Chapter XC: Part I: Metric Equivalents (1)

Table of the values of the principal denominations of measures and weights on the metric system, expressed by means of denominations of imperial measures and weights, and of the values of the principal denominations of measures and weights of the imperial system, expressed by means of metric weights and measures.

_Measures of Length._

-------------------------------+--------------------------------------
Metric Denominations and Values| Equivalents in Imperial Denominations
-------------------------------+------+------+-----+------------------
| Metres. |Miles.|Yards.|Feet.| Inches. Decimals.
--------------------+----------+------+------+-----+------------------
| | | | |
Myriametre | 10,000 |{ 6 | 376| 0 | 11·9
| |{ or |10,936| 0 | 11·9
Kilometre | 1000 | ... | 1093| 1 | 10·79
Hectometre | 100 | ... | 109| 1 | 1·079
Decametre | 10 | ... | 10| 2 | 9·7079
Metre | 1 | ... | 1| 0 | 3·3708
Decimetre | 1/10 | ... | ...| ... | 3·9371
Centimetre | 1/100 | ... | ...| ... | 0·3937
Millimetre | 1/1000 | ... | ...| ... | 0·0394
--------------------+----------+------+------+-----+------------------

_Measures of Surface._

----------------------------------+------------------------
Metric Denominations and Values. | Equivalents in Imperial
| Denominations.
--------------------------+-------+------+-----------------
|Square |Acres.|Square Decimals.
|Metres.| |Yards.
--------------------------+-------+------+-----------------
Hectare, _i.e._ 100 Ares |10,000 |{ 2 | 2280·3326
| |{ or | 11960·3326
Decare, _i.e._ 10 Ares | 1000 | ... | 1196·0333
Are | 100 | ... | 119·6033
Centiare, _i.e._ 1/100 Are| 1 | ... | 1·1960
--------------------------+-------+------+-----------------

_Measures of Capacity._

+---------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Metric Denominations and Values. | Equivalents in Imperial |
| | Denominations. |
+------------------------------+--------+---+---+---+---+---+---------+
| | | | | | | | |
| | Cubic | Q | | | | | D |
| |Metres. | u | B | | | | e |
| | | a | u | | G | Q | c |
| | | r | s | P | a | u | P i |
| | | t | h | e | l | a | i m |
| | | e | e | c | l | r | n a |
| | | r | l | k | o | t | t l |
| | | s | s | s | n | s | s s |
| | | . | . | . | . | . | . . |
+------------------------------+--------+---+---+---+---+---+---------+
|Kilolitre _i.e._ 1000 Litres | 1 | 3| 3| 2| 0| 0|0·77 |
|Hectolitre, _i.e._ 100 Litres | 1/10|...| 2| 3| 0| 0|0·077 |
|Decalitre, _i.e._ 10 Litres | 1/100|...|...| 1| 0| 0|1·6077 |
|Litre | 1/1000|...|...|...|...|...|1·76077 |
|Decilitre, _i.e._ 1/10 Litre | 1/10000|...|...|...|...|...|0·176077 |
|Centilitre, _i.e._ 1/100 Litre|1/100000|...|...|...|...|...|0·0176077|
+------------------------------+--------+---+---+---+---+---+---------+

+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
|Metric Denominations and Values.| Equivalents in Imperial Denominations. |
+-------------------+------------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----------+
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | D D |
| | Grams. |Cwts.|Stones.|Pounds.|Ounces.| r e |
| | | | | | | a c |
| | | | | | | m . |
| | | | | | | s |
| | | | | | | . |
+-------------------+------------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----------+
|Millier | 1,000,000 | 19 | 5 | 6 | 9 |15·04 |
|Quintal | 100,000 | 1 | 7 | 10 | 7 | 6·304 |
|Myriagram | 10,000 | ... | 1 | 8 | 0 |11·8304 |
|Kilogram | 1,000 |{... | ... | 2 | 3 | 4·3830 |
| | |{ (or 15432·3487 grs.) | |
|Hectogram | 100 | ... | ... | ... | 3 | 8·4383 |
|Decagram | 10 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 5·6438 |
|Gram | 1 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·56438 |
|Decigram | 1/10 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·056438 |
|Centigram | 1/100 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0056438 |
|Milligram | 1/1000 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·00056438|
+---------+---------+------------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----------+

_Measures of Length._

+-------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| | Equivalents in Metric Measures. |
|Imperial Measures. |-----------+----------+------------+-----------+
| |Millimetre.|Decimetre.| Metre. | Kilometre.|
+-------------------+-----------+----------+------------+-----------+
|Inch |= 25·39954 | | | |
|Foot or 12 inches | ... |= 3·04794 |= 0·30479| |
|Yard, or 3 feet, | | | | |
| or 36 inches | ... | ... |= 0·91428| |
|Fathom, or 2 yards,| | | | |
| or 6 feet | ... | ... |= 1·82877| |
|Pole or 5-1/2 yards| ... | ... |= 5·02911| |
|Chain, or 4 poles, | | | | |
| or 22 yards | ... | ... |= 20·11644| |
|Furlong, 40 poles, | | | | |
| or 220 yards | ... | ... |= 201·16437| = 0·20116 |
|Mile, 8 furlongs, | | | | |
| or 1760 yards | ... | ... |= 1609·31493| = 1·60931 |
+-------------------+-----------+----------+------------+-----------+

_Measures of Surface._

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | Equivalents in Metric Measures. |
|Imperial Measures. +------------------+---------------+----------+----------+
| |Square Decimetres.| Square Metres.| Ares. |Hectares. |
+--------------------------------+------------------+---------------+----------+----------+
|Square inch | = 0·06451 | | | |
|Square foot, or 144 square | | | | |
| inches | = 9·28997 | = 0·092900 | | |
|Square yard, or 9 square feet, | | | | |
| or 1296 square inches | = 83·60971 | = 0·836097 | | |
|Pole or perch, or 30-1/4 square | | | | |
| yards | ... | = 25·291939 | | |
|Rood, or 40 perches, or 1210 | | | | |
| square yards | ... | ... |=10·116776| |
|Acre, or 4 roods, or 4840 square| | | | |
| yards | ... | ... | ... |= 0·40467 |
|Square mile or 640 acres | ... | ... | ... |=258·98945|
+--------------------------------+------------------+---------------+----------+----------+

_Measures of Capacity._

+---------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| | Equivalents in Metric Measures. |
|Imperial Measures. +-----------+----------+-----------+------------+
| |Decilitres.| Litres. |Decalitres.|Hectolitres.|
+---------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+------------+
|Gill | = 1·41983 | = 0·14198| | |
|Pint or 4 gills | = 5·67932 | = 0·56793| | |
|Quart or 2 pints | ... | = 1·13587| | |
|Gallon or 4 quarts | ... | = 4·54346| | |
|Peck or 2 gallons | ... | = 9·08692| = 0·90869 | |
|Bushel, or 8 gallons,| | | | |
| or 4 pecks | ... | ... | = 3·63477 | |
|Quarter or 8 bushels | ... | ... | ... | = 2·90781 |
+---------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+------------+

_Cubic Measure._

+-------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| | Equivalents in Metric Measures. |
|Imperial Measures. +------------+-----------+----------+
| | Cubic | Cubic | Cubic |
| |Centimetres.|Decimetres.| Metres. |
+-------------------------------+------------+-----------+----------+
|Cubic inch | 16·38618 | | |
|Cubic foot or 1728 cubic inches| ... | 28·31531 | |
|Cubic yard or 27 cubic feet | ... | ... | 0·76451 |
+-------------------------------+------------+-----------+----------+

_Weights._

+---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| | Equivalents in Metric Weights. |
|Imperial Weights. +-----------+----------+------------+-----------+
| | Grams. |Decagrams.| Kilograms. |Millier or |
| | | | |Metric Ton.|
+---------------------------+-----------+----------+------------+-----------+
|Grain |=0·06479895| | | |
|Dram |=1·77185 | | | |
|Ounce, avoirdupois, or | | | | |
| 16 drams, or 437·5 grains|=28·34954 |= 2·83495| | |
|Pound, or 16 ounces, or 256| | | | |
| drams, or 7000 grains |=453·59265 |= 45·35927|= 0·45359| |
|Hundredweight or 112 lbs. | ... | ... |= 50·80238| |
|Ton or 20 cwt. | ... | ... |= 1016·04754|= 1·01605 |
|Ounce, troy, or 480 grains |=31·103496 |= 3·11035| | |
+---------------------------+-----------+----------+------------+-----------+

=WELD.= _Syn._ WOALD. The _Reseda luteola_ (Linn.), an herbaceous annual employed by the dyers. A decoction of the stems and leaves gives a rich yellow to goods mordanted with alum, tartar, or muriate of tin. See YELLOW PIGMENTS.

=WELSH RARE′BIT.= _Prep._ Cut slices of bread, toast and butter them; then cover them with slices of rich cheese, spread a little mustard over the cheese, put the bread in a cheese-toaster before the fire, and in a short time serve it up very hot.

=WEN.= The popular name of pulpy, encysted, and fleshy tumours of the face and neck.

=WET (to keep out from Gun Locks).= In giving hints to sportsman going to Norway, Mr. Lock, in his book on ‘Sport in Norway,’ gives some capital advice on this subject, which would be equally serviceable in wet weather in England. Sportsmen will do well, he says, to remove the locks from their rifle and gun, oil them with a little Rangoon oil, lay them on the hob of the fireplace until they are quite hot, and then wipe them as dry as possible with a little cotton waste, so that there will be no superfluous oil left to clog the works. While the locks are getting hot get a little beeswax and melt it in a cup, and with the tip of a penknife carefully pay, as though you were using putty to place in a pane of glass, though more sparingly, the wooden ledges where the lock-plates rest when in their places, in such a manner that none of the wax gets into the places hollowed out to receive the works of the lock. When the warm locks are put back in their places, and screwed up tight, the wax will adhere to the edge of the lock-plates and the wood wherein they bed, and effectually render them impervious to wet. The sportsman can afterwards, when stalking, push his rifle through wet grass, and use his fowling-piece when the water, after a shower, drops from the trees upon him as he forces his way between the wet branches, without fear of the wet making its way into the locks.

=WHEAT.= _Syn._ TRITICUM, L. The ripe seed or fruit of several varieties of _Triticum vulgare_ (Linn.), of which the principal are _Triticum œstivum_, or spring wheat, _Triticum hybernum_, or winter wheat, and _Triticum turgidum_, or turgid wheat, the last two of which include several red and white sub-varieties. Of all the cereal grains wheat appears to be that best adapted for bread corn, not merely on account of its highly nutritious character, but also on account of the power it possesses from its richness in gluten, of forming a light and agreeable loaf by the process of fermentation.

According to Sir H. Davy, good English wheat contains of gluten, 19%; starch, 77%; soluble matter, 4 to 5%.

The average weight of good wheat per bushel is from 58 to 60 lbs.; and its average yield of flour is fully 12-1/2 lbs. for every 14 lbs. The weight of the straw is said to be about double that of the grain. The produce per acre varies from 12 to 60, or even 64, bushels an acre. See FLOUR, STARCH, &c.

=Buckwheat.= _Syn._ FAGOPYRUM. The seed of _Fagopyrum esculentum_, a plant of the natural order _Polygonaceæ_. It makes excellent cakes, crumpets, and gruel. In North America, buckwheat cakes, or rather fritters, are in general use at breakfast, eaten with molasses. In England, buckwheat is cultivated as food for pheasants.

=Wheat, Indian.= See MAIZE.

=Wheat, Steeps for.= Quicklime, sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol, sulphate of copper or blue vitriol, and arsenious acid or white arsenic, are the substances chiefly employed for this purpose. About 5 lbs. of the first (slaked and made into a milk with water), 1-1/4 lb. of the second, 1 lb. of the third, and 3 or 4 oz. of the last, are regarded as sufficient for each sack of seed. The method of applying them is either to dissolve or mix them with just sufficient water to cover the seed, which is then to be soaked in the mixture for a few hours, or a less quantity of water is employed, and the more concentrated solution is, at intervals, well sprinkled, by means of a ‘watering pot,’ over the seed wheat spread upon the barn floor, the action being promoted by occasional stirring.

_Obs._ The first two substances above named have been separately proved to be amply sufficient to destroy the ‘smut’ in seed wheat, and are perfectly harmless in their effects, which renders them greatly preferable to arsenic, or even to sulphate of copper. Nearly all the numerous advertised ‘anti-smuts,’ or nostrums to prevent the smut in wheat, contain one or other of the last three of the above substances.

=WHEY.= _Syn._ SERUM LACTIS, L.; PETIT LAIT, Fr. The liquid portion of milk after the curd has been separated. It consists chiefly of water, holding in solution 3 or 4% of sugar of milk. A pound of milk mixed with a tablespoonful of proof spirit allowed to become sour, and the whey filtered from the sediment, yields, in the course of a few weeks, a good vinegar (whey vinegar), free from lactic acid (Scheele). Skimmed milk may be used.

=Whey, Al′um.= _Syn._ SERUM LACTIS ALUMINATUM, L. _Prep._ Take of powdered alum 1 dr.; hot milk, 1 pint; simmer a few seconds, let it repose for a short time, and strain the whey from the coagulum. Used in diarrhœa, &c.; a wine-glassful after every motion. Acid whey (SERUM LACTIS ACIDUM) may be prepared in a similar manner by substituting 1/2 dr. of tartaric or citric acid for the alum. Orange whey and lemon whey are prepared from the juice of the respective fruits, with a little of the yellow peel to impart flavour.

=WHEY POWDER.= _Prep._ 1. From whey gently evaporated to dryness, and powdered along with about 1-3rd of its weight of lump sugar.

2. Sugar, 7 oz.; sugar of milk, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz. (all in fine powder); mix well. 1 oz. dissolved in 1-1/4 pint of water forms extemporaneous whey.

=WHIS′KY.= Dilute alcohol obtained from the fermented wort of malt or grain. That from the former is the most esteemed. The inferior qualities of this spirit are prepared from barley, oats, or rye, a small portion only of which is malted, or from potatoes mashed with a portion of barley malt, the resulting wash being carelessly fermented and distilled, and purposely suffered to burn, to impart the peculiar empyreumatic or smoky flavour so much relished by the lower orders of whisky drinkers. The malt whisky, sold as such, of the principal Scotch and Irish distillers is fully equal in quality to London gin, from which it merely differs in flavour. The peculiar flavour of whisky may be imitated by adding a few drops each of pure creosote and purified fusel oil to 2 or 3 gallons of good London gin; and the imitation will be still more perfect if the liquor be kept for some months before drinking it.

We are indebted to ‘Land and Water’ for the following interesting particulars relating to Irish whiskey:

“Genuine unadulterated Irish whisky has, of late years, become a great desideratum as a wholesome and agreeable beverage, and in the article produced by the large and successful company whose premises and business I am about to describe, the consuming public have every guarantee of its excellence and purity, as far as can be insured by the use of the very best materials, great skill and care in the manufacturing processes, and the valuable and extensive buildings in which the spirit is stored until it attains the maturity and mellowness which age alone can confer.

“No blending process of new whiskies can effect this, no distiller who has not very extensive bonded warehouses is to be trusted. Acre after acre of cellars, vault after vault, corridor after corridor, each and all dim, damp, and dark, and guarded by the exciseman’s talismanic padlock——all these are necessary for the soundness of the distillery. For to secure age and quality, the effect of several years storage in these vaults is required. If you wish to see such store-rooms to perfection, go to Cork, which may be considered the capital of the Irish whisky trade. Even Dublin, with its Jamiesons, its Powers, and its Roes, must bow down before it.

“But what is most singular of all, one company represents that important branch of manufacture, and have therefore a good right to their title of ‘Cork Distilleries Company.’ A little over a quarter of a century ago there were five distilleries in Cork——Wise’s, Hewett’s, Daly’s, Murphy’s, and Waters’. In 1867, however, an amalgamation took place, and the present company was started, and the work of the five distilleries was concentrated into three——the North Mall, still known as Wise’s (that proprietor wisely allowing himself to be bought out, after having made one of the largest private fortunes in Ireland); the Midleton, situated at a pretty village of that name, about ten miles from Cork, and the Watercourse, in the north-western suburb of the city. The three distilleries are capable of producing 1,000,000 gallons each per annum, which represents an annual duty of one million and a half pounds sterling. Their paid-up capital is a quarter of a million, and a very large rest fund. Their works and property are insured for over three-quarters of a million sterling, and they find employment for about 1000 men.

“_The Brewing Process._——I shall have occasion to describe each of these three distilleries during the course of this paper, but it would perhaps be as well to run hurriedly through the several processes of whisky distillation. It may be divided roughly into brewing and distilling. Malt and barley, are, of course, the ingredients used. Barley as it comes from the market is distinguished by the appellation ‘green.’ This is either steeped and converted into malt, or kiln-dried and ground. It is then removed to the mash-tuns, where water is added, and the whole mixed by revolving machinery. After some hours’ steeping, the water has soaked all the desired properties from the grain, and is known as wort. This is led away or pumped by a complicated series of pipes to the top of the manufactory, where it undergoes a cooling process. When of the desired temperature it is conducted to the fermenting vats——vast wooden vessels of imposing appearance ranged in rows. The brewing processes end with this fermentation.

“_The Distilling Processes._ When this is done, which generally takes five days, the fermented liquor is conducted to the ‘wash’ charger, and from thence pumped to the intermediate charger, where it is heated before undergoing the first process of distillation, which now takes place. The still is a vast copper vessel, shaped exactly like an inverted funnel, with the pipe leading to the roof. The ‘wash’ or liquor from the charger is conducted into this vessel. Beneath it are two furnaces, which soon raise the temperature of the vessel to boiling point. When evaporation commences the steam (which is the spirit, and is technically known as ‘low wines’) is conducted up the copper pipe into a refrigerator, known as the ‘worm.’ This worm is, in reality, a continuation of the pipe of the still twisted into regular coils in and about a vessel filled with the coldest water obtainable. By this means the steam is converted into liquor. This liquor passes into the close safe, a glass vessel somewhat like an aquarium tank. The distiller stands by and watches the running liquor, and his practised eye and educated palate immediately detects any fault in the distillation. He is not allowed to open his tank, however, except by notice in the presence of the excise officer, one or more of whom are always present in every distillery. Through this tank it runs into ‘low wines’ receiver, a large tank placed below, and from these it again passes to ‘feints chargers’ _en route_ to the ‘low wines still,’ where the second distillation takes place. I forgot to say that the refuse liquor left after the first distillation is much valued by farmers for its milk-producing qualities, and is bought up by them for cow food. The refuse liquor from the second distillation, however, is only water, and the refuse liquor from the third and final distillation is water also.

“The second distillation is like the first——the same process of ‘worm’ cooling, conducting, and charging is carried on. The third still is known as the spirit still. The spirit is now considered perfect, and is led off to the large vats in the spirit stores, where it is reduced to desired strength, racked off into casks, and removed to bonded warehouses for maturity. Such are the processes carried on here——such are the processes carried on by all honest distillers during the last century; but modern science has discovered that many very common——tasteless, I grant, but easily flavoured——vegetables will yield ardent spirits, and there are not wanting those who will take advantage of the discovery.

“_Within a Distillery._ But the distillery itself, who can describe it——its story upon story of granaries——its kilns, floored with perforated tiles——its steeping vats and its low-roofed malting sheds——its roaring mills——its terrible and mysterious tanks——its inextricable machinery——its innumerable rafters and false roofs——its ladders perched up in inaccessible places——its bewildering passages——and far away, above all, its immense chimneys towering up to the sky? But this is not all——the bonded warehouses have to be gone through. The excise officer has to be called, and the sealed lock has to be broken, and you enter into the vast cool place. Black as night is everything around you; the lamps which the attendants hold are utterly incapable of dissipating the darkness, and only cast a strong orange glare upon the faces of the men who hold them. To show one the dimensions of the place a man is sent to the opposite end. Away he goes, only traceable by the lamp he bears, and before he waves it to show that the opposite end of the vault is reached, it has become a scarcely discernible glimmer. As we become more used to the darkness we see straight passages leading in every direction, and lined on every side by barrels piled almost to the ceiling.

“_The North Mall._ The first of the Cork distilleries I visited was the one at North Mall, formerly, and, in fact, still known as Wise’s. It is in a western suburb of the town out among the meadows. The Lee winds its silvery course between tall alders close by it, and a branch stream is made to do much of the work of the immense manufactory. On approaching it it has a picturesque effect. It lies underneath a tall bank, over which the road to Sunday’s Well leads. Looking down from this road the whole of its vast dimensions can be taken in at a glance. The extensive yard, where one would imagine enough coal was stored to supply the whole city, is being raised from the adjoining fields. I was looking over an old history of Cork, published by a certain Dr Smith, over a century ago, and I find that formerly on this spot a Franciscan monastery stood. Such discipline was preserved here that it was called the Mirror of Ireland, and their sacerdotal character was so great that they had the power of curing sore eyes. The only remains of this ancient edifice now visible is a carved stone built into the wall of the great bonded warehouses in the Sunday’s Well Road. It was here that the noted water oozed out of the red-stone rock Whether it is ever now used in making the agreeable beverage manufactured from the old whisky stored below I did not ascertain. These old Franciscan fathers had, doubtless, a good cellar of their own; but what would they have said of the vast, well-filled vaults which now are found upon perhaps the identical spot? But, large as these are, they are not large enough for the requirements of the distillery, and other extensive premises have been secured in Leitrim Street, which are now used as bonded warehouses.

“The whisky produced at this distillery is, if possible, still better now than it was in Wise’s time; the same distiller who worked the concern for him for twenty years is still there, and none but the very finest description of malt and barley (a large proportion of the former) is used. Its production, as well as those of the other two distilleries of the company, gained a first-class medal last year at Philadelphia, and the jurors described it as ‘very fine, full flavour, and good spirit.’ As a natural consequence, there is a demand for this whisky all over the world, and there are very few large towns in either hemisphere where it is not represented by an agent.

“_The ‘Watercourse,’_ By-the-bye these lie on our way to the celebrated Watercourse Distillery, the second of those used by this great firm. Entering through the broad portals, long ranges of old-fashioned buildings spread out on every side. Here is the mill, gaunt and square and stolid; those jealously guarded doors to the right are the bonded warehouses; the buildings across the yard are devoted to the coopers’ and smiths’ work, which in all three distilleries is done on the premises.

That tall black and white building far away on the opposite side is the grain store; this, nearer to you, with the irregular roofs, the complicated piping and open walled structures running away overhead, is the distillery proper. This distillery is about of equal size to that at North Mall. It has an older and more venerable appearance. It turns out as good and extensive work, and, like it, is not satisfied with the extensive storing facilities at its command, but must needs go abroad to an old, unused distillery, further in the suburbs, where it hides most of its rich and treasured productions. A picturesque old place is this; the ruins of the old works are still standing, and their architecture is such that it only requires a mantle of ivy to transform it into a remnant of feudal savagery.

“_The Midleton Distillery._ The company have handsome and extensive offices on Morrison’s Island, in the centre of the city, and close to the water’s edge. Here the directors sit day after day, and the scores of clerks attend to the interests of 4000 customers. But I cannot linger here, for I have another distillery to visit. Another, the brightest of all, far out in the beautiful country, at the town of Midleton, situate at the north-east extremity of Cork’s magical harbour. Approaching the distillery from the town, it has somewhat the appearance of a fortress. A massive stone gateway bars the entrance, and heavy walls encompass it. But when once admittance is gained the sternness of the approach vanishes. Great buildings loom aloft, but they have all a bright look; trees are on every side, and handsome garden plots, and clinging ivy, relieve the monotony of the high square structures. Here, I believe, is the largest still in the world——certainly the largest in Ireland. No work was in progress at the time of my visit, save the work of repairs and the storage of coal. Here, as at North Mall, water gives considerable aid in driving the machinery, a canal having been raised after considerable engineering difficulties and much expense. The vast works of Midleton Distillery cover over eight acres. It was a hot July day when I paid my visit, not at all the day to attempt remarkable pedestrian feats. Will it be forgiven me, therefore, if I forsook Irish whisky for Irish hospitality? Under the very shadow of the tall manufactory, yet altogether hidden from it, there is a luring lawn, a cool shrubbery, and an elegant villa radiant with flowers. Is it not more pleasant to lounge through conservatories than to climb staircases, to drink iced claret cup than to sip raw spirit, or to examine the points of a horse than to note the intricacies of machinery? Beyond the garden and the tennis court and the conservatory is a grotto, so cunningly placed that none but the initiated can find it; the air there is deliciously cool, a luxuriant growth of honeysuckle and dog rose and fern surrounds you, and at your feet is a spring of as pure water as ever mortal tasted. With pleasant society, and chat and gossip to while away the time, will it be deemed strange that I stayed there until it was impossible to see more of the distillery, and that it would only be possible to catch my last train by a hard and almost break-neck gallop?” See GIN, SPIRITS, and USQUEBAUGH.

=WHITE AR′SENIC.= ARSENIOUS ACID.

=WHITE-BAIT.= The _Clupea Latulus_ (_Clupea alba_, Yarrell), a very small and delicate fish, common in the brackish waters of the Thames from April to September. When fried in oil it is esteemed a great luxury by epicures.

=WHITE COPPER.= See GERMAN SILVER and PACKFONG.

=WHITE HEL′LEBORE.= _Syn._ VERATRUM (Ph. L. & E.); VERATRI ALBI RADIX, L. “The rhizome of _Veratrum album_, Linn., or white hellebore.” (Ph. L.) A powerful acrid cathartic, emetic, and sternutatory. It is now seldom exhibited internally, and its external use over a large or ulcerated surface is not unaccompanied with danger.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 gr. of the powder, made into a pill; in gout, mania, &c.; or 1 to 3 gr., carefully triturated with 12 or 15 gr. of liquorice powder, as an errhine, in amaurosis, &c.

=WHITE LEAD.= _Syn._ FINE WHITE, FLAKE W., CARBONATE OF LEAD, CERUSE, MAGISTERY OF LEAD; CERUSSA, PLUMBI CARBONAS (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Made by suspending rolls of thin sheet lead over malt liquor, or pyroligneous acid, in close vessels, the evaporation from the acid being kept up by the vessels being placed in a heap of dung, or a steam bath.

_Obs._ Commercial carbonate of lead, however prepared, is not the pure carbonate of lead, but always contains a certain proportion of hydrate. It is generally largely adulterated with native sulphate of baryta (‘heavy spar’), and sometimes with chalk. The former may be detected by its insolubility in dilute nitric acid, and the latter by the nitric solution yielding a white precipitate with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution of oxalic acid or oxalate of ammonia, after having been treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, or a hydrosulphuret, to throw down the lead. “Pure carbonate of lead does not lose weight at a temperature of 212° Fahr.; 68 gr. are entirely dissolved in 150 minims of acetic acid diluted with 1 fl. oz. of distilled water; and the solution is not entirely precipitated by a solution of 60 gr. of phosphate of soda.” (Ph. E.) The solution in nitric acid should not yield a precipitate when treated with a solution of sulphate of soda.——Used as a superior white paint, and, in medicine, as an external astringent, refrigerant, and desiccant. The particles of carbonate of lead prepared by precipitation, or by any of the quick processes, are in a somewhat crystalline and semi-translucent condition, and hence do not cover so well as that just noticed. The following are some of the varieties of ‘white lead’ found in commerce:

1. (DUTCH WHITE LEAD.)——_a._ (Finest.) From flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 3 cwt.——_b._ (Ordinary.) Flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 7 cwt. These form the best white lead of the shops.

2. (ENGLISH WHITE LEAD.) Flake white lowered with chalk. Covers badly, and the colour is inferior to the preceding.

3. (FRENCH WHITE LEAD; BLANC DE PLOMB, Fr.) From litharge dissolved in vinegar, and the lead thrown down by a current of carbonic acid gas from coke. Does not cover so well as flake white.

4. (GRACE’S WHITE LEAD.) Made from sheet lead, with the refuse water of the starch-maker’s, soured brewer’s grain, &c.

5. (HAMBURG WHITE, HAMBURG WHITE LEAD.) From flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 2 cwt. Also sold for best Dutch white lead.

6. (VENETIAN WHITE, VENETIAN WHITE LEAD; CERUSA VENETA, L.) From flake white, or pure white lead and cawk, equal parts. (_See below._)

=White Precip′itate of Lead.= _Syn._ MINIATURE PAINTER’S WHITE, SULPHATE OF LEAD. From an acetic or nitric solution of litharge, precipitated by adding dilute sulphuric acid, and the white powder washed and dried. The clear liquid decanted from the precipitate is poured on fresh litharge, when a second solution takes place; and this may be repeated for any number of times. Used in miniature painting, being a beautiful and durable white.

=Whi′′ting.= The same as prepared chalk, but prepared more carelessly, in horse-mills.

=White, Wilkinson’s.= From litharge ground with sea water until it ceases to whiten, and then washed and dried.

=White, Zinc (Hubbuck’s).= A hydrated oxide of zinc. It possesses the advantage of being innocuous in use, and not being blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen, like white lead.

=WHITE PIG′MENTS.= _Syn._ PIGMENTA ALBA, L. The following list embraces the more important white pigments of commerce:

=White, Alum.= _Syn._ BAUMÉ’S WHITE. Take of powdered Roman alum, 2 lbs.; honey, 1 lb.; mix, dry, powder, calcine in a shallow dish to whiteness, cool, wash, and dry. A beautiful and permanent white, both in oil and water.

=White, Derbyshire.= From cawk or heavy spar, by grinding and elutriation.

=White, Flake.= The finer kinds of white lead are so called.

=White, Min′eral.= Precipitated carbonate of lead.

=White, Newcastle.= White lead made with molasses vinegar.

=White, Nottingham.= White lead made with alegar. Permanent white is now commonly sold for it.

=White, Pearl.= _Syn._ FARD’S SPANISH WHITE. Trisnitrate of bismuth.

=White, Per′manent.= Artificial sulphate of baryta, prepared by precipitating chloride of barium with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution of glauber salts. A good fast white, unchanged by sulphurous fumes. Used to mark jars and bottles for containing acids or alkalies, as it is affected by very few substances; also to adulterate white lead.

=White, Spanish.= _Syn._ BLANC D’ESPAGNE, BLANC DE TROYES, Fr. The softest and purest white chalk, elutriated, made into balls, and well dried. Used as a cheap white paint.

=WHITE SWEL′LING.= _Syn._ HYDRARTHRUS, L. A variety of indolent, malignant, scrofulous tumours, attacking the knee, ankle, wrist, and elbow, especially the first.

=WHITES (Sharp).= _Prep._ 1. From wheaten flour and powdered alum, equal parts, ground together.

2. (STUFF; BAKER’S STUFF.) From alum, ground to the coarseness of common salt, 1 lb.; common salt, 3 lbs.; mix together. Both the above are used by bakers for the purpose of clandestinely introducing alum into their bread.

=WHITE′WASH.= Whiting is made into a milk with water, and a small quantity of melted size or dissolved glue added. It is applied to walls or ceilings with a broad, flat brush, worked in a uniform direction. Should the surface have been previously whitewashed, it is requisite first to remove the dirt by washing it with a brush and abundance of clean water.

“LIME-WASHING is, from the cleansing action of the quicklime, much the more effectual mode of purification, but is less frequently had recourse to, from the general ignorance respecting the proper mode of preparing the lime-wash. If glue is employed, it is destroyed by the corrosive action of the lime, and, in consequence, the latter easily rubs off the walls when dry. This is the case also if the lime be employed, as is often absurdly recommended, simply slaked in water, and used without any fixing material. Lime-wash is prepared by placing some freshly-burned quicklime in a pail, and pouring on sufficient water to cover it; ‘boiled oil’ (linseed) should then be immediately added, in the proportion of a pint to a gallon of the wash. For coarser work, any common refuse fat may be used instead of the boiled oil. The whole should then be thinned with water to the required consistency, and applied with a brush. Care should be taken not to leave the brush in the lime-wash for any length of time, as it destroys the bristles.” (W. B. Tegetmeier.)

=WHI′′TING.= See WHITE PIGMENTS.

=WHITING.= The _Gadus merlangus_ (Linn.), a member of the cod family of fishes. It is a very light and nutritious fish, and well adapted to dyspeptics and invalids; but it has too little flavour to be a favourite with gourmands.

=WHIT′LOW.= _Syn._ WHITLOE; PARONYCHIA, L. A painful inflammation, tending to suppuration and abscess, at the ends of the fingers, and mostly under or about the nails. Emollient poultices are useful in this affection; extreme tension and pain may be relieved by an incision, so as to allow the exit of the pus or matter from under the nail. The treatment must also be directed to establish the general health, as without this local remedies often fail.

=WHOOP′ING-COUGH.= _Syn._ CHIN-COUGH, HOOPING-C., KIN-C.; PERTUSSIS, L. A convulsive strangling cough, characterised by peculiar sonorous or whooping inspirations, from which its popular name is taken. It comes on in fits, which are usually terminated by vomiting. It is infectious, chiefly attacks children, and, like the small-pox, only occurs once during life.

The treatment of whooping-cough consists, chiefly, in obviating irritation, and in exciting nausea and occasional vomiting. For the first, aperients and sedatives (hemlock or henbane), in small doses, may be given; for the second intention, an extremely weak sweetened solution of tartarised antimony, or a mixture containing squills or ipecacuanha, may be administered in small doses every hour or two, according to the effect produced. In full habits, blisters and leeches may be resorted to; and in all cases opiate and stimulating embrocations may be applied to the chest and spine with advantage. Whenever the head is affected, the use of narcotics is contra-indicated. The hot bath is often serviceable. “A mixture of cochineal and carbonate of potassa is by some regarded as almost a specific for this disease; but our own observations lead us to look with more favour on anatomical nauseants and emetics.” (Cooley.) Other medicinal agents employed in pertussis are alum, bromide of ammonium, sulphate of zinc, belladonna, tincture of myrrh, carbolic acid, and lobelia. See ANTIMONIALS, DRAUGHTS, MIXTURE, OXYMEL, SYRUP, WINES, &c.

=WHOR′TLEBERRY.= (Bear’s). _Syn._ UVÆ URSI FOLIA (B. P.), UVA URSI (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The leaf of _Arctostophylos Uva Ursi_, trailing arbutus, or Bearberry, Astringent.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr. of the powder, thrice daily. See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.

=WIK′ANA.= _Syn._ WACAKA DES INDS, Fr. _Prep._ (Guibourt.) Roasted chocolate nuts (ground), 2 oz.; powdered cinnamon, 2 dr.; powdered vanilla, 1/2 dr.; ambergris, 3 gr.; musk, 1-1/2 gr.; sugar, 6 oz.; well mixed together. A teaspoonful is boiled with 1/2 pint of milk, or arrow-root, as a stimulating diet for convalescents.

=WILD CHERRY.= The _Prunus Virginiana_, a beautiful tree, growing wild in the western states of America. The inner bark (wild-cherry bark) is officinal in the Ph. U. S., and is a valuable sedative tonic. It is specially adapted for the alleviation of the distressing cough which is so harassing to patients with pulmonary disease. See INFUSION.

=WILD′FIRE RASH.= _Strophulus volaticus._

=WILLOW.= _Syn._ SALIX, L. The barks of _Salix alba_ or white willow, _Salis fragilis_ or crack willow, and _Salix Caprea_ or great round-leaved willow (WILLOW BARKS; SALICIS CORTICIS——Ph. E.), were officinal in the Ph. D. 1826; and, with that of _Salix Russelliana_, and other species, are rich in salicin, and hence possess considerable febrifuge power.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr., either in powder or made into a decoction; as a substitute for Peruvian bark, in agues, hectics, debility, dyspepsia, &c.

=WIN′DOWS.= A prismatic or crystalline appearance may be imparted to windows by several expedients:

1. Mix a hot solution of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt) with a clear solution of gum Arabic, and lay it on hot. For a margin, or for figures, wipe off the part you wish to remain clear with a wet towel as soon as the surface has become cold and hard. The effect is very pretty, and may be varied by substituting oxalic acid, red or yellow prussiate of potash, or any other salt (not efflorescent), for the sulphate of magnesia. Sulphate of copper gives a very beautiful crystallisation of a blue colour.

2. Evenly cover the surface of the glass with a layer of thin gum water, and sprinkle any of the saline crystals before noticed over it whilst wet. The gum water may be tinged of any colour to vary the effect.

A blinded appearance, more or less resembling ground glass, may be given as follows:

1. By evenly dabbing the surface with a piece of soft glazier’s putty.

2. A coating of stained rice jelly, laid on with a painter’s brush (sash tool), and afterwards dabbed with a duster brush, applied endways.

3. Tissue paper, either white or coloured, applied by means of clear gum water or some pale varnish. The pattern may be lined with a pencil, and, when the whole is somewhat dry, but not hard, the lines may be cut through, and the pattern stripped off with the flat point of a knife.

4. The surface of the glass being coated with mucilage, or any pale varnish, as before, coarsely powdered glass or quartz, reduced to a uniform state of grain by a sieve, may be sprinkled over it; when dry, the loose portion should be removed with a soft brush.

=WINE.= _Syn._ VINUM, L.; VIN, Fr. The fermented juice of the grape. The general characters and quality of wine are principally influenced by climate, soil, and aspect, the nature and maturity of the grape, and the method of conducting the fermentation. The sp. gr. of the ‘must’ varies from 1·063 to 1·285, from which the proportion of saccharine matter and the ultimate alcoholic richness of the wine resulting from its fermentation may be inferred. That of Rhenish grapes seldom exceeds 1·095 to 1·100. Want of space compels us to confine our remarks chiefly to the properties, uses, and management of grape juice after it has passed through the stage of fermentation, or, in reality, become wine.

_Officinal Wine._ The only wine ordered by the British Colleges is sherry (WHITE WINE; VINUM XERICUM——B. P., Ph. L.; VINUM ALBUM——Ph. E.; VINUM HISPANICUM——Ph. D.); but several other wines are employed in medicine, as tonics, stimulants, antispasmodics, and restoratives, according to the circumstances of the case or the taste of the patient. In pharmacy, the less expensive Cape or marsala, or even raisin wine, is usually substituted for sherry in the preparation of the medicated wines of the Pharmacopœias.

_Varieties, characteristics, &c._ The following Tables will convey much useful information on this subject in a condensed form.

I. TABLE _of the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine_. By DR.
CHRISTISON

------------------------------------------+-----------+----------
| Alcohol | Proof
Name, &c. | of ·7937 | spirit
| per cent. | per cent.
| by weight | by volume
------------------------------------------+-----------+----------
{ Weakest | 14·97 | 31·31
{ Mean of 7 samples | 16·20 | 34·91
Port { Strongest | 17·10 | 37·27
{ White | 14·97 | 31·31
| |
{ Weakest | 13·98 | 30·84
{ Mean of 13 wines, excluding } | 15·37 | 33·59
{ those very long kept in cask } | |
Sherry { Strongest | 16·17 | 35·12
{ Mean of 9 wines long kept in } | 14·72 | 31·30
{ cask in the East Indies } | |
{ Madre da Xeres | 16·90 | 37·06
| |
{ Long kept in cask in } Strongest | 16·90 | 37·06
Madeira{ the East Indies } Weakest | 14·09 | 30·86
| |
Teneriffe (long in cask at Calcutta) | 13·84 | 30·21
Cercial | 15·45 | 33·65
Lisbon (dry) | 16·14 | 34·71
Shiraz | 12·95 | 28·30
Amontillado | 12·63 | 27·60
Claret (a first growth of 1811) | 7·72 | 16·95
Chateau-Latour (ditto 1825) | 7·78 | 17·06
Rosan (second growth of 1825) | 7·61 | 16·74
Ordinary Claret (Vin Ordinaire) | 8·99 | 18·96
Rivesaltes | 9·31 | 22·35
Malmsey | 12·86 | 28·17
Rüdesheimer. 1st quality | 8·40 | 18·44
Rüdesheimer. Inferior | 6·90 | 15·19
Hambacher. Superior quality | 7·35 | 16·15
------------------------------------------+-----------+----------

II. _Quantity of Alcohol_ (sp. gr. ·825[270] at 60°
Fahr.) _in 100 parts of Wine by volume_.

[Footnote 270: Alcohol of ·825 contains 92·6% of real or anhydrous alcohol; or, in the language of the Excise, is about 62-1/2% o.p., and in round numbers may be said to be of about twice the strength of brandy or rum, as usually sold.]

+-----------------------+----------------------+------------------+
| Names of Wines. | Alcoholic content. | Authority. |
+-----------------------+----------------------+------------------+
| Alba Flora | 17·26 | Brande. |
| Barsac | 13·86 | do. |
| Bucellas | 18·49 | do. |
| Burgundy (average) | 14·57 | do. |
| Ditto | 12·16 | Prout. |
| Calcavella (average) | 18·69 | Brande. |
| Cape Madeira (do.) | 20·51 | do. |
| Cape Muschat | 18·25 | do. |
| Champagne (average) | 12·61 | do. |
| Ditto | 12·20 | Fontenelle. |
| Claret (average) | 15·10 | Brande. |
| Colares | 19·75 | do. |
| Constantia (White) | 19·75 | do. |
| Ditto (Red) | 18·92 | do. |
| Ditto (average) | 14·50 | Prout. |
| Côte Rôtie | 12·32 | Brande. |
| Currant | 20·55 | do. |
| Elder | 8·79 | do. |
| Frontignac (Rivesalte)| 12·79 | do. |
| Gooseberry | 11·84 | do. |
| Grape (English) | 18·11 | do. |
| Hermitage (Red) | 12·32 | do. |
| Ditto (White) | 17·43 | do. |
| Hock (average) | 12·08 | do. |
| Lachryma Christi | 19·70 | do. |
| Lisbon | 18·94 | do. |
| Lissa (average) | 25·41 | do. |
| Ditto (do.) | 15·90 | Prout. |
| Lunel | 15·52 | Brande. |
| Madeira (average) | 22·27 | do. |
| Ditto (do.) | 21·20 | Prout. |
| Malaga | 17·26 | Brande. |
| Ditto | 18·94 | do. |
| Malmsey Madeira | 16·40 | do. |
| Marsala (average) | 25·09 | do. |
| Ditto (do.) | 18·40 | Prout. |
| Nice | 14·63 | Brande. |
| Orange (average) | 11·26 | do. |
| Port (do.) | 20·64 | Prout. |
| Ditto (do.) | 22·96 | Brande. |
| Raisin (do.) | 25·41 | do. |
| Ditto (do.) | 15·90 | Prout. |
| Red Madeira (do.) | 20·35 | Brande. |
| Roussillon (do.) | 18·13 | do. |
| Sauterne | 14·22 | do. |
| Shiraz | 15·52 | do. |
| Sherry (average) | 19·17 | do. |
| Ditto (do.) | 23·80 | Prout. |
| Syracuse | 20·00 | do. |
| Ditto | 15·28 | Brande. |
| Teneriffe | 19·79 | do. |
| Tent | 13·30 | do. |
| Tokay | 9·88 | do. |
| Vidonia | 19·25 | do. |
| Vin de Grave | 13·94 | do. |
| Zante | 17·05 | do. |
+-----------------------+----------------------+------------------+

_Composition._ The constituents of wine are——alcohol, which is one of its principal ingredients, and on which its power of producing intoxication depends; sugar, which has escaped the process of fermentation, and which is most abundant in the sweet wines, as tokay, tent, frontignac, &c.; extractive, derived chiefly from the husk of the grape, and is extracted from it by the newly formed alcohol; tartar, or bitartrate of potassa, which constitutes the most important portion of the saline matter of wine; odoriferous matter, imparting the characteristic vinous odour, depending chiefly upon the presence of œnanthic acid and ether; bouquet, arising from essential oil or amyl-compounds, probably existing under the form of ethers. Besides these, small quantities of tannin, gum, acetic and malic acid, acetic ether, lime, &c., are found in wine. The specific gravity of wine depends on the richness and ripeness of the grapes used in its manufacture, the nature of the fermentation and its age. It varies from about ·970 to 1·041.

_Purity._ The most frequent species of fraud in the wine trade is the mixing of wines of inferior quality with those of a superior grade. In many cases the inferior kinds of foreign wines are flavoured and substituted for the more expensive ones. This is commonly practised with Cape wines, which, after having a slight ‘nuttiness’ communicated to it by bitter almonds or peach kernels, a lusciousness or fulness by honey, and additional strength by a little plain spirit or pale brandy, is made to undergo the operation of ‘fretting in,’ and is then sold for ‘sherry.’ Formerly, it was a common practice of ignorant wine-dealers to add a little litharge or acetate of lead to their inferior wines to correct their acidity, but it is believed that this highly poisonous substance is now never employed in this country, ‘salt of tartar’ being made to perform the same duty. The lead which is frequently detected in bottled wine, and which often causes serious indisposition, may be generally traced to shot being carelessly left in the bottles, and not to wilful fraud. Sherry is commonly coloured in Spain by the addition of must boiled down to 1/5 of its original volume; and in England, by burnt brown sugar, or spirit colouring. Amontillado (a very nutty wine) is frequently added to sherries deficient in flavour. Various other ingredients, as the essential oil of almonds, bitter almonds in substance, cherry-laurel leaves, cherry-laurel water, &c., are also employed for a like purpose. In Portugal the juice of elderberries is very commonly added to port wine to increase its colour, and extract of rhatany for the double purpose of improving its colour and imparting an astringent taste. In England beet-root, Brazil wood, the juices of elderberries and bilberries, the pressed cake of elder wine, extract of logwood, &c., are frequently added to port to deepen its colour; and oak sawdust, kino, alum, and extract of rhatany, to increase its astringency. But the most common adulterant of port wine, both in Portugal and this country, is ‘jerupiga,’ or ‘geropiga,’ a compound of elder juice, brown sugar, grape juice, and crude Portuguese brandy. That imported here contains about 45% of proof spirit, and is allowed by the Custom-house authorities to be mixed with port wine in bond. A factitious bouquet is also commonly given to wine by the addition of sweetbriar, orris root, clary, orange flowers, elder flowers, esprit de petit grain, &c.

_Tests._ These, for the most part, are applicable to all fermented liquors:

1. Richness in alcohol. This may be found by any of the methods noticed under ALCOHOLMETEY, PORTER, and TINCTURE.

2. SACCHARINE and EXTRACTIVE MATTER. The sp. gr. corresponding to the alcoholic strength, last found, is deducted from the real sp. gr. of the sample, the difference divided by ·0025, or multiplied by 400, gives the weight of solid matter (chiefly sugar) in oz. per gallon (nearly).

3. NARCOTICS. These may be detected in the manner noticed at page 1630.

4. LEAD. The presence of lead or litharge in wine may be readily detected by sulphuretted hydrogen, or a solution of any alkaline sulphydrate, which will, in that case, produce a black precipitate. See WINE-TESTS.

5. POTASSA or SODA improperly present. A portion of the wine is evaporated nearly to dryness, and then agitated with rectified spirit; the filtered tincture, holding in solution acetate of potassa, is then divided into two portions, one of which is tested for acetic acid, and the other for the alkali.

6. ALUM. A portion of the wine is evaporated to dryness, and ignited; the residuum is then treated with a small quantity of hydrochloric acid, the mixture evaporated to dryness, again treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, and tested with liquor of potassa. If a white bulky precipitate forms, which is soluble in an excess of caustic potassa, and which is reprecipitated by a solution of sal ammoniac, the sample examined contained alum.

7. OIL OF VITRIOL.——_a._ A drop or two of the suspected wine may be poured upon a piece of paper, which must then be dried before the fire. Pure wine at most only stains the paper, but one containing sulphuric acid causes it to become charred and rotten. The effect is more marked on paper which has been previously smeared with starch paste.

_b._ According to M. Lassaigne, pure red wine leaves, by spontaneous evaporation, a violet or purple stain on paper; whilst that to which sulphuric acid has been added, even in quantity, only equal to 1/2000 to 1/3000th part, leaves a pink stain in drying.

8. SPURIOUS COLOURING-MATTER.——_a._ Genuine red wine yields greenish-grey precipitates with sugar of lead, and greenish ones with potassa; but those coloured with elderberries, bilberries, litmus, logwood, and mulberries, give deep blue or violet precipitates, and those coloured with Brazil wood, red sanders wood, or red beet, give red ones.

_b._ Pure red wine is perfectly decoloured by agitation with recent hydrate of lime.

_c._ Dissolve a piece of caustic potash in a small quantity of the liquid to be experimented upon. If no deposit is formed, and the wine assumes a greenish shade, there is no artificial coloration. A violet-coloured deposit indicates the presence of elderberries or mulberries, a red one indicates the presence of beetroot for Brazil wood, red violet that of logwood. If the deposit is blue violet, privet berries have been employed; and if of a pale violet the coloration is due to litmus.

_d._ For the detection of the principal colouring matters employed in the sophistication of wines, M. Chancel proceeds as follows:——He takes 10 c. c. of wine, and adds 3 c.c. of a dilute solution of subacetate of lead, allowing the mixture to subside for a few minutes to make sure that the precipitation is complete. If this is not the case a slight excess of the reagent is added.