in their eyes."

_H. Brugsch-Bey, History of Egypt under the
Pharaohs, volume 1, page 22._

EDUCATION:
Babylonia and Assyria.