Chapter XX: Front Matter (20)

_Pur., &c._ It “is completely soluble in rectified spirit, and in water. What is precipitated from the aqueous solution by nitrate of silver is not entirely dissolved, either by ammonia, unless added in excess, or by hydrochloric or nitric acid.” (Ph. L.) “Snowy white; entirely soluble; solution colourless; loss of weight at 212° Fahr. not above 13%; 100 measures of a solution of 10 gr., in water, 1/2 fl. oz., heated to 212°, and decomposed with agitation by a faint excess of ammonia, yield a precipitate which, in 24 hours, occupies 12-1/2 measures of the liquid.” (Ph. E.) It takes 20 parts of cold and about its own weight of boiling water to dissolve it. The hydrochlorate of morphia of the shops is usually, like the acetate, under the form of a white crystalline powder.

_Obs._ Of all the salts of morphia, this one appears to be that most suitable for medical purposes, from its free solubility, and from its solution not being liable to spontaneous decomposition, at least under ordinary circumstances. “The opium which yields the largest quantity of precipitate by carbonate of sodium yields muriate of morphia, not only in the greatest proportion, but also with the fewest crystallisations.” (Ph. E.) Smyrna opium contains the most morphine.

=Morphia and Codei′a (Hydrochlorate of).= _Syn._ GREGORY’S SALT; MORPHIÆ ET CODEIÆ HYDROCHLORAS, L.; SEL DE GREGORY, Fr. This is commercial HYDROCHLORATE OF MORPHINE prepared according to Dr Gregory’s process.

=Morphia Mec′onates of.= (C_{19}H_{20}NO_{3})_{2},C_{7}H_{2}O_{7}. _Prep._ 1. (NEUTRAL MECONATE OF MORPHINE; MORPHIÆ MECONAS, L.) By saturating an aqueous solution of meconic acid with morphia, and evaporating the solution by a gentle heat, so that crystals may be obtained.

(2.) BIMECONATE OF MORPHINE; (MORPHIÆ BIMECONAS, L.) C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}HC_{7}H_{3}O_{7}. Meconic acid, 11 parts; morphia, 14 parts; dissolve each separately in hot water, q. s.; mix the solutions, and either gently evaporate and crystallise, or at once evaporate to dryness.

_Obs._ Morphia exists in opium under the form of bimeconate, and hence this preparation of that drug has been preferred by some practitioners. A solution of this salt for medical purposes may be directly prepared from opium, by treating its solution in cold water with a little animal charcoal, filtering, gently evaporating to dryness, redissolving the residuum, in cold water, filtering, and repeating the treatment with animal charcoal. The dose of the dry bimeconate is 1/4 gr., or more; and of the meconate rather less. “A powder is also sold, called ‘bimeconate of morphia,’ which is of the same strength as powdered opium, and is given in similar doses. It is obviously incorrect to apply this name to a powder which consists principally of foreign matter. It is to be hoped that physicians will not prescribe this powder under the above name, as such a practice might lead to fatal results, if the prescription should be prepared with the substance which the name strictly indicates.” (REDWOOD.)

=Morphia, Nitrate of.= (A. T. Thomson.) _Syn._ MORPHIÆ NITRAS. Add morphia in slight excess to very dilute nitric acid, filter, concentrate by gentle evaporation, and set aside that crystals may form.

=Morphia, Phosphate of.= _Syn._ MORPHIÆ PHOSPHAS. As the nitrate, substituting dilute phosphoric by nitric acid.

=Morphia, Sul′phate of.= _Syn._ MORPHIÆ SULPHAS, L. _Prep._ Saturate very dilute sulphuric acid with morphia, evaporate to one half, add a little animal charcoal, continue the evaporation for a short time longer at a gentle heat, filter whilst hot, and abandon it to spontaneous evaporation. It is decomposed by driving off the water of crystallisation. Sulphate of morphia is included in the Ph. U. S. According to Magendie, this salt sometimes agrees with patients who cannot bear the acetate.

=Morphia, Tartrate of.= (A. T. Thomson.) _Syn._ MORPHIÆ TARTRAS. _Prep._ Saturate a solution of tartaric acid with morphiæ, concentrate by evaporation, and set aside that crystals may form. By using an excess of acid an acid tartrate may be formed.

=MORPHIOM′ETRY.= A name given to the process of determining the richness of opium in morphia. See OPIUM.

=MORISON’S PILLS.= See _Patent medicines_.

=MORSU′LI.= An old name applied to lozenges and masticatories. It is still retained in some foreign Pharmacopœias.

=MOR′TAR= is the well-known cement, made of lime, sand, and water, employed to bind bricks and stones together in the construction of walls, buildings, &c.

In the composition of mortar stone lime is preferred to that obtained from chalk, and river sand to pit or road sand. Sea sand is unfitted for mortar until it has been well soaked and washed in fresh water. Sifted coal ashes are frequently substituted for the whole or a part of the sand.

HYDRAULIC MORTARS or CEMENTS are those which, like Roman cement, are employed for works which are either constantly submerged or are frequently exposed to the action of water. The poorer sorts of limestone are chosen for this purpose, or those which contain from 8% to 25% of alumina, magnesia, and silica. Such limestones, though calcined, do not slake when moistened; but if pulverised, they absorb water without swelling up or heating, like fat lime, and afford a paste which hardens in a few days under water, but in the air they never acquire much solidity.

“The essential constituents of every good hydraulic mortar are caustic lime and silica; and the hardening of this composition under water consists mainly in a chemical combination of these two ingredients through the agency of the water, producing a hydrated silicate of lime. But such mortars may contain other ingredients besides lime, as, for example, clay and magnesia, when double silicates of great solidity are formed; on which account dolomite is a good ingredient in these mortars. But the silica must be in a peculiar state for these purposes, namely, capable of affording a gelatinous paste with acids; and if not so already, it must be brought into this condition, by calcining it along with an alkali or an alkaline earth, at a bright red heat, when it will dissolve and gelatinise in acids. Quartzose sand, however fine its powder may be, will form no water mortar with lime; but if the powder be ignited with the lime, it then becomes fit for hydraulic cement. Ground felspar or clay forms with slaked lime, no water cement; but when they are previously calcined along with the lime, the mixture becomes capable of hardening under water.

“All sorts of lime are made hydraulic, in the humid way, by mixing the slaked lime with solutions of common alum or sulphate of alumina; but the best method consists in employing a solution of the silicate of potash, called liquor of flints or soluble glass, to mix in with the slaked lime or lime and clay. An hydraulic cement may also be made which will serve for the manufacture of architectural ornaments, by making a paste of pulverised chalk, with a solution of the silicate of potash. The said liquor of flints likewise gives chalk and plaster a stony hardness, by merely soaking them in it after they are cut or moulded to a proper shape. On exposure to the air they get progressively indurated. Superficial hardness may be readily procured by washing over the surface of chalk, &c., with liquor of flints, by means of a brush. This method affords an easy and elegant method of giving a stony crust to the plastered walls and ceilings of apartments; as also to statues and busts cast in gypsum mixed with chalk.”

Under Prof. Kuhlman’s patent, dated April, 1841, “instead of calcining the limestone with clay and sand alone, as has been hitherto commonly practised, this inventor introduces a small quantity of soda, or, preferably, potash, in the state of sulphate, carbonate, or muriate; salts susceptible of forming silicates when the earthy mixture is calcined. The alkaline salt, equal in weight to about 1-5th that of the lime, is introduced in solution among the earths.” (Ure.)

The hardening of the common mortars and cements is in a great measure due to the gradual absorption of carbonic acid; but even after a very great length of time this conversion into carbonate is not complete. Good mortar, under favorable circumstances, acquires extreme hardness by age.

Attempts have been made at various times to introduce the use of bituminous cements into this country, and thus to restore both to land and submarine architecture a valuable material which has now lain neglected for a period of fully thirty centuries; but, unfortunately, owing to the interest of our great building and engineering firms lying in another direction, these attempts have been hitherto unsuccessful. See ASPHALTUM, CEMENT, LIME, &c.

=MORTIFICA′TION= _Syn._ GANGRENE; GANGRENA, MORTIFICATION, L. Local death; the loss of vitality in one part of the animal body, whilst the rest continues living. “The terms gangrene and mortification are often used synonymously; but gangrene properly signifies the state which immediately precedes mortification, while the complete mortification, or absolute death of a part, is called sphacelus. A part which has passed into the state of sphacelus is called a slough.

=MOSA′IC GOLD.= See BRASS, GOLD, &c.

=MOS′SES.= _Syn._ MUSCI, L. Several vegetables of the natural orders _Algæ_, _Fungi_, _Lichenes_, and _Musci_, commonly pass under this name with the vulgar. Of these the following are the principal:——

BOG MOSS (_Sphagnum palustre_). Very retentive of moisture. Used to pack up plants for exportation.

CEYLON MOSS (_Gracilaria candida_). Very nutritive; made into a decoction or jelly, which is highly esteemed as an article of diet for invalids and children, more especially for those suffering under affections of the mucous membranes or phthisis.

CLUB MOSS (_Lycopodium clavatum_). See LYCOPODIUM.

CORSICAN MOSS, C. WORM M. (_Gracilaria Helminthocorton_).——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr., in powder, mixed up with sugar; as a vermifuge.

CUP MOSS, C. LICHEN (_Cladonia pyxidata_). Astringent and febrifuge. A cupful of the decoction, taken warm, generally proves gently emetic. Used in hooping-cough, &c.

FIR CLUB MOSS (_Lycopodium Selago_). Violently emetic and purgative. It is also irritant and narcotic.

ICELAND MOSS (_Cetraria Islandica_). Highly nutritious and easy of digestion. The decoction is a favourite alimentary substance in affections of the lungs and digestive organs. In Iceland, after the bitter has been removed by soaking it in hot water, it is made into jelly, or dried, ground to flour, and made into bread.

IRISH MOSS, PEARL M., CARRAGEEN M. (_Chondrus crispus_). Very nutritious. The decoction or jelly is a useful and popular demulcent and emollient in pulmonary affections, dysentery, scrofula, rickets, &c. It is often employed by cooks and confectioners instead of isinglass, and by painters to make their size.

REINDEER MOSS (_Cladonia rangiferina_). Esculent, very nutritious.

=MOTHER-OF-PEARL.= See PEARL.

=MOTH′ER WATER.= See CRYSTALLISATION.

=MOULDS.= Numerous materials and compositions are employed for the purpose of taking moulds, among which are the following:

1. (COMPO’.)——_a_ From spermaceti, stearine or hard tallow, and white wax, equal parts, melted together. For fine work, as medals, small casts, &c.

_b._ From black resin, 3/4 lb.; hard tallow, 1/2 lb.; beeswax, 6 oz.; as the last. For coarse work, as architectural ornaments, &c. The above are poured on the objects to be copied (previously oiled) whilst in the melted state. Articles in plaster of Paris are first soaked in water, observing that none of it remains on the surface so as to interfere with the design.

2. (ELASTIC.)——_a._ Flexible or elastic moulds may be made of gutta percha softened in boiling water, and after being freed from moisture, pressed strongly against the object to be copied by means of a screw press. A ring or support should be employed to prevent undue lateral spreading.

_b._ By the use of gelatin or glue, elastic moulds are formed capable of reproducing, with accuracy, and in a single piece, the most elaborately sculptured objects, of exquisite finish and delicacy. Casts from these are now common in the streets. The credit of the application of this substance to this purpose is due to M. H. Vincent. The process of casting consists in simply dissolving a certain quantity of gelatin in hot water until it is reduced to the state of liquid paste, when it is run over the object, previously oiled, intended to be reproduced. As it cools, the gelatin assumes a consistency offering a considerable degree of resistance, and is highly elastic, which latter quality enables it to be easily detached from the work on which it has been fitted. In the hollow formed by the gelatin the finest plaster, mixed to a thick cream with water, is next run; and when the plaster has acquired the requisite hardness, the gelatin mould is detached in the same manner as from the original. From this apparently fragile mould as many as six copies may be taken, all reproducing the original with unerring fidelity.

3. (METALLIC.)——_a._ From fusible metal.[42]

[Footnote 42: See FUSIBLE ALLOYS.]

_b._ (CLICHÉE MOULDS.) From a fusible alloy formed of bismuth, 8 parts; lead, 5 parts; tin, 4 parts; antimony, 1 part; repeatedly melted together. The above are poured out in the melted state on a plate or slab, and after being stirred until in a pasty state, the object to be copied is strongly pressed on the alloy at the moment it begins to solidify. They are chiefly used for medals and other like objects.

_c._ (Chameroy’s Patent.) By melting together one part of some easily fusible metal in a crucible, and then mixing with it four parts of a metal far less readily fusible, steeped in ammonia and reduced to powder. Such a compound is stated to be of great solidity, hardness, facility of soldering, melts at a low temperature, and has great tractability in moulding to any form; and in casting takes the sharpest impressions, whilst in its nature it is peculiarly unchangeable. See ELECTROTYPE.

=MOUTH COSMET′ICS.= See BREATH, TEETH, LOZENGE, PASTE, POWDER, &c.

=MOX′AS.= Substances burnt upon the body, for the purpose of acting as counter-irritants, and allaying deep-seated pains and inflammation. They have been used in gout, rheumatism, &c. The small cone constituting the moxa is placed upon a part, lighted, and allowed to burn to its base. The CHINESE and JAPANESE moxas are made of the downy portion of the leaves of a species of wormwood (_Artemisia sinensis_); but various other substances, as the pith of the sunflower, cotton, or paper, soaked in a weak solution of nitrate, chlorate, or chromate of potassium, answer as well. Larrey’s moxas consist of lycopodium, 4 oz.; nitre, 2 oz.; formed into small cones, with alcohol, and dried for some days. Dr Osborne used quicklime enclosed in a hoop of card, and moistened with water. The actual cautery is said to be preferable to any of them.

=MU′CILAGE.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO, L. An aqueous solution of gum, or other like substance, that gives a considerable consistency to water. See DECOCTION, MIXTURE, &c.

=Mucilage, Acacia.= (Ph. B.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO ACACIÆ. Put gum acacia, in small pieces, 4 oz., and distilled water, 6 oz., into a covered earthen jar, and stir frequently until the gum is dissolved. If necessary, strain through muslin.

=Mucilage, Fenugreek.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO FENUGRECI. Digest 1 oz. of fenugreek seed with 1/2 pint of water for 12 hours, boil, and strain with pressure.

=Mucilage, Linseed.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO LINI. Linseed, 1 oz.; warm water, 6 oz. Digest for 6 hours, stirring now and then, and strain.

=Mucilage, Liquorice.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO GLYCYRRHIZÆ. From liquorice root, as MARSHMALLOW MUCILAGE.

=Mucilage, Marshmallow.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO ALTHÆÆ. Marshmallow root, 1 oz.; boiling water, 6 oz.; digest for 6 hours, and strain.

=Mucilage, Quicksilver.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO MERCURIALIS PLENKII. Quicksilver, 1 dr.; gum Arabic, 3 dr.; syrup of poppies, 4 oz. Mix.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr.

=Mucilage, Sassafras.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO SASSAFRAS. Infuse 2 dr. of pith of sassafras in 16 oz. (old measure) of boiling water for 3 hours, and strain.

=Mucilage, Slippery-Elm Bark.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ MUCILAGO ULMI. Slippery-elm bark, sliced and bruised, 1 oz.; boiling water, 16 oz. Infuse for 2 hours.

=Mucilage, Starch.= (Ph. B.) Same as DECOCTION OF STARCH (Ph. L.), which _see_.

=Mucilage, Tra′gacanth.= _Syn._ MUCILAGO TRAGACANTHÆ (B. P., Ph. E., and Ph. D 1826), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Tragacanth, 2 dr.; boiling water, 9 fl. oz. (8 fl. oz.——Ph. D.); macerate for 24 hours, triturate, and press through linen.

2. (B. P.) Tragacanth, in powder, 60 gr.; distilled water, 10 oz. To the water contained in a pint bottle add the tragacanth, agitate briskly for a few minutes, and again at short intervals, until the tragacanth is perfectly diffused, and has finally formed a mucilage.——_Dose_, 1 oz. (Should be made as required. One part of tragacanth gives more viscosity to water than twenty-five parts of gum Arabic——Squire.) Used in medicine as a demulcent, and as an application to burns, &c., and in pharmacy in making up pills, and to suspend heavy powders in liquids.

=MUDAR′IN.= _Syn._ MADARINE. A peculiar substance, possessing powerful emetic properties, extracted from the root bark of _Calotropis gigantea_, in which it exists to the extent of 11%. (Duncan.) It is soluble in water and in alcohol, and its aqueous solution, unlike that of most other substances, gelatinises by heat, and becomes fluid again on cooling.

=MUF′FINS.= _Prep._ Take of fine flour, 1/4 peck; warm milk-and-water, 1 quart; yeast, a wine-glassful; salt, 2 oz.; mix for 15 minutes, then further add of flour, 1/4 peck, make a dough, let it rise 1 hour, roll it up, pull it into pieces, make them into balls, put them in a warm place, and when the whole dough is made into balls, shape them into muffins, and bake them on tins; turn them when half done, dip them into warm milk, and bake them to a pale brown.

=MUF′FLE.= See ASSAYING.

=MUL′BERRY.= _Syn._ MORUM, L. Mulberries (MORA, MORI BACCÆ) are the fruit of _Morus nigra_, or black mulberry tree. They are cooling and laxative; but when eaten too freely are apt to disorder the stomach and bowels. Mulberry juice (_mori succus_) is officinal in the Ph. L. A syrup (SYRUPUS MORI) is made of it. It is also, occasionally, made into wine.

=MUL′TUM.= A mixture of extract of quassia and liquorice, used by fraudulent brewers instead of malt and hops.

=MUM.= A beverage prepared from wheat malt, in a similar way to ordinary beer from barley malt. A little oat and bean meal is frequently added. It was formerly much drunk in England; but its use at the present day is chiefly confined to Germany, and to Brunswick more particularly.

=MUMPS.= _Syn._ PAROTITIS, L. Inflammation of the parotid gland, which is situated under the ear. There is little constitutional derangement, but the cheeks become swollen and painful, and there is some difficulty in opening the mouth, and in swallowing. The treatment consists in simply keeping the part warm with flannel, and the use of warm fomentations, at the same time that the bowels are kept freely open with some mild laxative.

The mumps are said to be contagious, as, when the affection appears in a school, it generally attacks every member of it. Low, damp situations are those most favorable to this affection.

=MUREX′ID.= C_{8}N_{6}H_{8}O_{6}. _Syn._ PURPURATE OF AMMONIUM.

_Prep._ (Gregory.) Alloxan, 7 parts; alloxantin, 4 parts; boiling water, 240 parts; dissolve, and add the solution to a cold and strong solution of carbonate of ammonia, 80 parts; crystals of murexid will separate as the liquid cools.

_Obs._ Murexid can be obtained directly from uric acid by the action of nitric acid and subsequent treatment with ammonia. This process is, however, very precarious, and often fails altogether.

_Prop., &c._ It is only very slightly soluble in cold water; freely soluble in solutions of ammonia and the fixed alkalies; the first, by exposure to the air, becomes purple, and deposits brilliant crystals of murexid. These compounds are the purpurates of Dr Prout. It forms iridescent crystals, having a metallic lustre, of a magnificent green colour by reflected light, and an equally beautiful reddish purple by transmitted light. It is soluble in boiling water, only very slightly soluble in cold water, and insoluble in alcohol and ether. A few years ago murexid was extensively used in dyeing; it is now almost superseded by rosaniline or magenta. An analogous substance, formed as above, by treating amalic acid with ammonia, is called ‘caffein-murexid.’

=MU′′RIATE.= An old name for hydrochlorate and chloride.

=MURIATIC ACID.= _Syn._ HYDROCHLORIC ACID, which _see_.

=MURIDE.= The name originally given to bromine by M. Balard.

=MUR′RAIN.= _Syn._ BLACK-LEG, BLACK-QUARTER. A disease affecting meat cattle, more especially young animals, in the spring and autumn. The common symptoms are swelling and discoloration of one of the hind quarters of the animal, with consequent lameness and inability to move; a peculiar emphysema and intumescence of various parts of the body, particularly over the region of the spine, accompanied with all the common indications of putrid fever. In severe cases gangrene soon follows, and death frequently ensues in from 12 to 24 hours.

The rapid progress of this disease admits of little being done in the way of cure. Extensive scarifications of the affected part, charcoal or hot yeast poultices, or fomentations, and active purgatives, appear to constitute the most useful treatment. The following drenches have been recommended for this affection:——

1. (Blaine.) Sweet spirit of nitre, 1/2 fl. oz.; powdered cascarilla, 2 oz.; solution of acetate of ammonia, 4 fl. oz.; yeast, 8 fl. oz.; given every 3 or 4 hours.

2 (Clater.) Laudanum and sweet spirit of nitre, of each 1/2 fl. oz.; solution of chloride of lime, 1/4 fl. oz.; prepared chalk, 1 oz.; warm gruel, 1 pint.

The apparent incurability of this disease renders it of the utmost importance to the farmer to adopt preventive measures. These should consist of the supply of wholesome food and pure water, the adoption of extreme cleanliness, and the free access of pure air to all the stalls, sheds, and other buildings in which the cattle may be sheltered. As the disease is regarded as contagious by many persons, it is prudent to separate, as speedily as possible, the healthy animals from those affected. The free use of sulphurous acid, chloride of lime, &c., as disinfectants, is also advisable.

Other and more immediate preventives consist of the occasional exhibition of a saline aperient, and the introduction of a seton into the dewlap.

=MUSCULAR POWER.= Fick and Wislicenus proved, in 1865, that muscular power is to a great extent produced by the oxidation of such non-nitrogenous substance as fat. Frankland has put the matter beyond dispute by a series of experiments determining the amount of potential energy locked up in muscle. Some of the conclusions at which he has arrived are extremely interesting. He considers that a muscle is a machine for the conversion of potential energy into mechanical force; that the mechanical force of the muscles is derived chiefly, if not entirely, from the oxidation of matters either contained in the blood or deposited around the muscular fibres, and not from the oxidation of the muscles themselves; that in man the chief materials used for the production of muscular power are non-nitrogenous; but nitrogenous matters can also be employed for the same purpose, and hence the greatly increased evolution of nitrogen, under the influence of a flesh diet, even with no increase of muscular exertion; that like every other part of the body, the muscles are constantly being renewed, but this renewal is scarcely perceptibly more rapid during great muscular activity than during comparative quiescence; that after the supply of sufficient albuminoid matters in the food of man to provide for the necessary renewal of the tissues, the best materials for the production both of internal and external work are non-nitrogenous matters, such as oil, fat, sugars, starch, and gum; that the non-nitrogenous matters of food which find their way into the blood yield up all their potential energy as actual energy; the nitrogenous matters, on the other hand, leave the body with a portion (at least one seventh) of their potential energy unexpended; and, lastly, that the transformation of potential energy into muscular power is necessarily accompanied by the production of heat within the body, even when the muscular power is exerted externally. This is doubtless the chief, and probably the only, source of natural heat. See ENERGY, EXERCISE.

=MUSH′ROOMS.= Edible fungi. The species commonly eaten in England are the _Agaricus campestris_, or common field or garden mushroom, used to make ketchup, and eaten either raw, stewed, or broiled;——the _Morchella esculenta_, or morel, used to flavour soups and gravies;——and the _Tuber cibarium_, or common truffle, also used as a seasoning.

Several fungi, which to the inexperienced closely resemble the common edible mushroom, possess poisonous narcotic properties, and their use has not unfrequently been productive of serious, and, in some cases, even fatal results. Unfortunately, no simple tests exist by which the edible and poisonous varieties can be distinguished from each other. So strongly was the late Professor L. C. Richards, the eminent botanist, impressed with this feeling, that though no one was better acquainted with the distinctions of fungi than he was, yet he would never eat any except such as had been raised in gardens, in mushroom beds.

“This difficulty of distinguishing edible from poisonous and noxious fungi must not be ignored. If only one out of a hundred, or for the matter of that a thousand, species were poisonous or noxious, it would not be sound advice to say that we should eat all that come to hand, and stand the chance of baneful results. Unfortunately it is the case that some of the most poisonous fungi are the most common, and there is scarcely a field, and perhaps not a single wood, which does not abound with varieties of _Coprinus_, the _Agaricus fascicularis_, and the beautifully coloured _Thussula emetica_, and several other very undesirable species. Some writers, and among them, if we remember rightly, the learned and enthusiastic mycologist, Dr Badham, deny the existence of any poisonous fungi in our islands, and they account for the effects which are often produced by eating varieties different from our common mushroom by stating that some people, through idiosyncrasy of constitution, are injuriously affected by all fungi; and in support of this statement they instance the well-known fact that some people experience the most unpleasant effects after eating the common edible mushroom, which chemically contains noxious ingredients. We all know that idiosyncrasy of constitution may account for much and for very strange phenomena; for instance, oysters are almost poison to some persons, while roast beef will cause hysterics in other cases; and to not a few certain odours, harmless in themselves, are causes of serious attacks of illness; but the fact remains that persons who can eat with impunity and greatly enjoy the common mushroom are unpleasantly affected by other species of fungi. Not a year passes but deaths are recorded of persons——sometimes of whole families——after eating noxious fungi, though they had no idiosyncrasy of constitution; and shortly prior to the writing of this article a learned botanist and enthusiastic mycologist, and a friend, in experimenting on some specimens of fungi sent to him, narrowly escaped death, while another person who partook of the dish prepared actually succumbed. A thousand and one tests have been given in writing from time to time whereby our ordinary mushroom is to be distinguished from species which resemble it——and one species is to be distinguished from another; but we fear that practically they are not to be depended upon. Fungi differ in appearance according to the localities in which they grow, and according to their age. The common belief that the edible species never change colour when cut or bruised is untenable, for three varieties at least are perfectly edible, and yet assume different tints when injured in any way. The test of taste, too, which is applied under the idea that those with a pleasant savour and an inoffensive smell are always wholesome, is fallacious, for a raw mushroom is quite a different thing from the stewed or grilled one, and often what has an acrid taste when raw becomes perfectly savoury when cooked; and, _vice versâ_, a tasteless fungus may be poisonous, but only develop its latent flavour when submitted to the cook. Dr Christison declares that a sure test of poisonous fungus is an astringent, styptic taste, and a disagreeable pungent odour; but this, again, cannot always be depended on. Nor, again, is the popular idea that a mushroom which will skin easily is wholesome altogether based on fact. What, then, is to be done to enlarge the field of our mushroom gatherers and to bring about the utilisation of food now suffered to run to waste, or, in other words, how is a knowledge of our fungi to be obtained? The only answer is that knowledge on this matter is to be got, generally speaking, as knowledge on other matters——partly from books, but more especially from oral instruction and demonstration. Such eminent authorities as Dr Badham, the Rev. M. Berkeley, Mr Cooke, and Mr Worthington Smith may be consulted with profit, and works such as that on ‘Domestic Economy,’ in which coloured plates bring accurately before the eye the different species of our fungi. And here we may mention that the plates prepared by Mr Worthington Smith, which were once at the South Kensington Museum, but now, we believe, at Bethnal Green, have done much to help the Londoner when in search for mushrooms in the country to distinguish between the good and bad species of fungi. It might be well that in our schools, where so many practically useless branches of knowledge are crammed into children both in town and country, practical lessons on fungi should be given. Those, too, who wish to learn what is to be learned on this subject should avail themselves of opportunities now often given at exhibitions and botanical meetings. At Paris, in 1876, there was an exhibition of edible and poisonous fungi, in a fresh and dry state, together with books and drawings; and a similar exhibition took place in Aberdeen two years before; and, as most of our readers are probably aware, there exists a Fungus Club, or, rather, a botanical society which makes fungi a special study. This is the Woolhope Club, which has its head quarters at Hereford, and embraces in its scientific investigations all the district between Shropshire and the Bristol Channel. One day in each autumn is devoted to a fungus hunt, and the numbers that are gathered by this enthusiastic band are something enormous. The labours of the day are closed by a dinner, at which the main dishes are composed of the spoils of the chase, dressed in the most epicurean fashion, and of other good things flavoured with the most appetising (fungus) sauces. In the annual volume published of the transactions of the club there is a description of the fungi of the district, and the best modes of cooking them. It would be a great gain to the public if at least that part dealing with fungi were generally obtainable.

“Gastronomically the ordinary mushroom, and a large number of our British fungi, are most estimable, and ketchup produced from them——not the ordinary ketchup ‘of commerce,’ which is often innocent of any fungi whatever——is to the cultivated taste of the gourmet the best of sauces. Many an epicurean has been heard to aver that after that of an oyster that of a mushroom is the finest in the whole world of gastronomy. Bacon, in his ‘Naturall Historie,’ says of mushrooms, ‘they yield a delicious meat,’ and to these commendations it may be added that they can be cooked in almost as many ways as the French can cook eggs. Their alimentary value is also great, for chemistry has revealed in them the presence of the leading principles which exist in the flesh of animals. Dr Letheby says that ‘the edible varieties are highly nutritious,’ and that well-known dietist, the late Dr Edward Smith, who was very chary of commending anything, also has a good word for them.

“Our word ‘mushroom’ is evidently an adaptation of the French _mousseron_, which, of course, is from _mousse_ ‘_moss_’ (Latin, _muscus_); but the suggestion of the learned Salmasius, that the French gave this name to the edible fungus ‘because it grows only where the grass is the shortest and there is little else but moss,’ strikes one as rather weak. The mushroom, like the moss, is a cryptogamous plant; but there is little connection in any way between the two. Perhaps, then, we must look to the Greek word _mucos_, though only used by the grammarians, for the origin of the French word and so of our own. This was one of the terms which signified a ‘sponge,’ and was probably applied to the ‘fungi’ because of their sponge-like growth. It is evident that some of our more exact botanists, or etymologists who compounded the word for them, consider the Greek word and not the Latin as the origin of the _mu_ in the English word and the _mou_ in the French, though, according to analogy, the _u_ should have been changed into a _y_, for the study of ‘fungi’ is termed by them _mycology_. It is hardly necessary to add that the words ‘fungology’ and ‘fungologist’ are hybrid compounds of Greek and Latin, which are simply intolerable to ears correct, as are many other words similarly compounded, and recently introduced into our language. The Latin _fungus_ is plainly a weakened form of the Greek _spongos_, and goes to show that the idea of a ‘sponge’ was from the first associated with the _fungi_, and that the Greek _mucos_ must be taken as the origin of the French _mousseron_ and the English ‘mushroom.’ It is curious that the Greek, Latin, and English ‘fungous’ terms have all been used in a sense reflecting on some of our species. The Greek _mucos_ represented a silly, stupid fellow, and the Plautus couples the fungi——‘soft-pated’——with the ‘fools,’ ‘stolid’ and ‘fatuous.’ In like manner in our own language, Bacon speaks of certain persons as ‘mushrooms and upstart weeds’ because of their sudden growth from a lowly origin. South, in one of his sermons, reflects on “mushroom divines who start up of a sudden,” and whose success is ‘not so good as to recommend their practice.’ Carrying out the same analogy, the late Albert Smith, if we recollect rightly, spoke of ‘stuck-up people’ as springing like mushrooms suddenly into notice, and, like them, from very questionable soil.

“One word as to the connection between fungi and what are called ‘fairy rings’ in our meadows. These fairy rings unfortunately lose all their poetry when it is known that they are simply produced by the growth of various kinds of fungi. The fungi start from a centre, owing to some peculiarity of the soil and decaying vegetable matter in it, and when they have exhausted the spot on which they originally sprang up, they enlarge their borders, as it were, and thus form circles, giving a darker tinge to the herbage affected by them. These rings increase in size annually, and thus they vary considerably in circumference. This is a prosaic but truthful explanation of the phenomenon which so often attracts the attention of children and puzzles the heads of older persons.”[43]

[Footnote 43: ‘Daily Telegraph.’]

In cases of poisoning by fungi, vomiting should be immediately induced by an emetic and tickling the fauces with the finger or a feather; after which a purgative clyster or a strong cathartic should be administered, with 1/2 to 1 fl. dr. of ether in a glassful of water or weak brandy. As an antidote, a solution of tannin, 1/2 dr., in water, 1-1/2 pint, or a decoction of 1/2 oz. of powdered galls, or of 1 oz. of powdered cinchona bark, in a like quantity of water, has been strongly recommended by M. Chansarel.

Alexis Soyer recommended the excellent method of cooking mushrooms by baking them under a glass or basin on toast, along with scalded or clotted cream, or a little melted butter, with one clove, and salt, pepper, &c., to taste. They take about 1/4 of an hour in a gentle oven or before the fire. When they are taken up, do not remove the glass for a few minutes, by which time the vapour will have become condensed and gone into the bread; but when it is, the aroma, which is the essence of the mushroom, is so powerful as to pervade the whole apartment.

=MUSK.= _Syn._ MOSCHUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “A secretion deposited in a follicle of the prepuce of _Moschus moschiferus_, Linn.” (Ph. L.), an animal inhabiting the mountains of Eastern Asia. It is imported from Bengal, China, and Russia; and, latterly, from the United States of America. That known as TONQUIN MUSK is the most esteemed for its odour; but that from Russia is the only kind which reaches us in perfect bags, or which has not been tampered with. POD MUSK (MOSCHUS IN VESICIS) is the bag in its natural state, containing the musk. The average weight of one of the pods is about 6 dr.; that of the grain musk which it contains, about 2-1/2 dr.

_Pur_, _&c._ The musk of the shops is generally adulterated. Dried bullock’s blood or chocolate is commonly employed for this purpose, along with a little bone-black. The extent of these additions varies from 25% to 75% of the gross weight of the mixture. The blood is dried by the heat of steam or a water bath, then reduced to coarse powder, and triturated with the genuine musk in a mortar along with a few drops of liquid of ammonia. It is then either replaced in the empty pods, or it is put into bottles, and sold as grain musk. There are only three certain ways of detecting this fraud, viz.——by the inferiority of the odour, by an assay for the iron contained in the blood, or——by the microscope. Genuine musk often becomes nearly inodorous by keeping, but recovers its smell on being exposed to the vapour of ammonia, or by being moistened with ammonia water. The perfumers sometimes expose it to the fetid ammoniacal effluvia of privies for the same purpose.

Pure musk, by trituration or digestion with boiling water, loses about 75% of its weight, and the boiling solution, after precipitation with nitric acid, is nearly colourless. A solution of acetate of lead, and a cold decoction of galls, also precipitate the solution; but one of corrosive sublimate does not disturb it. The ashes left after the incineration of pure musk are neither red nor yellow, but grey, and should not exceed 5 to 6%. The Chinese appear to be the most skilful and successful adulterators of musk. One of the best solvents for musk is ether.

_Uses_, _&c._ Musk is chiefly employed for its odour. As a _medicine_ it is a powerful stimulant and antispasmodic, and is a valuable remedy in various diseases of a spasmodic or hysterical character, or attended with low fever.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 grains made into an emulsion.

=Musk, Factitious.= _Syn._ RESIN OF AMBER; RESINA SUCCINI, MOSCHUS ARTIFICIALIS, M. FACTITIUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Oil of amber, 1 fl. dr.; nitric acid, 3-1/2 fl. dr.; digest in a cold tumbler, and after 24 hours, wash in cold water the orange-yellow resinous matter which has formed, and carefully dry it.

2. (Elsner.) From oil of amber, 1 part; fuming nitric acid, 3 parts; as the last, but employing artificial cold to prevent any portion of the oil being carbonised.

_Obs._ Resin of amber smells strongly of musk, and is said to be antispasmodic and nervine. A tincture (TINCTURA RESINÆ SUCCINI) is made by dissolving 1 dr. of it in rectified spirit, 10 fl. dr., of which the dose is 1 fl. dr.; in hooping-cough, low fevers, &c.

Dr Collier mentions an artificial musk, prepared by digesting for 10 days nitric acid, 1/2 oz., on fetid animal oil, obtained by distillation, 1 oz.; then adding of rectified spirit, 1 pint, and digesting the whole for a month.

=MUSK SEED.= _Syn._ GRAINS D’AMBRETTE. The seed of _Abelmoschus moschatus_, or musk mallow. They are chiefly used for their odour, in perfumery, hair powder, coffee, &c.

=MUS′SEL.= See SHELL-FISH.

=MUST.= _Syn._ MUSTUM, L. The expressed juice of ripe grapes, before fermentation. When boiled to 2-3 dr. it is called CARENUM; when boiled to 1/2, it is called SAPA. On further concentration, it yields a species of granular sugar (grape sugar.)

=Must, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ MUSTUM FACTITIUM, L. _Prep._ Dissolve cream of tartar, 3/4 oz., in boiling water, 7 pints; when cold, add of lump sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; raisins (chopped small), 1/2 lb.; digest for 3 or 4 hours, strain through flannel as quickly as possible, and add of lemon juice, 1/2 pint.

=MUS′TARD.= _Syn._ SINAPIS, L. “The seed of _Sinapis nigra_ and _S. alba_.” (Ph. L.) “Flour of the seeds of _Sinapis nigra_, generally mixed with those of _Sinapis alba_, and deprived of fixed oil by expression.” (Ph. E.) “The flour of the seeds.” (Ph. D.) “The seeds of the _Sinapis nigra_ and _S. alba_ reduced to powder and mixed.” (B. P.) That of the shops is very frequently adulterated with wheat flour. When this is the case it does not readily make a smooth paste with water, but exhibits considerable toughness, and somewhat of a stringy appearance, especially when little water and much heat is employed. The common proportions taken by some grocers are——dried common salt, wheat flour, and superfine mustard, equal parts; with turmeric, to colour, and cayenne, q. s. to give it piquancy and fire.

_Uses_, _&c._ Pure flour of mustard is used in medicine, to make stimulating poultices, pediluvia, &c. As a condiment it is useful in torpor and coldness of the digestive organs. A few years since the use of mustard seed, by spoonfuls, _ad libitum_, was a common and fashionable remedy in torpor or atony of the digestive organs. The practice was a revival of that recommended by Dr Cullen; but it has now again sunk into disuse. Sir John Sinclair also approved of the use of mustard seed in this way, especially for the preservation of the health of the aged. (‘Lancet,’ Jan., 1834.) See POULTICES, &c.

=Mustard for the Table.= The common practice of preparing mustard for the table with vinegar, or still more, with boiling water, materially checks the development of those peculiar principles on which its pungency or strength almost entirely depends. To economise this substance, we should use lukewarm water only; and when flavouring matter is to be added to it, this is better deferred until after the paste is made. The following forms for ‘made mustard’ are much esteemed for their flavour:——

_Prep._ 1. Mustard (ground), 3-1/2 lbs.; water, q. s. to form a stiff paste; in 1/2 hour add of common salt (rubbed very fine), 1 lb.; with vinegar, grape juice, lemon juice, or white wine, q. s. to reduce it to a proper consistence.

2. To the last add a little soluble cayenne pepper or essence of cayenne.

3. (Lenormand.) Best flour of mustard, 2 lbs.; fresh parsley, chervil, celery, and tarragon, of each 1/2 oz.; garlic, 1 clove; 12 salt anchovies; (all well chopped); grind well together, add of salt, 1 oz.; grape juice or sugar q. s. to sweeten; with sufficient water to form the mass into a thinnish paste by trituration in a mortar. When put into pots, a red-hot poker is to be thrust into each, and a little vinegar afterwards poured upon the surface.

4. (MOUTARDE A L’ESTRAGON.) From black mustard seed (gently dried until friable, and then finely powdered), 1 lb.; salt, 2 oz.; tarragon vinegar, q. s. to mix. In a similar way the French prepare several other ‘mustards,’ by employing vinegars flavoured with the respective substances, or walnut or mushroom ketchup, or the liquors of the richer pickles.

5. (MOUTARDE SUPERBE.) Salt, 1-1/2 lb.; scraped horseradish, 1 lb.; garlic, 2 cloves; boiling vinegar, 2 galls.; macerate in a covered vessel for 24 hours, strain, and add of flour of mustard, q. s.

6. (Patent.) Black ginger (bruised), 12 lbs.; common salt, 18 lbs.; water, 15 galls.; boil, strain, and add to each gallon flour of mustard, 5 lbs.

=Mustard Leaves= (Rigollot’s) are made by spreading moistened mustard on paper, and drying.

=MUS′TINESS.= See MALT LIQUORS and WINES.

=MU′TAGE.= The term applied to the ‘matching’ of grape must to arrest the progress of fermentation. See ANTIFERMENT, MATCHES, &c.

=MUT′TON.= The flesh of sheep. That of the first quality is “between four and five years old; but at present it is rarely got above three, and often under two. The flesh ought to be of a darkish, clear, red colour, the fat firm and white, the meat short and tender when pinched, and it ought not to be too fat.” The flesh of the ‘Southdown wether’ is esteemed the finest flavoured. Mutton is one of the most wholesome of the ‘red meats,’ and in commercial importance is second only to beef. See MEAT.

=MY′COSE.= A peculiar variety of sugar, extracted by alcohol from ergot of rye. It crystallises in colourless prisms, and is distinguished from cane sugar by not reducing the acetate of copper, when boiled with a solution of that salt.

=MYLABRIS.= _Syn._ MYLABRIS CICHORII; CHINESE BLISTERING FLY. An insect found on the flowers of the succory plant in India and China. It is about an inch and a quarter in length; sheath-wings black, each presenting anteriorly two almost quadrate, brownish-yellow spots; behind these two brownish-yellow bands, each of which equals about one sixth of the length of the sheath-wings. Its vesicant properties are due to the presence of cantharidin.

Its physiological actions are the same as those of cantharides, except that it is said not to affect the kidneys when topically applied.

=MYRICIN.= The portion of beeswax which is least soluble in alcohol, and saponified with difficulty.

=MYRISTIC ACID.= HC_{14}H_{27}O_{2}. A monobasic fatty acid, obtained by the saponification of myristin. It melts at 120° Fahr.

=MYRIS′TIN.= C_{45}H_{86}O_{6}. _Syn._ SERICINE. The white, solid portion of the expressed oil of nutmegs, which is insoluble in cold alcohol. See MYRISTIC ACID.

=MYROLES.= In French _pharmacy_, solutions of oleaginous or resinous substances in the volatile oils.

=MYRON′IC ACID.= HC_{10}H_{18}NS_{2}O_{10}. Bussy has given this name to an inodorous, bitter, non-crystallisable acid, obtained by him from black mustard, in which it exists as myronate of potassium. It is soluble in water and alcohol.

=MYROSIN.= _Syn._ EMULSIN OR BLACK MUSTARD. A name given by Bussy to a peculiar substance, soluble in water, and which possesses the power of converting myronic acid, in the presence of water, into the volatile oil of mustard seed.

=MYROSPERMIN.= The name given by Richter to the portion of the oil of balsam of Peru, which is soluble in alcohol.

=MYROX′ILIN.= The name given by Richter to the portion of the oil of balsam of Peru which is insoluble in alcohol. By oxygenation it forms myroxilic acid.

=MYRRH.= _Syn._ MYRRHA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “Gum resin exuded from the bark of _Balsamodendron myrrha_.” (B. P., Ph. L.)

_Pur._——1. Triturate a small quantity of the powder of the suspected myrrh with an equal amount of chloride of ammonium, adding water, gradually; if the whole is readily dissolved, the myrrh is genuine; otherwise it is sophisticated with some inferior substance. (Righini.)——2. When incinerated it should not leave more than 3-1/2 to 4% of ashes.

_Uses, &c._ Myrrh is a stimulating aromatic bitter and tonic, and is given in several diseases accompanied by relaxation and debility; especially in excessive secretions from the mucous membranes, and in disorders of the digestive organs. _Externally_, as an ingredient in dentifrices and rashes, in caries of the teeth, spongy and ulcerated gums, &c.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.; either alone or combined with aloes or chalybeates.

=NAILS (The)= should be kept clean by the daily use of the nail-brush and soap-and-water. After wiping the hands, but whilst they are still soft from the action of the water, the skin, which is apt to grow over the nails, should be gently loosened and pressed back, which will not only preserve them neatly rounded, but will prevent the skin cracking around their roots (agnails, nail-springs), and becoming sore. The free ends or points of the nails should be pared about once a week; and biting them should be particularly avoided, as being at once destructive to their beauty and usefulness. “The (free) edge of the scarf-skin should never be pared, the surface of the nail never scraped, or the nails cleaned with any instrument whatever saving the nail-brush.” (Eras. Wilson.)

The consequences of wearing a shoe that is obviously too short for the foot are thus described by the above authority:——“In this case Nature gives us warning, by means of her agent, pain, that such a proceeding is contrary to her laws. We stop our ears, and get accustomed to the pain, which, perhaps, is not severe, and soon goes off; the shoes get a scolding for their malice, and we forget all about it for a time. But does Nature check her course to suit the convenience of thoughtless men? No, no. In a short time we find that the nail, intercepted in its forward course, has become unusually thick and hard, and has spread out so much upon the sides, that it is now growing into the flesh, and so makes a case for the doctor. Or, perhaps, the continuance of pressure may have inflamed the sensitive skin at the root, and caused a sore and painful place there. And instances are by no means infrequent in which the power of production of the nail at the root becomes entirely abrogated, and then it grows in thickness only.”

When the nails are stained or discoloured, a little lemon juice, or vinegar-and-water, is the best application. Occasionally, a little pumice-stone, in impalpable powder, or a little ‘putty powder,’ may be used along with water and a piece of soft leather or flannel for the same purpose. The frequent employment of these substances is, however, injurious to the healthy growth of the nail.

=NANKEEN′.= The coloured cotton cloth which bears this name was originally brought from Nankin, the ancient capital of China, and was prepared from a native cotton, of a brownish-yellow hue. It is now successfully imitated in England, and at the present time the English manufacturers supply the Canton market. In this country the colour is generally given to the cloth by successive baths of sulphate of iron and crude carbonate of soda or lime water.

=NANKEEN DYE.= The liquid sold under this name in the shops is a solution of annotta. It is employed to dye white calicoes of a nankeen colour; but chiefly to restore the colour of faded nankeen clothing.

=NAPH′THA.= _Syn._ MINERAL NAPHTHA; NAPHTHA, L. A name given to the limpid and purer varieties of PETROLEUM (which _see_), or ROCK OIL, which exudes from the surface of the earth in various parts of the world.

_Prop._ Naphtha possesses a penetrating odour and a yellow colour, but may be rendered colourless by distillation; it usually begins to boil at a temperature of about 180° Fahr., but, being a mixture of several different hydrocarbons, it has no fixed boiling-point; it is very inflammable; it does not mix with water, but imparts to that fluid its peculiar taste and smell; mixes with alcohol and oils, and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, camphor, iodine, most of the resins, wax, fats, and spermaceti; and forms with caoutchouc a gelatinous varnish, which dries with very great difficulty.

_Pur._ Mineral naphtha is very frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine, a fraud which may be detected by——1. The addition of some oil of vitriol, which will, in that case, thicken and darken it.——2. Hydrochloric acid gas passed through the liquid for an hour, will occasion the formation of hydrochlorate of camphine, either at once or after a few hours’ repose, even if only 5% of oil of turpentine is present. (Dr Bolley.)——3. If a few grains of iodide of potassium and a little water are rubbed with the suspected sample, the colour of the water should continue unchanged; the presence of 1/300th part of oil turpentine will cause it to assume a red or orange colour. (Saladin.)

_Uses._ Naphtha is chiefly employed for the purposes of illumination, as a solvent for india rubber, and in the preparation of a very superior black pigment. It has been highly spoken of as a remedy for cholera, by Dr Andreosky, a Russian physician. See PETROLEUM, and _below_.

=Naphtha, Coal-tar.= _Syn._ NAPHTHA, COAL N. A mixture of volatile hydrocarbons, obtained by distilling coal-tar. It is one of the first products which comes over, and flows from the still as crude coal naphtha. To obtain rectified coal naphtha, this crude liquid is distilled, and the product agitated with 10% of concentrated sulphuric acid; when cold, the mixture is treated with 5% of peroxide of manganese, and the upper portion is submitted to further distillation. The specific gravity of this purified product is ·850. It is extensively used as a solvent of caoutchouc, and other allied substances, also of resins for the preparation of varnishes. By repeated purification and fractional distillation, benzol, the chief and most important constituent of coal naphtha, is obtained. See BENZOL.

=Naphtha, Wood.= See PYROXYLIC SPIRIT.

=NAPH′THALIN.= C_{10}H_{9}. _Syn._ NAPHTHALINE, NAPHTHALENE. A white crystallisable, odorous, volatile substance, obtained from coal-tar.

_Prep._ The last portion of the volatile oily product is collected separately, and allowed to repose, when crude naphthalin separates in the solid state. By pushing the distillation until the residuum in the still begins to char, a further portion of dark-coloured naphthalin may be obtained. It is purified by resublimation a second, or even a third time.