Chapter LXXXVII: Part 2 (48)

10. (Goulard’s.) From solution of diacetate of lead, 16 drops; distilled water, 1/2 pint; mix. As No. 2.

11. (Krimer.) Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops; mucilage, 1 dr.; water, 2 fl. oz. To remove particles of iron or lime from the eye.

12. (Marshall’s ‘EYE-DROPS,’) Nitrate of silver, 2 gr.; dilute nitric acid, 2 drops; pure soft or distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve; add powdered gum, 15 gr.; agitate until dissolved, and the next day decant the clear portion.

13. (P. Cod.) Extract of opium, 4 gr.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolved. In painful ophthalmia.

=WATERS (Mine′ral).= _Syn._ SALINE WATERS; AQUÆ MINERALES, L. Our space will not permit a description of these individually. The tables given on pages 1746-7, exhibiting their composition, will, however, enable the reader, with a little attention, to produce artificial waters more closely resembling the natural ones than can be done by adopting any of the numerous formulæ published for the purpose. The ‘aerated waters’ are charged with 5 or 6 times their volume of carbonic acid gas, by means of the apparatus employed by the soda-water manufacturers. On the small scale the gas is often produced by the reaction of the ingredients on each other, in which case, on the introduction of the latter, the bottle must be instantly closed and inverted. Distilled water, or filtered rain water, should alone be employed in their composition; and for the chalybeated and sulphuretted waters it should be first boiled, and allowed to cool out of contact with the air.

In addition to the tables it may be remarked that traces of iodine have been found in the water of Cheltenham (old well), traces of bromine in the water of Epsom, and traces of both bromine and iodine in that of Leamington (royal pump). Manganese has been found in the waters of Tunbridge, Carlsbad, Spa, Pyrmont, Marienbad, Saidschüts, &c. Traces of phosphoric and fluoric acid have also been found in some mineral waters. It is the opinion of many high authorities that the medicinal virtues of these waters depend more on the minute quantities of the above substances, and the high state of dilution in which they are held, than on their more abundant saline ingredients.

=WATER (Perfumed′).= _Syn._ AQUÆ ODORIFERÆ, L. The simple distilled waters of the perfumer have been already noticed (see page 1745). They may be prepared from any substances which imparts its fragrance to water by distillation. The compound waters (eaux) employed as perfumes consist of very pure rectified spirit, holding in solution essential oils, or other odorous matter, and resemble the esprits, essences, and spirits, before noticed. They differ from extraits in being mostly colourless, or nearly so, and in being generally prepared by distillation, or by the addition of the pure essential oils or essences to carefully rectified and perfectly scentless spirit; whereas the extraits are mostly and preferably prepared by macerating the flowers, &c., in the spirit, or by digesting the spirit with the oils, in the manner noticed under SPIRITS (Perfumed). Extraits are preferred to eaux and esprits as the basis of good perfumery, where the colour is not objectionable.

The following are a few additional formulæ and remarks:——

ANGEL WATER, PORTUGAL W. From orange-flower and rose water, of each 1 pint; myrtle water, 1/2 pint; essence of ambergris, 1/2 fl. oz.; essence of musk, 1/4 fl. oz.; shake them well together for some hours, then filter the mixture through paper.

EAU D’ANGE, Fr.; AQUA MYRTI, L. From myrtle flowers, 3-1/2 lbs.; water, 2 galls.; distil a gallon. A pleasant perfume.

EAU D’ANGE BOUILLÉE, Fr. From rose water and orange-flower water, of each 3 pints; benzoin, 1/2 lb.; storax, 1/4 lb.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; 3 fresh-emptied musk bags; digest in a securely covered vessel, at nearly the boiling heat, for 2 hours, then allow it to cool; strain off the clear, press the remainder, and filter for use. Very fragrant.

EAU D’ANGE DISTILLÉE, Fr. From benzoin, 4 oz.; storax, 2 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; calamus and cinnamon, of each 1/4 oz.; coriander seeds, 1 dr. (all bruised); water, 3 quarts; distil 2 quarts. Eau d’Ange distillée et musquée is made by adding a little essence of musk to the distilled product. Both are highly fragrant.

EAU DE LAVANDE, LAVANDER WATER. See SPIRITS (Perfumed).

EAU DE NAPHRE, EAU LE NAPHE, Fr.; AQUA NAPHÆ, L. This article is distilled in Languedoc from the leaves of the bigarade, or bitter-orange tree, but the preparation sold in England under this name is often prepared as follows:——Orange flowers, 7 lbs.; fresh yellow peel of the bigarade or Seville orange, 1/2 lb.; water, 2 galls.; macerate 24 hours, and distil 1 gall. In many cases ordinary orange-flower water is sold for eau de naphe.

ROSE WATER. From otto of roses, 3 dr.; rectified spirit (warm), 1 pint; dissolve, add of hot water, 10 galls.; mix in a 12-gallon carboy, cork, and well agitate the whole until quite cold. This makes the ordinary rose water of the shops, and is really excellent, but it is better for distillation. See WATERS (Distilled).

UNPARALLELED WATER; EAU INCOMPARABLE, Fr. From oil of lemon, 4 dr.; oil of bergamot, 2-1/2 dr.; oil of cedrat, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 3-1/2 pints; Hungary water, 1/2 pint; mix, and distil all but 9 oz. (Guibourt.)

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE OF MINERAL WATERS.

APOLLINARIS BRUNEN.

Carbonate of soda 9·65 grains.
Carbonate of magnesia 3·39 ”
Carbonate of lime 0·45 ”
Chloride of sodium 3·57 ”
Sulphate of soda 2·30 ”
Oxide of iron }0·15 ”
Alumina }
Silica 0·06 ”
——————
19·59
Carbonic acid 47·04
(BISH.)

The above are the contents of 16 oz. Temp. Fahr. 70°.

BADEN-BADEN. In 16 oz.

Chloride of sodium 16·520 gr.
Bicarbonate of lime 1·273 ”
Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·042 ”
Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·037 ”
Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese traces
Bicarbonate of ammonia 0·050 ”
Sulphate of lime 1·556 ”
Sulphate of potash 0·017 ”
Phosphate of lime 0·021 ”
Arseniate of iron traces
Chloride of magnesium 0·097 ”
Chloride of potassium 1·258 ”
Bromide of sodium traces
Silica 0·914 ”
Alumina 0·008 ”
Nitrates traces
————————
22·093 gr.
Free carbonic acid 0·299 ”
(Bunsen.)

FRIEDRICHSHALL. In 16 oz.

Sulphate of soda 46·51 gr.
Sulphate of magnesia 39·55 ”
Chloride of sodium 61·10 ”
Chloride of magnesium 30·25 ”
Bromide of magnesium 0·37 ”
Sulphate of potash 1·52 ”
Sulphate of lime 10·34 ”
Carbonate of lime 0·11 ”
Carbonate of magnesia 1·16 ”
Silica 0·33 ”
——————
190·25 gr.
Carbonic acid 5·32 c. i.
(LIEBIG.)

TOEPLITZ. 16 oz. Temp., 14° Fahr.

Sulphate of potash 0·098 gr.
Sulphate of soda 0·290 ”
Carbonate of soda 2·635 ”
Phosphate of soda 0·014 ”
Floride of silicium 0·351 ”
Chloride of sodium 0·433 ”
Carbonate of lime 0·330 ”
Carbonate of strontia 0·027 ”
Carbonate of magnesia 0·088 ”
Carbonate of protoxide of iron 0·019 ”
Carbonate of protoxide of manganese 0·021 ”
Sulphate of alumina 0·020 ”
Silica 0·443 ”
Crenic acid 0·034 ”
——————
4·804
(WOLF.)

VICHY (Grand Grille). Temp. 106° Fahr. In a litre.

Carbonic acid 0·908
Bicarbonate of soda 4·883
Bicarbonate of potash 0·352
Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·303
Bicarbonate of strontia 0·003
Bicarbonate of lime 0·434
Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·004
Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese a trace
Sulphate of soda 0·291
Phosphate of soda 0·130
Arseniate of soda 0·002
Borate of soda a trace
Chloride of sodium 0·534
Silica 0·070
Organic matter, bituminous a trace
————————
grammes 7·914

WOODHALL (Lancashire).

Iodine and bromine, with chlorides of calcium, magnesium, potassium; more than 1/2 grain of bromide of sodium and 1/4 grain of iodine of sodium.

190 grains in 20 oz. Strongly impregnated with carbonic acid.

=WATERBRASH.= See PYROSIS.

=WATER-CLOSET.= There are a number of conditions necessary to be observed in the construction and arrangement of the water-closet if we wish to prevent its becoming a nuisance and a source of danger to the health of the inmates of a dwelling-house. 1. As regards situation there can be no doubt that, upon strict sanitary principles, the closet, instead of forming part of the house, should, whilst within easy access to it, be entirely detached. Owing to various causes, however, this isolation is frequently impossible.

Under such circumstances the closet, whilst forming part of the dwelling, should be built out from it, so as to have as little connection as possible with the rooms, corridors, &c. To still further accomplish this end the approach to the closet should be through a small vestibule or passage connecting the closet with the corridor, and opening into the latter by means of a door. Where there are more than one closet, they should be built upon the plan just proposed, and one over the other. The basement of a house is a particularly objectionable locality for a water-closet, since the warm house acts as an aspirator, and thus draws any fetid and poisonous gases there may be in the closet into the house, and causes them to be diffused throughout it. The water-closet should, therefore, always be placed in the higher parts of a building. 2. As regards construction, &c., it would be impossible for us to attempt to canvass the merits or the reverse of the numerous designs, patents, &c., that relate to this part of our subject. We shall indicate, therefore, only the more important desiderata, which are——That the pan should be nearly cone-shaped, and not round, like a half-circle. It is mostly made of earthenware, sometimes of metal and occasionally of enamelled iron. The preferable substance is earthenware: the pan should always be ventilated, and there should likewise be a sufficient flow and force of water to sweep everything out of it, and thoroughly cleanse it.

The cistern supplying the closet should be kept solely for this purpose, and not, as is sometimes the case, be taken from the house cistern, as this latter practice may lead to the contamination of the drinking water, owing to the gases rising from the closet.

The bottom of the pan is attached to the soil-pipe which discharges into the drain. The soil-pipe is mostly trapped by means of a syphon valve; and it is important that the points of junction between the pipe and the syphon valve and the pipe and the main drain should be thoroughly secure and air-tight. Furthermore it is imperative, if we wish to prevent an influx into the pan of the gases and foul air which rise through the syphon as the water runs off, that the soil-pipe should be ventilated. This may be effected by attaching a small pipe having connection with the outer air to the discharge-pipe just below the syphon, and carrying it up to the top of the house. Another advantage arising from ventilating the soil-pipe, besides the prevention of the escape of sewer-gas into the house, is that there is no danger of its corrosion (if it be of lead) by the action of the pent-up sulphuretted vapours. The seat, which is mostly of wood, should be so arranged as to be easily movable, and thus allow of easy inspection of the different parts should they get out of order.

The seat as well as the closet should always be ventilated. A good and simple method for the ventilation of the latter is to carry a tube from the top of the closet into the outer air. “If the closet is in a bad situation it should be heated by a gas jet.”[262]

[Footnote 262: Parkes.]

The lid attached to the seat should have a hole cut in it, so as to allow of the handle being pulled up when the pan is covered, which, strange to say, in perhaps ninety-nine cases out of every hundred it never is, after being used. Of course, in the absence of the ventilation of the pan and soil-pipe, the result of keeping the seat covered over would only be to fill the pan with malodorous and more or less dangerous gases, which would escape into the closet when the lid was again raised.

3. Precautions.——The use of unduly large pieces of paper, such as cause stoppage and obstruction in the discharge-pipe, should be particularly avoided. Any defect or impediment in the working of the closet should be remedied at once. As a general rule, servants are very careless in all matters connected with the water-closet; so much so that the masters of many houses are themselves compelled to exercise supervision over it.

During very hot weather, or the prevalence of an infectious disease in a dwelling-house or in the neighbourhood of the house, some disinfectant should be added to the water that supplies the closet. A substance that will very satisfactorily answer this purpose is the commercial sulphate of iron known as green vitriol. A pound of it should be put into the tank when filled with water.

The same disregard of sanitary obligations so frequently shown in the construction, site, &c., of water-closets is more obvious in the case of privies. The Public Health Act not only renders unlawful the erection or rebuilding of any dwelling-house without “a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an ash-pit, furnished with proper doors and coverings;” but also requires that, “If a house within the district of a local authority appears to such authority by the report of their surveyor or inspector of nuisances to be without a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and ashpit, furnished with proper doors and coverings, the local authority shall, by written notice, require the owner or occupier of the house within a reasonable time therein specified, to provide a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an ashpit furnished as aforesaid, or either of them, as the case may require.”

Although in many large towns and cities a more or less effectual supervision may be exercised by the sanitary inspector in the above direction, as every one’s experience of the usual outdoor privy of a small English country town or village, will suggest to them the extreme toleration prevailing amongst the sanitary authorities in many provincial and rural districts in this particular. Ventilation is as essential for the privy as the water-closet, so also is the thorough trapping of the exit-pipe from the pan, as well as the cleansing and flushing of this latter by water directly after it has been used. Yet how rarely do we find not only all, but not even one of these conditions fulfilled in the arrangement of the ordinary privy; but instead an untrapped, immovable pan (and in some cases even this is wanting) covered with filth, and no contrivance of any kind for a constant water supply.

No wonder, therefore, that the atmosphere of an ordinary privy should be so foul and noisome as it invariably is.

The following specification for a useful description of privy is published by Messrs Knight & Co., 90, Fleet Street, London:——

_Specification._——The privy and dust-bin to be built of 4-1/2-inch brickwork, in well-ground mortar of approved quality. Two rows of 4-1/2 and 3-inch bond timber to be built in at back of privy for securing ventilating-shafts. The ventilating-shafts to be 7 by 4-1/2 inches, inside measurement, of best red deal boards 1 inch thick, closely put together with strong white lead paint, and well nailed and carefully seamed to the 4-1/2 inch and 3 inch bond timber. These shafts to have coats of boiled tar both inside and out.

The lid of refuse-bin to be of best 1-inch red deal boards, with two strong ledges or battens across them; to be hung with three strong band-hinges to the sides of the ventilating-shafts, and the making-up piece between the same. A circular orifice to be made in centre of lid, between the battens 10 inches wide. The lid to have two coats of boiled tar both inside and out. A 4-1/2-inch and 3-inch frame of red deal to be securely fixed on top of the dust-bin, as a seat for the lid. A lid over the privy seat to be hinged on at the back, with a child’s seat over centre of large one. The larger seat to be provided with an earthenware circular rim beneath. The earth-compartment to be without lid, and provided with a pint scoop for each occupant to throw in a pint of the stored dry earth or dry ashes through the seat into the galvanised iron pail, the contents of which must be scattered over the garden or put in the dust-bin before the pail becomes full. A loose foot-block may be furnished where there are young children.[263]

[Footnote 263: The Earth-closet is described under “Sewage Removal of.”]

The dust-bin may be placed at side of the privy if required. The floor of dust-bin to be at the ground level, slightly inclined outwards, and paved with brick. See SEWAGE, REMOVAL AND DISPOSAL OF, DRAINS, TANKS, CESSPOOLS.

=WATER-COLOUR CAKES.= These are prepared from any of the ordinary pigments that work well in water, made into a stiff and perfectly smooth paste with gum water, or isinglass size, or a mixture of the two, and then compressed in polished steel moulds, and dried. See PAINTING, and the respective pigments.

=WATERCRESS.= The _Nasturtium officinale_, a well-known plant of the natural order _Cruciferæ_. It is alterative and antiscorbutic, and was formerly used in medicine, but now chiefly as a salad, or a refreshing relish at breakfast.

=WATER-GAS.= By forcing steam through fireclay, or iron retorts filled with red-hot charcoal or coke, the steam is decomposed into a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic anhydride.[264]

[Footnote 264: Possibly a small quantity of marsh gas is also present.——ED.]

To this mixture, after it has been purified, the name of “water-gas,” owing to the source from whence it has been derived, has been given.

According to some chemists the purified gas (obtained by passing the crude gaseous product sometimes over lime, sometimes over crystallised carbonate of soda) consists solely of hydrogen gas. Langlois’ analysis, however, has led to the conclusion that it is a compound of hydrogen and carbonic oxide gases. Water gas, obtained as above, possesses no illuminating power. This is imparted to it, by impregnating the gas with the vapour of certain hydrocarbons, a plan suggested by Jobbard, of Brussels, in 1832. Another, but less usual method, originating with Gengembre and Gillard, is to place on the burners which consume the gas small platinum cylinders. When these become white hot a strong and brilliant light is produced. See PLATINUM GAS.

=WATER-POX.= See (POX). CHICKEN-POX.

=WATERPROOF′ING.= Cloth is ‘waterproofed’ as follows:——

1. Moisten the cloth, on the wrong side, first with a weak solution of isinglass, and, when dry, with an infusion of nut-galls.

2. As the last, but substitute a solution of soap for isinglass, and another of alum for galls.

3. (Hancock’s Patent.) By spreading the liquid juice of the caoutchouc tree upon the inner surface of the goods, and allowing them to dry in the air. Absolutely chimerical.

4. (Potter’s Patent.) The cloth is first imbued on the wrong side with a solution of isinglass, alum, and soap, by means of a brush; when dry, it is brushed on the same side against the grain, and then gone over with a brush dipped in water. Impervious to water, but not to air.

5. (Sievier’s Patent.) By applying first a solution of India rubber in oil of turpentine, and afterwards another india rubber varnish, rendered very dry by the use of driers. On this, wool or other material of which the fabric is made, cut into proper lengths, is spread, and the whole passed through a press, whereby the surface acquires a nap or pile.

6. A simple method of rendering cloth waterproof, without being airproof, is to spread it on any smooth surface, and to rub the wrong side with a lump of bees wax (perfectly pure and free from grease), until it presents a light, but even, white or greyish appearance; a hot iron is then to be passed over it, and the cloth being brushed whilst warm, the process is complete. When the operation has been skilfully performed, a candle may be blown out through the cloth, if coarse, and yet a piece of the same, placed across an inverted hat, may have several glassfuls of water poured into the hollow formed by it, without any of the liquid passing through. Pressure or friction will alone make it do so. “We have shown this to numerous cloth-manufacturers, waterproofers, tailors, and others, several of whom have adopted the method very extensively, and with perfect success.” (Cooley.)

7. About the year 1862 a patent was taken out by Dr Stenhouse for employing paraffin as a means of rendering leather waterproof, as well as the various textile and felted fabrics; and in August, 1864, an additional patent was granted to him for an extension of and improvement on the previous one, which consisted chiefly in combining the paraffin with various proportions of drying oils, it having been found that paraffin alone, especially when applied to fabrics, became to a considerable extent detached from the fibre of the cloth after a short time, owing to its great tendency to crystallise. The presence, however, of even a small quantity of drying oil causes the paraffin to adhere much more firmly to the texture of the cloth, from the oil gradually becoming converted into a tenacious resin by absorption of oxygen.

In the application of paraffin for waterproofing purposes it is first melted along with the requisite quantity of drying oil and cast into blocks. This composition can then be applied to fabrics by rubbing them over with a block of it, either cold or gently warmed, or the mixture may be melted and laid on with a brush, the complete impregnation being effected by subsequently passing it between hot rollers. When this paraffin mixture has been applied to cloth such as that employed for blinds or tents, it renders it very repellant to water, although still pervious to air.

Cloth paraffined in this manner forms an excellent basis for such articles as capes, tarpaulins, &c., which require to be rendered quite impervious by subsequently coating them with drying oil, the paraffin in a great measure preventing the well-known injurious effect of drying oil on the fibre of the cloth. The paraffin mixture can also be advantageously applied to the various kinds of leather. One of the most convenient ways of effecting this is to coat the skins or manufactured articles, such as boots, shoes, harness, pump-buckets, &c., with the melted composition, and then to gently heat the articles until it is entirely absorbed. When leather is impregnated with the mixture, it is not only rendered perfectly waterproof, but also stronger and more durable. The beneficial effects of this process are peculiarly observable in the case of boots and shoes, which it renders very firm without destroying their elasticity. It therefore not only makes them exceedingly durable, but possesses an advantage over ordinary dabbing in not interfering with the polish of these articles, which, on the whole, it rather improves.

The superiority of paraffin over most other materials for some kinds of waterproofing consists in its comparative cheapness, in being easily applied, and in not materially altering the colour of fabrics, which in the case of light shades and white cloth is of very considerable importance.

8. A waterproof packing cloth which does not break may be made by covering the fabric with the following varnish:——2 lbs. of soft (potash) soap is dissolved in water and mixed with an aqueous solution of sulphate of iron. The washed and dried soap is dissolved in 3 lbs. of linseed oil, in which 1/5 lb. of caoutchouc has been previously dissolved.

=WATERPROOF LIQUID.= _Prep._ 1. India rubber, in fragments, 1 oz.; boiled oil, 1 pint; dissolve by heat, carefully applied, then stir in of hot boiled oil, 1 pint, and remove the vessel from the fire.

2. Boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax and yellow resin, of each 2 oz.; melt them together.

3. Salad oil, 1 pint; mutton suet, 1/4 lb.; white wax and spermaceti, of each 1 oz.; as the last. For ‘ladies’ work.’

4. Bisulphide of carbon, 2 oz.; gutta percha, 1/2 oz.; asphaltum, 2 oz.; brown amber, 1/2 oz.; linseed oil, 1 oz. Mix. Dissolve the gutta percha in the bisulphide of carbon, the asphalte and amber in the oil, and mix well.

_Obs._ The above are used for boots, shoes, harness, leather straps, leather trunks, &c., applied warm before the fire.

=WAX.= _Syn._ BEESWAX, YELLOW W.; CERA (Ph. L.), CERA FLAVA (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. The substance which forms the cells of bees; obtained by melting the comb in water, after the honey has been removed, straining the liquid mass, remelting the defecated portion, and casting it into cakes.

Pure beeswax has a pleasant ceraceous odour, a pale yellowish-brown colour, and the sp. gr. ·960 to ·965. It is brittle at 32°, softens and becomes plastic at 88 or 90°, and melts at 154 to 155° Fahr. “It becomes kneadable at about 85°, and its behaviour while worked between finger and thumb is characteristic. A piece the size of a pea being worked in the hand till tough with the warmth, then placed upon the thumb, and forcibly stroked down with the forefinger, curls up, following the finger, and is marked by it with longitudinal streaks.” (B. S. Proctor.) It is very frequently adulterated with farina, resin, and mutton suet or stearin. Dr Normandy met with a sample containing 23% of effloresced sulphate of soda. The first may be detected by oil of turpentine, which dissolves only the wax,——the second, by its solubility in cold alcohol, and by its terebinthinate taste,——the third and fourth, even when forming less than 2% of the wax, may be detected by it affording sebacic acid on distillation. When greasy matter is present in any considerable quantity, it may also be detected by the suspected sample having an unctuous feel and a disagreeable taste. A spurious beeswax met with in the American markets, is described in ‘New Remedies’ for 1877, and is said to have been a very clever imitation externally of the genuine substance, which it closely resembled in appearance, colour, fracture, bitterness, pliability, and odour. Upon analysis it was found to be composed of 60 parts of paraffin and 40 parts of yellow resin covered with a thin coating of true beeswax. The specific quantity of the counterfeit article was identical with that of many samples of genuine beeswax. Saline matter may be detected by the loss of weight, when a weighed quantity of the wax is boiled in water. Heavy substances, as chalk, plaster of Paris, white lead, oxide of zinc, &c., may also be thus separated, since they subside, owing to their superior gravity, to the bottom of the vessel. The rough mealy fracture of pure wax is rendered finer grained, smoother, and duller, by the addition of lard or spermaceti, and becomes sparkling and more granular by the addition of resin. (Proctor.)

[Note: ‘Chem. Central,’, 1872, No. 29.]

[Transcriber’s Note: The publisher omitted the corresponding tag in the text.]

=Wax, Bleached.= See WAX, WHITE (_below_).

=Wax, Carnauba.=[265] The leaves of the Carnauba tree (_Copernicia cerifera_), a South American palm, have lately become a very important source for the supply of large quantities of vegetable wax. Carnauba wax is extensively used in the manufacture of candles. Mr Consul Morgan, in a paper laid before Parliament in 1876, on the trade and commerce of Brazil, states “that the exportation of this wax is calculated at 871,400 kilos; exceeding in value reis 1,500,000, or £162,500.”

[Footnote 265: ‘Ph. Journal,’ vol. vi, 3rd series, p. 745.]

=Wax, Etching.= See ETCHING GROUND and VARNISH.

=Wax, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ CERA FLAVA FACTITIA, L. A spurious compound, sold by the farriers’ druggists for veterinary purposes.

_Prep._ 1. From yellow resin, 16 lbs.; hard mutton suet or stearin, 8 lbs.; palm oil, 2-1/2 lbs.; melted together.

2. As last, but substituting turmeric, 1 lb., for the palm oil.

3. Best annotta, 6 oz., or q. s.; water, 1 gal.; boil; add, of hard mutton suet or stearin, 35 lbs.; yellow resin, 70 lbs.; again boil, with constant agitation, until perfectly mixed and of a proper colour, and, as soon as it begins to thicken, pour it out into basins to cool. When cold, rub each cake over with a little potato starch.

=Wax, Gilder’s.= See GILDING.

=Wax, Mod′eling.= _Prep._ Take of beeswax, lead plaster, olive oil, and yellow resin, equal parts; whiting, q. s. to form a paste; mix well, and roll it into sticks. Colours may be added at will.

=Wax, Refined.= Crude wax, especially that imported, is generally loaded with dirt, bees, and other foreign matter. To free it from these substances, it undergoes the operation of ‘refining.’ This is done by melting the wax along with about 4 or 5% of water in a bright copper or stone-ware boiler, preferably heated by steam, and, after the whole is perfectly liquid, and has boiled for some minutes, withdrawing the heat, and sprinkling over its surface a little oil of vitriol, in the proportion of about 5 or 6 fl. oz. to every cwt. of wax. This operation should be conducted with great care and circumspection; as, when done carelessly, the melted wax froths up, and boils over the sides of the pan. The acid should also be well scattered over the whole surface. The melted wax is next covered over, and left for some hours to settle, or until it becomes sufficiently cool to be drawn off for ‘moulding.’ It is then very gently skimmed with a hot ladle, baled or decanted into hot tin ‘jacks,’ and by means of these poured into basins, where it is left to cool. Great care must be taken not to disturb the sediment. When no more clear wax can be drawn off, the remainder in the melting-pan is allowed to cool, and the cake, or ‘foot,’ as it called, is taken out, and the impurities (mostly bees) scraped from its under surface. The scraped cake is usually reserved for a second operation; but if required, it may be at once remelted, and strained through canvas into a mould.

Much of the foreign wax has a pale, dirty colour, which renders it, no matter however pure, objectionable to the retail purchaser. Such wax undergoes the operation of ‘colouring’ as well as ‘refining.’ A small quantity of the best roll annotta, cut into slices (1/4 lb., more or less, to wax, 1 cwt., depending on the paleness of the latter), is put into a clean boiler with about a gallon of water, and boiled for some time, or until it is perfectly dissolved, when a few ladlefuls of the melted wax are added, and the boiling continued until the wax has taken up all the colour, or until the water is mostly evaporated. The portion of wax thus treated has now a deep orange colour, and is added, in quantity as required, to the remainder of the melted wax in the larger boiler until the proper shade of colour is produced when cold; the whole being well mixed, and a sample of it cooled now and then, to ascertain when enough has been added. The copper is next brought to a boil, and treated with oil of vitriol, &c., as before. Some persons add palm oil (bright) to the wax, until it gets sufficient colour, but this plan is objectionable from the quantity required for the purpose being often so large as to injure the quality of the product; besides which the colour produced is inferior, and less transparent and permanent than that given by annotta.

Another method of refining crude wax, and which produces a very bright article, is to melt it in a large earthen or stoneware vessel, heated by steam or a salt-water bath, then to cautiously add to it about 1% of concentrated nitric acid, and to continue the boiling until nitrous fumes cease to be evolved, after which the whole is allowed to settle, and is treated as before.

_Obs._ The great art in the above process is to produce a wax which shall at once be ‘bright,’ or semi-translucent in thin places, and good coloured. The former is best ensured by allowing the melted mass to settle well, and by carefully skimming and decanting the clear portion without disturbing the sediment. It should not be poured into the moulds too warm, as, in that case, it is apt to ‘separate,’ and the resulting cakes to be ‘streaky,’ or of different shades of colour. Again, it should be allowed to cool very slowly. When cooled rapidly, especially if a current of air fall upon its surface, it is apt to crack, and to form cakes full of fissures. Some persons, who are very nice about their wax, have the cakes polished with a stiff brush when quite cold and hard. It is absolutely necessary that the ‘jacks’ or cans, ladles, and skimmers, used in the above process, be kept pretty hot, as without this precaution the wax cools, and accumulates upon them in such quantity as to render them inconvenient, and often quite useless, without being constantly scraped out.

=Wax, Seal′ing.= _Prep._ 1. (RED.)——_a._ Take of shell-lac (very pale), 4 oz.; cautiously melt it in a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire, and when fused, add of Venice turpentine, 1-1/4 oz.; mix, and further add of vermilion, 3 oz.; remove the pan from the fire, cool a little, weigh it into pieces, and roll them into circular sticks on a warm marble slab by means of a polished wooden block; or it may be poured into moulds whilst in a state of fusion. Some persons polish the sticks with a rag until quite cold.——_b._ From shell-lac, 3 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 1-1/4 lb.; finest cinnabar, 2 lbs.; mix as before Both the above are ‘fine,’——_c._ As the last, but using 1/2 less of vermillion. Inferior.——_d._ Resin, 4 lbs.; shell-lac, 2 lbs.; Venice turpentine and red lead, of each 1-1/2 lb.; as before. Common.

2. (BLACK.)——_a._ From shell-lac, 60 parts; finest ivory black, reduced to an impalpable powder, 30 parts; Venice turpentine, 20 parts. Fine.——_b._ Resin, 6 lbs.; shell-lac and Venice turpentine, of each 2 lbs.; lampblack, q. s. Inferior.

3. (GOLD-COLOURED.) By stirring gold-coloured mica spangles or talc, or aurum musivum, into the melted resins just before they begin to cool. Fine.

4. (MARBLED.) By mixing 2 or 3 different coloured kinds just as they begin to grow solid.

5. (SOFT.)——_a._ (Red.) Take of beeswax, 8 parts; olive oil, 5 parts; melt, and add, of Venice turpentine, 15 parts; red lead, to colour.——_b._ (Green.) As the last, but substituting powdered verdigris for red lead. Both are used for sealing official documents kept in tin boxes; also as a cement.

6. (BOTTLE WAX.)——_a._ (Black.) From black resin, 6-1/2 lbs.; beeswax, 1/2 lb.; finely powdered ivory black, 1-1/2 lb.; melted together.——_b._ (Red.) As the last, but substitute Venetian red or red lead for ivory black.

_Obs._ All the above forms for ‘fine’ wax produce ‘superfine’ by employing the best qualities of the ingredients; and ‘extra superfine,’ or ‘scented,’ by adding 1% of balsam of Peru or liquid storax to the ingredients when considerably cooled. The ‘variegated’ and ‘fancy coloured kinds,’ are commonly scented with a little essence of musk or ambergris, or any of the more fragrant essential oils. The addition of a little camphor, or spirit of wine, makes sealing-wax burn easier. Sealing-wax containing resin, or too much turpentine, runs into thin drops at the flame of a candle.

=Wax, White.= _Syn._ BLEACHED WAX; CERA ALBA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ From pure beeswax, by exposing it in thin flakes to the action of the sun, wind, and rain, frequently changing the surface thus exposed, by remelting it, and reducing it again to thin flakes. Used in making candles, and in white ointments, pommades, &c., for the sake of its colour. Block white wax (CERA ALBA IN MASSIS) is the above when cast into blocks; the best foreign is always in this form. Virgin wax (CAKE WHITE WAX; CERA ALBA IN OFFIS) should be the last made into round flat cakes; but this is seldom the case, the mixture sold under the name generally containing from 1-3rd to 1-2nd its weight of spermaceti. The ‘white wax’ supplied by certain wholesale druggists to their customers is often totally unfit for the purposes to which it is applied. Spermaceti is constantly added to the white wax of commerce, to improve its colour. Mr B. S. Proctor states that wholesale houses of the highest reputation supply an article, as white cake wax, which is in many cases half spermaceti, and in some as much as two thirds spermaceti to one of wax.[266]

[Footnote 266: See articles on “Adulteration of Wax,” and “Substitutes for Wax,” in ‘Chemist and Druggist,’ vol. iv, 1863.]

=WEATHER, Effects of, on Health.= The ‘Medical Press and Circular’ says:——“We are in the midst of a severe winter (1878), and as hygiene is the order of the day, we cannot be too particular in impressing upon the public certain facts which are too often disregarded. Few are aware of the killing powers of intense cold and great heat, even in this comparatively temperate climate. Those who have been in the habit, as we have, of watching the returns of the Registrar-General, well know how quickly the death-rate rises during even a short continuance of cold weather. Now that the increase in the mortality affects chiefly the young and the old, as well as those who are either suffering from, or are predisposed to, affections of the chest and throat, indicates the class of people who should be especially careful to protect themselves against the inclemency of the weather. With regard to children, the system of ‘hardening’ them, by allowing them to go thinly clad, and exposing them to all sorts of weather, is a delusion from which the minds of some parents are even now not altogether free. It is thought that if their chest is kept warm, there is no need of caring about their arms and legs. But that is a great mistake. In proportion as the upper and lower extremities are well clothed will the circulation be kept up and determined to the surface of those parts, and in proportion to the quickness and equable distribution of the circulation will be the protection against those internal congestions which are but the first stage of the most fatal diseases of infancy and childhood. The same observation holds good with respect to grown-up people who are predisposed to pulmonary complaints. There is no exaggeration in saying that the mortality from these and other affections would be considerably diminished were people to avoid that ‘catching cold,’ of which they so often and so lightly speak; and it is a matter of surprise to us that this fact, of which most of us are aware, does not lead to more precautions being taken by those who are anxious about either their own health or that of others. To take care that the body is thoroughly warm and well-clothed just before going out in very wet or very cold weather——to keep up the circulation and warmth of the body rather by exercise of some kind than by sitting over great fires or in overheated rooms——to be sure that the temperature of the sleeping apartments is not ever so many degrees below that of the sitting-room——these are three golden maxims, attention to which would prevent thousands from catching that ‘chill’ or ‘cold’ to the results of which so many valuable lives have been prematurely sacrificed.”

=WEIGHT.= The quantity of a body determined by means of a balance, and expressed in terms having reference to some known standard; the measure of the force of gravity, from which the relative quantity of a body is inferred. The relation between the weight and volume of a body, compared to a given standard taken as unity, constitutes its specific gravity.

For the purpose of weighing, a balance or lever is required, which, when accurately suspended in a state of equilibrium, will be affected, in precisely an equal manner, by like weights applied to its extremities. Hence, the construction of such an instrument is not more difficult than its application is important in chemical and philosophical research. Oertling, the most celebrated maker of the chemical balance, constructs this important instrument in seven different varieties, more or less elaborate. The largest of these, with a 16-inch beam, will carry 2 lbs. in each pan, and yet turn with 1/100th of a grain. A balance with arms of unequal length or weight will weigh as accurately as another of the same workmanship with equal arms, provided the substance weighed be removed and standard weights placed in the same scale until the equilibrium be again restored, when the weights so employed, being exactly in the same condition as the substance previously occupying the scale, will, of course, indicate its proper weight. A knowledge of this fact is useful, as it enables any one to weigh correctly with unequal scales, or with any suspended lever.

Small weights may be made of thin leaf brass, or, preferably, of platinum foil. Quantities below the 100th of a grain may be either estimated by the position of the index, or shown by actually counting rings of wire, the value of which has been previously determined. The readiest way to subdivide small weights consists in weighing a certain quantity of very fine wire, and afterwards cutting it into such parts, by measure, as are desired; or the wire may be wrapped close round two pins, and then cut asunder with a knife. By this means it will be divided into a great number of equal lengths, or small rings.[267]

[Footnote 267: An elaborate essay on the BALANCE, in Watt’s ‘Dict. of Chemistry,’ gives minute directions for weighing, with rules for the elimination of errors. See BALANCE.]

The following tables represent the values of the weights legally employed in this country for the sale of gold, silver, and articles made thereof, as well as platinum, diamonds, and other precious metals and stones; also for drugs when sold by retail (See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1879; and MEASURES).

1. _Troy Weight._

+---------+---------------+----------+----------+
| Grains. | Pennyweights. | Ounces. | Pound. |
| gr. | dwt. | oz. |lb. or ℔ |
+---------+---------------+----------+----------+
| 24 | 1 | | |
| 480 | 20 | 1 | |
| 5760 | 240 | 12 | 1 |
+---------+---------------+----------+----------+

⁂ The standard of the above measure is 1 cubic inch of distilled water, which, at 62° Fahr. and 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252·458 troy grains.

The carat used in weighing diamonds is 3-1/6 grains (nearly). Troy weight is employed in weighing gold, jewelry, &c., and, under a somewhat modified form, in prescribing and dispensing medicines. (See _below_.)

2. _Apothecaries’ Weight._

(Modified Troy Weight.)

+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+
| | | | | |
| Grains |Scruples.|Drachms.| Ounces. | Pounds. |
|(_Troy_).| ℈ | ʒ | ℥ | ℔ |
| gr. | | | | |
+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+
| | | | | |
| 1· | ·05 | ·01666| ·002083| ·0001736|
| 20· | 1· | ·3333 | ·0416 | ·003472 |
| 60· | 3· | 1· | ·1250 | ·0104166|
| 480· | 24· | 8· | 1· | ·0833333|
| 5760· | 288· |96· |12· |1· |
+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

+---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+
| | |Equiv. in| | |
| Grains | Eqiv. in|Minims or| Equiv. in | Equiv. in |
|(_Troy_).| French |measured | cubic |Avoirdupois.|
| gr. | grammes.| drops. | inches. | weight. |
+---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+
| | | | | |
| 1· | ·06475| 1·09 | ·003961055| 1· gr.|
| 20· | 1·295 | 21·94 | ·07922109 | 20· gr.|
| 60· | 3·885 | 65·82 | ·23766329 | 60· gr.|
| 480· | 31·08 | 526·62 | 1·90130635 |1 oz 42·5 gr.|
| 5760· |372·96 | 6319·54 |22·81567609 |13 oz 72·5 gr.|
+---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+

⁂ Apothecaries’ weight is employed in prescribing and dispensing medicines according to the Ph. L., E., and U. S. But in the last Ph. D. and the new Brit. Ph. it has been superseded by avoirdupois weight.

Troy _Avoirdupois._

1 ℔ is equivalent to 0·822857 lb.
1 oz. ” 1·097143 oz.

=WEIGHTS, FOREIGN.=

_Binary Weights._ (Système usuel.) _French._

+-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+
| | | | | | |
|French | | | | | Kilo- |
|Grain. |Scruple.|Gros.|Once.|Livre.|gramme.|
+-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+
| | | | | | |
| 1·| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |
| 24·| 1· | ... | ... | ... | ... |
| 72·| 3· | 1·| ... | ... | ... |
| 576·| 24· | 8·| 1· | ... | ... |
| 9216·| 384· | 128·| 16· | 1· | ... |
| 18432·| 768· | 256·| 32· | 2· | 1· |
+-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+

+-------+---------+------------+-------------------+
| |Equiv. in|Round number| Equiv. in |
|French | grammes |of the Codex| Avoirdupois |
|Grain. |metrique.| in grammes.| weight. |
+-------+---------+------------+-------------------+
| | | |_lb._ _oz._ _gr._ |
| 1·| ·0542| ·05 | ... ... 0·837|
| 24·| 1·30 | 1·30 | ... ... 20·1 |
| 72·| 3·906 | 4· | ... ... 60·284|
| 576·| 81·25 | 32· | ... 1 45· |
| 9216·| 500· | 500· | 1 1-1/2 61· |
| 18432·|1000· | 1000· | 2 3-1/4 13· |
+-------+---------+------------+-------------------+

⁂ The old French grain is equal to ·820 of an imperial troy grain; hence 1 troy grain is equal to 1·21 old French grains. The gros, once, and other multiples of the grain, are, of course, proportionate. The new French grain (of 1812) is equal to ·0542 gramme, or ·8365228 gr. troy. It is said, in some works, to be equal to ·878 gr. troy, or, in round numbers, ·9, but this is much too high.

CONTINENTAL MEDICINAL WEIGHTS, _in Troy Grains_.
(From Dr Christison’s ‘Dispensatory.’)

+-----------+------+------+-------+---------------------+-------+
| | | | |Scruple consisting of| |
| Country. |Pound.|Ounce.|Drachm.+----------+----------+ Grain.|
| | | | | 24 med. | 20 med. | |
| | | | | grs. | grs. | |
+-----------+------+------+-------+----------+----------+-------+
|French |5670·5|470·50| 59·10 | 19·7 | ... | 0·820 |
|Spanish |5326·3|443·49| 55·14 | 18·47 | ... | 0·769 |
|Tuscan |5240·3|436·67| 54·58 | 18·19 | ... | 0·758 |
|Roman |5235·0|436·25| 54·58 | 18·17 | ... | 0·757 |
|Austrian |6495·1|541·25| 67·65 | ... | 22·5 | 1·127 |
|German |5524·8|460·40| 57·55 | ... | 19·18 | 0·960 |
|Russian |5524·8|460·40| 57·55 | ... | 19·18 | 0·960 |
|Prussian |5415·1|451·26| 56·40 | ... | 18·80 | 0·940 |
|Dutch |5695·8|474·64| 59·33 | ... | 19·78 | 0·988 |
|Belgian |5695·8|474·64| 59·33 | ... | 19·78 | 0·988 |
|Swedish |5500·2|458·34| 57·29 | ... | 19·09 | 0·954 |
|Piedmontese|4744·7|395·39| 49·45 | ... | 16·48 | 0·824 |
|Venetian |4661·4|388·45| 48·55 | ... | 16·18 | 0·809 |
+-----------+------+------+-------+----------+----------+-------+

=WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1878.= On the 1st of January, 1879, there came into force an act to consolidate throughout the United Kingdom the law relating to weights and measures. Legislation on this subject had been long rendered necessary from the extreme inconvenience and friction to commerce of all kinds arising from the adherence to local standards of weight or measurements; and from the divergent values in different parts of the kingdom, and in places more or less contiguous to each other, of weights and measures often bearing the same name. Thus, previous to the passing of the above Act, there were twelve different markets in this country in which when corn was sold by the bushel, the weight of the bushel varied in each; and six different localities in which the same thing occurred when vended by the quarter and the load. In some places a score of grain would imply 20 lbs. but often less, whilst in others it was not an infrequent transaction for wheat to be sold by one measure, delivered by another, and eventually paid for by weight. And the same perplexing and arbitrary conditions attached to the sale of numberless other commodities.

We give below the most important sections of the Weights and Measures Act of 1878:

LAW OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

_Uniformity of Weights and Measures._

The same weights and measures shall be used throughout the United Kingdom.

_Standards of Measure and Weight._

The bronze bar and the platinum weight, more particularly described in the first part of the First Schedule of this Act, and at the passing of this Act, deposited in the Standards Departments of the Board of Trade, in the custody of the Warden of the Standards, shall continue to be the imperial standard of measure and weight, and the said bronze bar shall continue to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard yard for the United Kingdom, and the said platinum weight shall continue to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard pound for the United Kingdom.

_Imperial Measures of Length._

The straight line or distance between the centres of the two gold plugs or pins (as mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act),[268] in the bronze bar by this Act declared to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard yard, measured when the bar is at the temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and when it is supported on bronze rollers placed under it in such a manner as best to avoid flexure of the bar, and to facilitate its free expansion and contraction from variations of temperature, shall be the legal standard measure of length, and shall be called the imperial standard yard, and shall be the only unit or standard measure of extension from which all measures of extension, whether linear, superficial, or solid shall be ascertained.

[Footnote 268: See further on.]

One third part of the imperial standard yard shall be a foot, and the twelfth part of such foot shall be an inch, and the rod, pole, or perch in length shall contain five such yards and a half, and the chain shall contain twenty-two such yards, and the furlong two hundred and twenty such yards, and the mile one thousand seven hundred and sixty such yards.

The rood of land shall contain one thousand two hundred and ten square yards according to the imperial standard yard, and the acre of land shall contain four thousand eight hundred and forty such square yards, being one hundred and sixty square rods, poles or perches.

_Imperial Measures of Weight and Capacity._

The weight in vacuo of the platinum weight (mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act), and by this Act declared to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard pound, shall be the legal standard measure of weight, and of measure having reference to weight, and shall be called the imperial standard pound, and shall be the only unit or standard measure of weight from which all other weights and all measures having reference to weight shall be ascertained.

One sixteenth part of the imperial standard pound shall be an ounce, and one-sixteenth part of such ounce shall be a dram, and one seven thousandth part of the imperial standard pound shall be a grain.

A stone shall consist of fourteen imperial standard pounds, and a hundred weight shall consist of eight such stones, and a ton shall consist of twenty such hundredweights.

Four hundred and eighty grains shall be an ounce troy.

All the foregoing weights except the ounce troy shall be deemed to be avoirdupois weights.

The unit or standard measure of capacity from which all other measures of capacity, as well as for liquids as for dry goods, shall be derived, shall be the gallon containing ten imperial standard pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air against brass weights, with the water and air at the temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and with the barometer at thirty inches.

The quart shall be one fourth part of the gallon, and the pint shall be one-eighth part of the gallon.

Two gallons shall be a peck, and eight gallons shall be a bushel, and eight such bushels shall be a quarter, and thirty-six such bushels shall be a chaldron.

A bushel for the sale of any of the following articles, namely, lime, fish, potatoes, fruit, or any other goods and things which before (the passing of the Weights and Measures Act, 1835, that is to say) the ninth day of September, one thousand eight hundred and thirty five, were commonly sold by heaped measure, shall be a hollow cylinder having a plane base, the internal diameter of which shall be double the internal depth, and every measure used for the sale of any of the above-mentioned articles which is a multiple of a bushel, or is a half bushel or a peck, shall be made of the same shape and proportion as the above-mentioned bushel.

In using an imperial measure of capacity, the same shall not be heaped, but either shall be stricken with a round stick or roller, straight, and of the same diameter from end to end, or if the article sold cannot from its size or shape be conveniently stricken, shall be filled in all parts as nearly to the level of the brim as the size and shape of the article will admit.

_Metric Equivalents of Imperial Weights and Measures._