Chapter VIII: Front Matter (8)

Unlike Mr Edison, Mr Werdermann does not believe in the indefinite divisibility of the electric light. It will be observed that the candle power of the light becomes diminished by subdivision. Two lights gave a light equal to 700 candles, whereas the same current divided into ten lights gave an aggregate light of only 400 candles.

The following extract from the ‘Times’ of December 5th, 1878, illustrates the financial aspect of the electric light question:——

“At the usual weekly meeting of the Society of Arts, held last evening, Dr C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., in the chair, a paper on electric lighting was read by Mr J. N. Shoolbred, M. Inst. C.E. The object of the author was to present some results of the application of electric lighting to industrial purposes, especially as regards cost. He noticed first the Holmes and the Alliance magneto-electric machines, giving alternating currents and single lights for lighthouse use. Secondly, he referred to the dynamo-electric machines, producing single lights for general industrial purposes, as well as for lighthouses, and including the Siemens and the Gramme machines. In his third group the author included the machines used for producing divided lights, each group indicating a marked period representing a clearly defined stage of progress in electric lighting. With regard to cost, Mr Shoolbred stated that in every instance his figures and particulars were those afforded by the users of the various lights, and not by the inventors or their representatives. In the case of the Holmes machine the annual cost per lighthouse was about £1035, inclusive of interest, repairs, and wages. With the Siemens machine the annual cost was about £494 per lighthouse, including interest and the other expenses. With the Alliance machine as used at Havre the cost was about £474 per annum per lighthouse, interest, &c., included. The single-light Gramme machine has been in use in the Paris goods station of the Northern of France Railway for two years. Six machines have been kept going with one light each, and the cost is found to be 5_d._ per light per hour, or with interest on outlay at 10 per cent., 8_d._ per hour. The same light at the ironworks of Messrs Powell at Rouen was stated to cost 4_d._ per light per hour, exclusive of interest and charge for motive power, the latter being derived from one of the engines on the works. In 1877 a series of experiments were carried out with the Lontin light at the Paris terminus of the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Railway. The passenger station was lighted, and the results were so satisfactory that the company have entered into a permanent contract with the proprietors of the Lontin light for lighting their Paris goods station with 12 lights, at a cost of 5_d._ per light per hour. The Western of France Railway Company have had 6 Lontin lights in the goods station at the Paris terminus, St Lazare, since May last, and 12 lights in the passenger station since June. Careful experiments have shown the cost to be 8_d._ per light per hour, inclusive of interest. Referring to the Jablochkoff light, Mr Shoolbred placed before the meeting some particulars with regard to its application in the Avenue de l’Opéra, Paris, which were afforded him by M. J. Allard, the chief engineer of the lighting department of the City of Paris. It appears that the authorities pay the Société Générale d’Électricité 37f. 2c. per hour for the 62 lamps in use there. These 62 lamps supersede 344 gas-jets which were previously used, and which cost the authorities 7·244f. per hour. The electric illumination, however, is considered as equal to 682 gas-jets, or about double the original illumination——that is, to a cost of 14·45f. per hour as against 37·2f. for the electric light, the cost of which, therefore, is 2·6 times that of the gas. The contract for lighting by electricity was terminated by the City of Paris on the 30th ult., and the authorities have declined to renew it except at the price paid for gas, namely, 7·224f. (or about 6_s._) per hour, and that only until the 15th of January next. These terms have been accepted by the Société, so that the price paid to them will be at the rate of about 1-1/8_d._ per light per hour. Mr Shoolbred stated that the Société place their expenses at 1·06f. (or just 11_d._) per light per hour, which, however, they hope shortly to reduce by one half. A series of careful photometric experiments carried out by the municipal authorities with the Jablochkoff lights, above referred to, showed each naked light to possess a maximum of 300 candles of intensity. With the glass globe this was reduced to 180 candles, showing a loss of 40 per cent., while during the darker periods through which the lights passed the light was as low as 90 candles. The foregoing were the only authenticated particulars which the author could obtain as regards the working of the various electric systems of electric lighting. In conclusion, Mr Shoolbred referred to the Rapieff light at the ‘Times’ office, which, he observed, worked fairly and with regularity, which could not be said of all others, and it might therefore be entitled to take rank as an established application of electric illumination. The paper was illustrated by the Siemens, Rapieff, Serrin, and other forms of electric light, which were shown in operation.”

That the electric light is eventually destined to supplant coal gas in illuminating the fronts of large buildings, open spaces, squares, assembly rooms, public halls, theatres, picture galleries, workshops and factories, &c., seems no very extravagant prediction. We have already seen that it has for some years been employed in one lighthouse; and we have the testimony of Mr Douglas, of the Trinity House, at a very recent meeting of the Society of Arts, that at the Souter Point Lighthouse there had been only two stoppages in eight years, once through a bad carbon breaking, and once through the lighthouse-keeper going to sleep.

In addition to places above specified, amongst other localities in which it is in work, we may mention the chocolate factories of M. Menier, at Noiselle, his india-rubber works at Grenelle, his sugar refinery at Nice, and Messrs Caille’s works at Paris. In this country it was employed in the erection of the Tay Bridge, as well as in the works of Messrs Head, at Stockton-on-Tees, and in London it may be nightly seen burning before the Gaiety Theatre in the Strand, at Billingsgate Market, and frequently lighting up the front of the Stereoscopic Company’s premises in Regent Street. Further, we may add that the Metropolitan Board of Works are making the experiment of lighting the Victoria Embankment and the City authorities the Holborn Viaduct, with the Jablochkoff candle. The former have placed a dynamo-electric apparatus, worked by a steam engine of 20-horse power, close to the foot of Hungerford Bridge, from whence wires will be carried right and left towards Westminster and Blackfriars respectively.

We believe the main conducting wire is carried under the coping-stone of the parapet running along the Embankment, and that the carbon points are fixed on the top of a certain number of gas standards which now surmount the wall of the Embankment.

That electricity is more economical as a method of artificial lighting than coal-gas the figures previously given seem to demonstrate, and there can be no question as to the much greater luminosity and purity of the light over the gas flame, qualities which render it an admirable substitute for the sunlight, the absence of which it may be said to supply at night. One disadvantage urged against its employment in weaving rooms is, that it casts such dark and distinct shadows that these are frequently mistaken for the threads themselves, an objection which is said to have been remedied by placing the light as near the ceiling as possible. The non-generation of carbonic acid and sulphurous products such as are given off by burning gas, although of slight importance when the light is employed in the open air, becomes a great advantage when it is used in crowded assembly rooms or theatres, since the atmospheric contamination caused by carbonic acid becomes of course considerably reduced. The absence of sulphur compounds especially qualifies the light for use in large libraries. If it be true that the light gives rise to an appreciable amount of ozone, this constitutes another point in its favour. Opinion is at variance as to the possibility of the practical application of the electric light for illuminating private houses and dwellings in such a manner as to supply the place of the gas we now burn in them. One serious impediment to the probable accomplishment of this result certainly seems to be the fact that electricity for lighting purposes can only practically be conveyed to short distances from its source, which would necessitate the establishment and supervision of a number of generating machines near the houses to be lighted. Another obstacle, which hitherto has not been overcome, is the circumstance that the current when subdivided yields proportionately a greatly diminished amount of light. For instance, one light which had a certain photometric candle valve would yield when divided into two an aggregate amount of light considerably less than the one; and if divided into three still less, and so on. This has been pointed out when noticing Mr Werdermann’s invention for the divisibility of the light. Mr Edison, an American inventor, asserts that he has conquered this difficulty, and additionally perfected a machine for measuring the current used in the electric light. He states that it consists of an apparatus placed in every house lighted by electricity, which registers the quantity of electricity consumed, and uses for the purpose 1000th part of the quantity employed in the building.

Dr Siemens, no mean authority, doubts the practicability of applying electric lighting to household illumination.

A matter of primary importance in connection with the successful working of the electric light is the quality of the carbon points. In their manufacture gas carbon obtained from the necks of the retorts used in gas-making, as being the hardest and purest, is employed.

Superior, however, as this form of carbon is to every other description of the substance, it is never chemically pure, and as any foreign substance imparts to the light the irregularity or flickering that sometimes accompanies it, it is necessary the impurities should be removed. To effect their separation the carbon has to undergo several processes, such as soaking in caustic potash to remove the silica, treatment with strong acids, several washings, grinding, &c. It is then kneaded and put into moulds, in which it is subjected to a pressure as high as 12 tons to the square foot. Subsequently the points so made are baked.

=LIGHTNING.= See ACCIDENTS.

=LIG′NIN.= C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. _Syn._ CELLULOSE. This is woody fibre deprived of all foreign matter. It forms about 95 per cent. of baked wood, and constitutes the woody portion of all vegetable substances. Fine linen and cotton are almost entirely composed of lignin, the associated vegetable principles having been removed by the treatment the fibres have been subjected to during the process of their manufacture.

Pure lignin is tasteless, inodorous, insoluble in water and alcohol, and absolutely innutritious; dilute acids and alkaline solutions scarcely affect it, even when hot; oil of vitriol converts it into dextrin or grape sugar, according to the mode of treatment. When concentrated sulphuric acid is added very gradually to about half its weight of lint, linen rag, or any similar substance shredded small, and contained in a glass vessel, with constant trituration, the fibres gradually swell up and disappear, without the disengagement of any gas, and a tenacious mucilage is formed, which is entirely soluble in water. If, after a few hours, the mixture be diluted with water, the acid neutralised by the addition of chalk, and, after filtration, any excess of lime thrown down by the cautious addition of a solution of oxalic acid, the liquid yields, after a second filtration, and the addition of alcohol in considerable excess, a gummy mass, which possesses all the characters of pure dextrin. If, instead of at once saturating the diluted acid solution with chalk, we boil it for 4 or 5 hours, the dextrin is entirely converted into grape sugar, which, by the addition of chalk and filtration, as before, and evaporation by a gentle heat to the consistence of a syrup, will, after repose for a few days, furnish a concrete mass of crystallised sugar. By strong pressure between folds of porous paper or linen, redissolving it in water, agitation with animal charcoal, and recrystallisation, brilliant colourless crystals of grape sugar may be obtained. Hemp, linen, or cotton, thus treated, yield fully their own weight of gum, and 1 per cent. of their weight of grape sugar. During the above transformation, the sulphuric acid is converted into sulpholignic acid, and may be procured in a separate state. A solution of oxide of copper in ammonia, or solution of basic carbonate of copper in strong ammonia, dissolves cotton, which may then be precipitated by acids in colourless flakes.

=LIG′NITE.= _Syn._ BROWN COAL. Wood and other matter more or less mineralised and converted into coal. The lignites are generally dark brown, and of obvious woody structure. They are distinguished from true coals by burning with little flame and much smoke. Those of Germany are largely used as a source of paraffin and burning oils.

=LIG′NUM VI′TÆ.= See GUAIACUM WOOD.

=LIME.= CaO. _Syn._ OXIDE OF CALCIUM; CHAUX, Fr.; KALK, Ger. Lime, when pure, and as a chemical and medical reagent, will be found treated of under CALCIUM (Oxide of). It is prepared on the large scale for commerce by calcining chalk, marble or limestone, in kilns, and is called quicklime, caustic lime, burnt lime, stone lime, &c. The lime kilns are usually of the form of an inverted cone, and are packed with alternate layers of limestone and fuel, and the burnt lime raked out from the bottom. The lime thus obtained is a pale yellow powder, combining eagerly with water, and crumbling to a light white powder, “slaked lime,” with the evolution of much heat. Lime which slakes well is termed “fat lime,” while if it slakes badly is termed “poor lime.” The slaked lime, the CALCIS HYDRAS of the B. P., is fresh lime sprinkled with water till it falls to powder.

=Lime, Salts of.= See under CALCIUM.

=Lime, Pyrolignite of.= An impure acetate of calcium used for making mordants in dyeing and calico printing, as a substitute for the more expensive acetate of lead.

=Lime, Chloride of.= _Syn._ BLEACHING POWDER, CHLORINATED LIME, HYPOCHLORITE OF CALCIUM.

This article was formerly believed to be a compound of lime and chlorine (CaO.Cl), and consequently received the name of ‘chloride of lime.’ We now know, however, that it is not a definite substance, but a mixture of calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride, and calcium hydrate. The value of this preparation is due to the readiness with which the calcium hypochlorite is decomposed by acids, even by the carbonic acid of the air, with the evolution of hypochlorous acid which abstracts hydrogen from many vegetable colouring matters, badly smelling gases, &c.: the former are thereby bleached and the latter deodorised.

Chloride of lime is most extensively used for bleaching linen, calico, and similar fabrics, thousands of tons being made near Newcastle alone every year. It is also largely employed as a deodoriser.

_Prep._ Freshly slaked lime is thinly spread out in a proper vessel and exposed to an atmosphere of chlorine gas until it is saturated. Now included in the Materia Medica.

Slaked lime (fresh), 20 parts, common salt, 1 part, are mixed together, and the powder placed in long earthenware vessels into which chlorine is passed until the mixture begins to grow damp, or until one part of it, dissolved in 130 parts of water, is capable of decolouring 4-1/2 parts of sulphate of indigo (see CHLORIMETRY), when the whole is transferred to dry bottles.

(Wholesale.) The chlorine is generated from the usual materials mixed in leaden vessels, heated by steam, and the gas, after passing through water, is conveyed by a leaden tube into an apartment built of siliceous sandstone, and arranged with shelves or trays, containing dry fresh slaked lime, placed one above another, about an inch asunder. The process, to produce a first-class article, is continued for 4 or 5 days. During this time the lime is occasionally agitated by means of iron rakes, the handles of which pass through boxes of lime placed in the walls of the chamber, which thus act as valves.

The successful manufacture of bleaching powder is dependent upon the careful observance of a number of conditions, such as the quality of the limestone,[16] which should be free from iron; the presence of magnesia at the time is also very objectionable, since it gives rise to the formation and presence in the bleaching powder of deliquescent chloride of magnesium; the apportionment of the water in slaking the lime is also a matter of no inconsiderable importance, the lime forming into balls, which fail to properly absorb the gas if the water be insufficient, whilst if it be in excess, it yields a powder deficient in chlorine. When slaked, the lime is passed through a sieve to free it from small pebbles. After being slaked it is kept for 2 or 3 days before being used, as it is found that under these circumstances it absorbs chlorine more readily than when recently prepared. Previous to its entrance into the lime chamber, the chlorine is passed through water, to free it from vapour, and solid particles of chloride of manganese.

[Footnote 16: A very pure kind of limestone, and one which is largely used in the preparation of bleaching powder, is found at Buxton.]

The temperature of the chamber into which the chlorine is passed ought not to exceed 62° F. An excess of chlorine has been found to yield a powder deficient in hypochlorite.

Bleaching powder, unless protected from the air (carbonic acid), slowly parts with its chlorine. In summer it has been estimated that it loses as much as 86 per cent. of the gas, and in winter about 26 per cent.

_Prop., &c._ Chloride of lime is a pale, yellowish-white powder, generally more or less damp, and evolving a chlorine-like odour of hypochlorous acid. Its soluble constituents dissolve in about 20 parts of water. It is decomposed by acids with the evolution of chlorine and oxygen (hypochlorous acid). Good chloride of lime should contain from 32% to 36% of chlorine, of which, however, but 25% to 30% can be easily liberated by an acid.

_Estim._ See CHLOROMETRY.

_Uses._ Chloride of lime is employed in medicine as a deodoriser and disinfectant. An ointment of chloride of lime has been used in scrofula, and a lotion or bath, moderately dilute, is one of the cleanest and readiest ways of removing the ‘itch,’ and several other skin diseases. It is also in great use as a disinfectant, and may be used either in substance or solution. A small quantity of the powder spread on a flat dish or plate, and placed on the chimney-piece, and a like quantity in an opposite part of the room, will continue to evolve sufficient chlorine or hypochlorous acid to disinfect (? Ed.) the air of an apartment for several days. The evolution of chlorine is promoted by occasionally renewing the exposed surface, by stirring it with a piece of stick, and after it becomes scentless, by the addition of a little acid, as strong vinegar, or hydrochloric acid, or oil of vitriol, largely diluted with water. Of late, however, it has been partly superseded by sulphurous acid, carbolic acid, &c. The most extensive consumption of chloride of lime is, however, for bleaching textile fabrics. When employed for this purpose, the goods are first immersed in a dilute solution of this substance, and then transferred to a vat containing dilute sulphuric acid. The chlorine thus disengaged in contact with the cloth, causes the destruction of the colouring matter. This process is generally repeated several times, it being unsafe to use strong solutions. White patterns may thus be imprinted upon coloured cloth; the figures being stamped with tartaric acid thickened with gum water, the stuff is immersed in the chloride bath, when the parts to which the acid has been applied remain unaltered, while the printed portions are bleached white.

_Concluding Remarks._——Chloride of lime is now scarcely ever made on the small scale, as it can be purchased of the large manufacturer of better quality and cheaper than it could possibly be made by the druggist. The chief precaution to be observed in the manufacture of good bleaching powder is to maintain the ingredients at a rather low temperature.

=LIME.= The fruit of _Citrus limetta_. It resembles the lemon, but is smaller and has a smoother skin. It is imported into Great Britain in a preserved state for use as a dessert. Its juice is also largely imported for the preparation of CITRIC ACID, and for the prevention of scurvy on board ship (see _below_).

=LIME JUICE.= _Syn._ LEMON JUICE. The juice of the fruits of various species of _Citrus_, principally LIMES, is known in commerce under these names. It is very variable as to quality, which depends upon the method of extraction, the quality of the fruit, and the honesty of the shipper.

We have examined the juice expressed from limes sent from the West Indies, from Jamaica, and from South Africa, with the following results:

W. Indies. Jamaica. S. Africa.
Specific gravity
of juice 1041·30 1044·18 1044·90
Per cent. of
citric acid 7·96 8·66 8·50
Per cent. of ash 0·321 0·401 0·364

The yield from limes is very small, and the freshly expressed juice contains a large amount of pulp. This, however, on standing a few weeks, separates, and a clear sherry-coloured liquid is obtained.

A concentrated lime or lemon juice is used by calico printers. It is a “dark, treacly-looking fluid, marking from 48° to 54° Twaddell,” and contains about 30 per cent. of pure citric acid.

_Adult._ See LEMON JUICE.

_Estim._ Lime juice is only valuable on account of the citric acid it contains. If of good quality, 100 gr. will neutralise from 70 to 76 gr. of pure crystallised carbonate of soda. “For commercial purposes each grain of carbonate of soda neutralised may represent a half grain of crystallised citric acid (equal to 38 gr. of dry acid), and the value of the lime juice be calculated in proportion.” (O’Neill.) As commercial lime juice contains variable proportions of vegetable extractive matter, the indications of the hydrometer cannot be depended upon. ACIDIMETRY, CITRIC ACID, &c.

=LIME′STONE.= A general term applied to a great variety of rocks in which carbonate of lime is the principal constituent.

_Estim._ The value of chalk, limestone, marble, &c., for hydraulic mortars and cements, may be determined as follows:

A given weight (say 100 gr.) of the sample is reduced to powder and digested in hydrochloric acid dilated with about an equal weight of water, with frequent agitation for an hour or longer; the mixture is then diluted with thrice its volume of water, thrown upon a filter, and the undissolved portion washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. This weight indicates the per-centage of clay and silica or sand, and the loss that of the lime or calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and ferric oxide, present in the substance examined. In most cases these results will be sufficient to show the quality of the limestone for the purpose of making mortar or cement.

The filtrate and the washings are mixed together, and ammonia is added in excess; the bulky, reddish-brown precipitate is collected, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. This gives the per-centage of ferric oxide.

The filtrate from last is then treated with oxalate of ammonium, and the quantity of lime determined in the manner described under the head of CALCIUM.

The liquid filtered from the precipitate in last is boiled for some time with carbonate of potassium until ammoniacal fumes are no longer evolved; the precipitate is then collected on a filter, washed with hot water, dried, and strongly ignited for 3 or 4 hours, and, lastly, weighed. This gives the per-centage of magnesium.

=LINC′TUS.= [L., Eng.] _Syn._ LOCH, LOHOCH, LINCTURE, LAMBATIVE; LOOCH, Fr. A medicine of the consistence of honey, intended to be licked off a spoon. This form of medicine is well adapted to females and children, but is not much used in England at the present time. Those employed in modern pharmacy and prescribing are included under the heads CONFECTION, CONSERVE, or ELECTUARY.——The _Dose_, when it is not otherwise stated, is a teaspoonful occasionally.

=Linctus, Acid.= (Dr Copland.) _Syn._ LINCTUS ACIDUS. _Prep._ Honey of roses, 10 dr.; hydrochloric acid, 20 minims; syrup of red poppies, 2 dr. Mix.

=Linctus of Borax.= (Univ. Coll. Hosp.) _Syn._ LINCTUS BORACIS. _Prep._ Borax, 3 dr.; honey, 1 oz. Melt, and stir together, and then add syrup, 1 oz.

=Linctus, Caca′o.= _Syn._ LINCTUS CACAO, L.; CRÊME DE TRONCHIN, Fr. _Prep._ From cocoa-butter, 2 oz.; white sugar (in powder), syrup of capillaire, and syrup of tolu, of each 1 oz.; mix. Demulcent and pectoral; in coughs, sore throats, hoarseness, &c.

=Linctus, Common.= _Prep._ From oil of almonds and syrup of tolu, of each 1 oz.; powdered white sugar, 2 dr. As the last.

=Linctus, Cough.= _Syn._ PECTORAL LINCTUS; LINCTUS PECTORALIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Latham.) Compound ipecacuanha powder (Dover’s powder), 1/2 dr.; compound tragacanth powder, 2 dr.; syrup of tolu, confection of hips, and simple oxymel, of each 1 oz.——_Dose_, 1 teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times a day. “This linctus has been extensively used, as a remedy for coughs, in the West-end of London, having been found to be a safe and generally efficacious remedy.” (Redwood.) The preceding as well as the following are also useful preparations.

=Linctus, Demulcent.= _Syn._ LINCTUS DEMULCENS L.; LOOCH DE TRONCHIN, Fr. _Prep._ From oil of almonds, syrup of capillaire, manna and cassia pulp, of each 2 oz.; powdered gum tragacanth, 20 gr.; orange-flower water, 2 fl. oz. As the last. The above is the quantity for two days, which is as long as it will keep.

=Linctus of Egg.= _Syn._ LINCTUS OVI; LOHOCH OVI. _Prep._ Oil of almonds, 1/2 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; syrup of marshmallow, 1 oz. Mix.

=Linctus, Emol′lient.= _Syn._ OILY EMULSION; LOHOCH OLEOSUM, EMULSIO OLEOSA, L.; LOOCH HUILEUX, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Oil of almonds, powdered gum, and orange-flower water, of each 4 dr.; syrup of marshmallow, 1 oz.; water, 3 fl. oz. or q. s.; for an emulsion. In troublesome coughs.

=Linctus, Expec′torant.= _Syn._ LINCTUS EXPECTORANS, LOHOCH E., L. _Prep._ 1. Oxymel of squills, confection of hips, syrup of marshmallow, and mucilage of gum Arabic (thick), equal parts. Demulcent and expectorant.

2. (Dr Copland.) Oil of almonds and syrup of lemons, of each 1 fl. oz.; powdered ipecacuanha 6 gr.; confections of hips, 1 oz.; compound powder of tragacanth, 3 dr.

3. (Zanetti.) Kermes mineral, 4 gr.; manna, 6 oz.; oil of almonds, syrup of squills, and syrup of senega, of each 2 dr. Laxative, demulcent, and expectorant. The above are useful in hoarseness, tickling coughs, sore throats, &c.

=Linctus, Green.= _Syn._ LINCTUS VIRIDE; LOHOCH VIRIDE. _Prep._ Pistachio nuts (or sweet almonds), no. 14; syrup of violets, 1 oz.; oil of almonds, 1/2 oz.; gum tragacanth, 15 gr.; tincture of saffron, 1 scruple; orange-flower water, 2 dr.; water, 4 oz. Mix.

=Linctus of Linseed.= (E. 1744.) _Syn._ LINCTUS LINI; LOHOCH LINI. _Prep._ Fresh drawn linseed oil, 1 oz.; syrup of tolu, 1 oz.; sulphur, 2 dr.; white sugar, 2 dr. Mix.

=Linctus of Manna.= (E. 1744.) _Syn._ LINCTUS MANNÆ; LOHOCH MANNÆ. _Prep._ Equal parts of manna, oil of almonds, and syrup of violets. Mix.

=Linctus of Naphthalin.= (Dupasquier) _Syn._ LINCTUS NAPHTHALINI; LOHOCH NAPHTHALINI. _Prep._ To one common lohoch add from 8 gr. to 30 gr. of naphthalin. The latter must be well triturated with the gum.——_Dose._ One teaspoonful, as an expectorant.

=Linctus, Pectoral.= _Syn._ FOX LUNGS; LINCTUS PECTORALIS, LOHOCH È PULMONE VULPIUM, L. _Prep._ From spermaceti and Spanish juice, of each 8 oz.; water, q. s. to soften the liquorice; make a thin electuary, and add of honey, 3 lbs.; oil of aniseed, 1 oz.; mix well. A popular and excellent demulcent in coughs. It formerly contained the herb fox lungs, but spermaceti is now substituted for that article.

=Linctus of Poppies.= (Th. Hosp.) _Syn._ LINCTUS PAPAVERIS. _Prep._ Compound tincture of camphor, syrup of poppies, and syrup of tolu, of each equal parts. Mix.——_Dose_, 1 fl. dr.

=Linctus of Spermaceti.= (E. 1744.) _Syn._ LINCTUS CETACEI; LOHOCH CETACEI. _Prep._ Spermaceti, 2 dr.; yolk of egg, q. s.; triturate, and add gradually oil of almonds, 1/2 oz.; syrup of tolu, 1 oz. Mix.

=Linctus of Syrup of White Poppies.= (P. C.) _Syn._ LINCTUS SYRUPI PAPAVERIS ALBI; LOHOCH SYRUPUS PAPAVERIS ALBI. _Prep._ White lohoch, 5 parts; syrup of poppies (P. C.), 1 part. Mix.

=Linctus, Turpentine.= _Syn._ LINCTUS STIMULANS, L. TEREBINTHINÆ, LOHOCH ANTHELMINTICUM, L. _Prep._ (Recamier.) Oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; honey of roses, 3 oz.; mix.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, night and morning, followed by a draught of any weak liquid; in worms, more especially tape-worm.

=Linctus, White.= _Syn._ LINCTUS ALBUS, MISTURA ALBA, LOHOCH ALBUM, L.; LOOCH BLANC, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Jordon almonds, 4-1/2 dr.; bitter almonds, 1/2 dr.; blanch them by steeping them in hot water and removing the skins; add of white sugar, 1/2 oz.; gum tragacanth, 20 gr.; beat to a smooth paste, and further add of oil of almonds and orange-flower water, of each 4 dr.; pure water, 4 fl. oz. A pleasant demulcent in tickling coughs.

=LIN′EN.= _Syn._ LINTEUM, L. Linen is a textile fabric made of the libre-fibres of the _Linum usitatissimum_, or common flax, a plant which from time immemorial has been cultivated for this purpose. It is remarkable for the smoothness and softness of its texture, and is hence highly esteemed in temperate climates as an elegant and agreeable article of clothing to be worn next the skin. Its fibres are better conductors of heat, more porous, and more attractive of moisture, than those of cotton, which render it less adapted for body linen in cold weather, as well as in hot weather and hot climates, than calico. The latter, however, lacks the luxurious softness and freshness of linen, whilst the peculiar twisted and jagged character of its fibres render it apt to excite irritation in extremely delicate skins. The common prejudice in favour of old linen and flax lint for dressing wounds is thus shown to have reason on its side, and, like many other vulgar prejudices, to be supported by the investigations of science.

_Identif._ Linen fabrics are commonly sophisticated with cotton, which is a much less costly and a more easily wrought material. Various plans have been proposed to detect this fraud, many of which are too complicated and difficult for practical purposes. The following commend themselves for their simplicity and ease of application:——

1. A small strip (a square inch, for instance) of the suspected cloth is immersed for 2 or 3 minutes in a boiling mixture of about equal parts of hydrate of potassium and water, contained in a vessel of silver, porcelain, or hard glass; after which it is taken out and pressed between the folds of white blotting paper or porous calico. By separating 8 or 10 threads in each direction, their colour may be readily seen. The deep yellow threads are LINEN, the white or pale yellow ones are COTTON.

2. A small strip of the cloth, after having been repeatedly washed with rain water, boiled in the water, and dried, is immersed for 1 to 2 minutes in sulphuric acid; it is then withdrawn, carefully pressed under water with the fingers, washed, immersed for a few seconds in ammonia, solution of carbonate of potassium, or solution of carbonate of sodium, again washed with water, and dried between filtering paper. By this treatment the cotton fibres are dissolved, while the linen fibres are merely rendered thinner and more translucent according to the duration of the experiment; after a short immersion, the cotton fibres appear transparent, while the linen fibres remain white and opaque.

3. Böttger recommends the linen stuffs to be dipped into an alcoholic solution of rosolic acid, then into a concentration solution of sodium carbonate, and finally washed with water. The linen fibre assumes a pink colour, whilst the cotton fibre remains unaltered.

4. (By the MICROSCOPE.) The indications afforded by both the previous tests, although quite visible to the naked eye, are rendered still more palpable by the use of a magnifying glass of small power, as the common pocket lens. Under a good microscope the presence of cotton in a linen tissue is very perceptible. The fibres of cotton present a distinctly flat and shrivelled appearance, not unlike that of a narrow, twisted ribbon, with only occasional joints; whilst those of flax are round, straight, and jointed. The fibres of cotton, after being exposed to the action of strong alkaline lyes, untwist themselves, contract in length, and assume a rounded form, but still continue distinct in appearance from the fibres of linen. The engraving represents a fibre of linen (1) and a fibre of cotton (2), as they appear when magnified 155 diameters. The difference between the two may be perceived, although less distinctly through a good Stanhope or Coddington lens, provided the object be well illuminated.

_Dyeing._ Linen and cotton, from the similarity of their behaviour with dye-stuffs, are treated in nearly the same manner. The affinity of their fibres for colouring matter is very much weaker than that of the fibres of silk and woollen. On this account they are dyed with greater difficulty than those substances, and the colours so imparted are, in general, less brilliant and permanent under similar conditions. Linen shows less disposition to take dyes than cotton. The yarn or cloth, after being scoured and bleached in the usual manner, requires to have an additional tendency given to it, by chemical means, to condense and retain the materials of the dye-bath in its pores. This is effected by steeping the goods in solutions (mordants) which have at once an affinity for both the fibres of the cloth and the colouring matter. A similar process is employed in dyeing most other substances; but with cotton and linen, attention to this point is essential to the permanency of the dye. These matters are more fully explained under the heads DYEING and MORDANT.

The following new process for bleaching linen, having been omitted from our article on “Bleaching” is inserted here:——

Mr Hodges’ process, which is known in Ireland as the “Chemico-Mechanical Process,” owing to the patentee turning to account the advantages derivable from the employment of mechanical contrivances driven by steam, combined with the introduction of a new method of obtaining the hitherto little used hypochlorite of magnesia, may be said to date from the discovery of the substance, known as _Kieserite_ (native sulphate of magnesia), which occurs as an essential constituent of the Abraumsalts of Stassfurth. For some time after the introduction of this substance into the market, it was considered of little value except for the production of Epsom salts; but Mr. Hodges, in the course of some investigations in bleaching jute, having had occasion to employ large quantities of hypochlorite of magnesia, it occurred to him that kieserite might be substituted for the more expensive crude sulphate of magnesia; and the importation into Ireland of the sample for this purpose was the first that was ever sent into that country for the manufacture of a bleaching liquor, or, indeed, for any other use. Mr. Hodges on experimenting with the kieserite, found that it not only supplied the place of the crude sulphate, but acted as a better precipitant for the lime of the bleaching powder, which is employed in the production of the hypochlorite of magnesia; and that it also produced a stronger and clearer solution. Without entering into a minute description of the process (which is at present successfully carried out in a factory erected for the purpose in the neighbourhood of Belfast), the following outline will be sufficient to show the nature of the methods adopted. The kieserite, which is imported from Germany in square blocks, on arriving at the works, is conveyed to a house, on the ground-floor of which it is stacked until required, when it is ground to a fine powder, and placed in barrels, is drawn up by means of a crane to a room at the top of the building, at one end of which is a row of three tanks furnished with water taps, agitators, and false bottoms. In one of the end tanks a definite quantity of the kieserite powder (varying according to its strength, is ascertained by analysis) is placed and dissolved in a given quantity of water, the solution being assisted by agitators, and on settling the clear liquor is siphoned over into the middle tank. In the third tank bleaching powder (hypochlorite of lime), varying in quantity according to the strength of the kieserite solution, is placed. The bleaching powder after being agitated with water is allowed to settle, and the clear solution is siphoned over into the middle tank containing the clear kieserite solution, the agitator being kept in motion, not only during the mixing of the liquids, but for some time after. The mixed liquids are then allowed to remain undisturbed all night, after which the clear hypochlorite of magnesia solution is siphoned into a large settling tank, which is situated in the room below. From this vessel it is conducted through wooden pipes (which are so contrived that they can be opened and cleansed at will), into a large cistern standing in the bleaching house. This cistern is fitted with a ball-cock, by which arrangement the liquid can be drawn off by a system of wooden pipes as required. The bleaching house in which the cistern is situated is fitted up in an original manner, and covers something more than an acre of ground; whilst the reeling-shed, which is the only part of the works our limits will permit us describe, is 240 feet long by 24 feet broad, and contains ten steeps and twelve reel boxes. Each box is provided with water, a solution of the bleaching agent, and steam pipes, and is capable of reeling at a time about 500 lbs. of yarn. Above the box is a line of rails or pillars. A travelling crane runs along the reels, and carries the reels from one box to another. Attached to this crane is a newly-invented hydraulic pump, by means of which the reels with the yarn on them can be lifted in a few seconds from one box to another.

After the yarn has been boiled, washed, and passed through the squeezers in the usual manner, it is put on to a wagon, in which it is carried, by means of a line of rails, down to the first reel box. Here it is placed on to the reels, which are made to revolve by means of steam; first in one direction and then in another, through a solution of carbonate of soda, previously heated by means of the steam-pipes before mentioned. The yarn having been sufficiently scalded and so saturated with soda, the reels to which it is attached are raised by the hydraulic pump out of the box, and the yarn allowed to drain for a few minutes, after which the travelling crane carries it on to the next box. Into this box the yarn is again lowered by the pump and made to revolve as before, but this time through a solution of the bleaching agent, which immediately re-acting on the carbonate of soda with which the yarn is charged, renders this bleaching agent free from the danger which attends the employment of chlorine, or the ordinary bleaching powder used in the older methods of bleaching. After the yarns have been brought to the desired shade in the solution of Hodges’ bleaching agent they are either removed as before to a new box, and there washed before being scoured, or they are thrown into one of the steeps filled with water for the night. These operations are repeated with weaker solutions in the remaining reel boxes, either once or twice according to the shade required.

Mr Hodges claims as the chief features of his invention that it consists, first, in the employment of a bleaching agent which has not hitherto been practically employed, and a cheap method for its production; second, in the preparation of the yarn prior to being submitted to the action of the bleaching agent, this preparation setting free not only the imprisoned chlorine of the hypochlorite, but also another powerful bleaching agent, oxygen; third, in new and improved machinery, by which the work of bleaching the yarn is greatly shortened; fourth, in doing away with the tedious and expensive operation of exposing the yarn on the grass; if this last were the only feature in Mr Hodges’ invention, the patentee would have greatly improved the process of bleaching, not only, however, does the new process supplant the old long and tedious one, but a great economy of time is additionally gained in other parts of the process, added to these advantages it is stated that a superior finish is given to the yarns, and that in consequence a much greater demand for them has arisen.

Mr Hodges contends that the absence of caustic lime from his new bleaching compound gives it great advantages over the old bleaching powder, particularly in its application to finely woven fabrics, such as muslins, &c. He also says that fabrics bleached by it receive an increased capacity for imbibing and retaining colouring matter, a fact of considerable importance to the dyer and calico-printer, as they are thus enabled to communicate to the fabrics tints which have heretofore been considered impossible. See KIESERITE.

The domestic management of linen may here receive a few moments’ attention. Fruit stains, iron-moulds, and other spots on linen, may, in general, be removed by applying to the part, previously washed clean, a weak solution of chlorine, chloride of lime, spirits of salts, oxalic acid, or salts of lemons, in warm water, and frequently by merely using a little lemon juice. When the stain is removed the part should be thoroughly rinsed in clear warm water (without soap) and dried. Recent iron-moulds or ink spots on starched linen, as the front of a shirt, may be conveniently removed by allowing a drop or two of melted tallow from a common candle to fall upon them before sending the articles to the laundress. The oxide of iron combines with the grease, and the two are washed out together. If the spot is not entirely removed the first time, the process should be repeated. Linen that has acquired a yellow or bad colour by careless washing may be restored to its former whiteness by working it well in water to which some strained solution of chloride of lime has been added, observing to well rinse it in clean water both before and after the immersion in the bleaching liquor. The attempt to bleach unwashed linen should be avoided, as also using the liquor too strong, as in that case the linen will be rendered rotten.

=LING.= The _Galus molua_ (Linn.), an inferior species of the cod-fish tribe, common in the Northern seas, and used as a coarse article of food by the poor.

=LIN′IMENT.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM, L. A semifluid ointment, or soapy application to painful joints, swellings, burns, &c. The term is also occasionally extended to various spirituous and stimulating external applications. A preparation of a thinner consistence, but similarly employed, is called an ‘EMBROCATION,’ These terms are, however, frequently confounded together, and misapplied. Liniments are generally administered by friction with the hand or fingers, or with some substance (as a piece of flannel) capable of producing a certain amount of irritation of the skin. Sometimes a piece of linen rag dipped in them is simply laid on the part. In most cases in which liniments are found beneficial, the advantage obtained from them is attributable rather to the friction or local irritation than to any medicinal power in the preparation itself. The greater number of cerates and ointments may be converted into liniments by simply reducing their consistence with almond or olive oil, or oil of turpentine.

=Liniment, Ac′id.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM ACIDUM, L. ACIDI SULPHURICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Sir B. Brodie.) Salad oil, 3 oz.; oil of vitriol, 1 dr.; mix, then add of oil of turpentine, 1 oz., and agitate the whole well together. As a counter-irritant, in rheumatism, stiff joints, &c. It closely resembles the ‘GULLTONIAN EMBROCATION,’

2. (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 3 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr. An excellent alterative, stimulant, discutient, and counter-irritant, in chronic rheumatism, stiff joints, indolent tumours, and various chronic diseases of the skin.

=Liniment of Albumen.= (Dr Christison.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM ALBUMINIS. _Prep._ Equal parts of white of egg and rectified spirit, agitated together. In excoriation from pressure.

=Liniment of Am′ber-oil.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM SUCCINI, L. _Prep._ 1. From olive oil, 3 parts; oils of amber and cloves, of each 1 part. Resembles ‘ROCHE’S EMBROCATION,’

2. (Opiated; LINIMENTUM SUCCINI OPIATUM, L.) From rectified oil of amber and tincture of opium, of each 2 fl. oz.; lard, 1 oz. Anodyne, antispasmodic, and stimulant. A once popular remedy in cramp, stiff joints, &c.

=Liniment of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ AMMONIACAL LINIMENT, VOLATILE L., OIL AND HARTSHORN; LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Solution of ammonia, 1; olive oil, 3; mix.

2. (Ph. L. & E.) Liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. ·960), 1 fl. oz.; olive oil, 2 fl. oz.; shake them together until they are mixed.

3. (Ph. D.) To the last add of olive oil, 1 fl. oz. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used in rheumatism, lumbago, neuralgia, sore throat, spasms, bruises, &c. When the skin is irritable more oil should be added, or it should be diluted with a little water.

4. (Camphorated; LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ CAMPHORATUM, EMBROCATIO AMM. CAMPHORATA, L.)——_a._ (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 3 oz.; camphor, 1/2 oz.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and when cold, add of liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz.

_b._ Soap liniment, 2 oz.; olive oil and liquor of ammonia, of each 2 dr. As the last; more especially for sprains, bruises, chilblains, &c.

5. (Compound; Dr GRANVILLE’S COUNTER-IRRITANT OR ANTIDYNOUS LOTION; LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——Ph. E.)——_a._ (STRONGER.) From liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. ·880), 5 fl. oz.; tincture of camphor, 2 fl. oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1 fl. oz.; mix. It should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle and in a cool situation.

_b._ (WEAKER.) Solution of ammonia (·880), 5 fl. oz.; tincture of camphor, 3 fl. oz.; spirit of rosemary, 2 fl. oz.

_Obs._ The above formulæ are nearly identical with the original ones of Dr Granville; the principal difference being in his ordering liquor of ammonia of the sp. gr. ·872, instead of ·880. They are counter-irritant, rubefacient, vesicant, and cauterising, according to the mode and length of their application. The milder lotion is sufficiently powerful to produce considerable rubefaction and irritation in from 1 to 5 or 6 minutes; vesication, in 8 or 10 minutes; and cauterisation, in 4 or 5 minutes longer. For the latter purpose the stronger lotion is generally employed. According to Dr Granville, these lotions are prompt and powerful remedies in rheumatism, lumbago, cramp, neuralgia, sprains, swollen and painful joints, headache, sore throat, and numerous other affections in which the use of a powerful counter-irritant has been recommended. They are ordered to be applied by means of a piece of linen, 6 or 7 times folded, or a piece of thick, coarse flannel wetted with the lotion, the whole being covered with a thick towel, and firmly pressed against the part with the hand. The stronger lotion is only intended to be employed in apoplexy, and to produce cauterisation. See COUNTER-IRRITANTS.

6. (From SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA;——LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ SESQUICARBONATIS——Ph. L.) Solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1 fl. oz.; olive oil, 3 fl. oz.; shake them together until mixed. This preparation resembles ordinary liniment of ammonia in its general properties, but it is much less active, owing to the alkali being carbonated. It is the ‘oil and hartshorn’ and the ‘volatile liniment’ of the shops.

7. (WITH TURPENTINE.) (Dr Copland.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM AMMONIÆ CUM TEREBINTHINA. _Prep._ Liniment of ammonia, 1-1/4 fl. oz.; oil of turpentine, 1/2 fl. oz.; mix.

=Liniment, An′odyne.= See LINIMENTS OF BELLADONNA, MORPHIA, OPIUM, SOAP, &c.

=Liniment, Antispasmod′ic.= _Syn_. LINIMENTUM ANTISPASMODICUM, L. CAJEPUTI COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ (Hufeland.) Oils of cajeput and mint, of each 1 part; tincture of opium, 3 parts; compound camphor liniment, 24 parts. Anodyne, stimulant, and rubefacient.

=Liniment, Arceus’s.= Compound elemi ointment.

=Liniment of Arnica.= _Syn._ ARNICA OPODELDOC, LINIMENTUM ARNICÆ. _Prep._ Dissolve by heat Castile soap, 4 parts, and camphor, 1 part, in rectified spirit, 10 parts. Add tincture of arnica, 5 parts.

=Liniment of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM BELLADONNÆ, B. P. L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Prepared the same as LINIMENTUM ACONITII. A fluid ounce is equal to a solid ounce. Prescribed with equal parts of soap liniment, or compound camphor liniment, and is an excellent topical application for neuralgic pain.

2. Extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; oil of almonds, 2 oz.; lime water, 4 fl. oz. In eczema, and some other cutaneous affections, to allay irritation, &c.

3. (Cutan. Hosp.) Extract of belladonna, 4 dr.; glycerine, 1 oz.; soap liniment, 6 oz. As the last.

4. (Guy’s Hosp.) Extract of belladonna 1 oz.; soap liniment, 8 fl. oz.

5. (Phœbus.) Extract of belladonna, 40 gr.; rectified ether, 1 dr.; cherry-laurel water, 2 fl. oz. As a friction to the abdomen in lead colic.

_Obs._ The above are reputed excellent stimulants, anodynes, antispasmodics, and resolvents, in various diseases, as rheumatism, neuralgia, painful affections of the skin and joints, tumours, &c. &c.

=Liniment of Belladonna and Chloroform.= (Mr Squire.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM BELLADONNÆ ET CHLOROFORMI. _Prep._ Belladonna liniment, 7 fl. dr.; belladonna chloroform (made by percolating the root with chloroform) 1 fl. dr.; sprinkled on piline and applied to the loins, excellent in lumbago.

=Liniment of Borax.= (Swediaur). _Syn._ LINIMENTUM BORACIS. _Prep._ Borax, 2 dr.; tincture of myrrh, 1 oz., distilled water, 1 oz.; honey of roses, 2 oz. Mix.

=Liniment of Caj′eput Oil.= _Syn._ LINIMENTUM OLEI CAJEPUTI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Copland.) Compound camphor liniment and soap liniment, of each 1-1/2 fl. oz.; oil of cajeput, 1 fl. oz.

2. (Dr Williams.) Oil of cajeput, 1/2 fl. dr.; castor oil, 1 fl. dr.; olive oil, 4-1/2 fl. dr. A warm, antispasmodic, diffusible stimulant and rubefacient; in spasmodic asthma, colic, chronic rheumatism, spasms, chest affections, &c. See ANTISPASMODIC L. (_above_).

=Linimentum Calcis.= (B. P.) Solution of lime, 1; olive oil, 1; mix. The best liniment for burns and scalds.

=Liniment of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ CAMPHORATED OIL, CAMPHOR EMBROCATION; LINIMENTUM CAMPHORÆ (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), OLEUM CAMPHORATUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Camphor, 1; olive oil, 4; dissolve.

2. (Ph. L. & E.) Camphor, 1 oz.; olive oil, 4 fl. oz.; gently heat the oil, add the camphor (cut small), and agitate until dissolved. The Dublin College orders only 1/2 the above camphor. Stimulant, anodyne, and resolvent; in sprains, bruises, rheumatic pains, glandular enlargements, &c.

3. (Compound; LINIMENTUM CAMPHORÆ COMPOSITUM——B. P., Ph. L. & D.)——_a._ (B. P.) Camphor, 5; English oil of lavender, 1/4; strong solution of ammonia, 10; rectified spirit, 20. Dissolve the oil and camphor in the spirit and gradually add the ammonia.

_b._ (Ph. L.) Camphor, 2-1/2 oz.; oil of lavender, 1 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 17 fl. oz.; dissolve, then add of stronger liquor of ammonia, 3 fl. oz., and shake them together until they are mixed.

_c._ (Ph. L. 1836.) Liquor of ammonia, 7-1/2 fl. oz.; spirit of lavender, 1 pint; distil off 1 pint, and dissolve in it camphor, 2-1/2 oz. The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 was nearly similar.

_d._ (Wholesale.) Camphor (clean), 21 oz.; English oil of lavender, 3-3/4 oz.; liquor of ammonia, 2-3/4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 7 pints; mix, close the vessel, and agitate occasionally, until the camphor is dissolved. Powerfully stimulant and rubefacient. It closely resembles, and is now almost universally sold for, Ward’s ‘Essence for the Headache.’

_e._ (Ethereal.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM CAMPHORÆ ETHEREUM. _Prep._ Camphor, 1 dr.; ether, 1 dr.; oil of vipers, 2 dr. Mix.

=Liniment of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ LINIMENT OF SPANISH FLIES; LINIMENTUM LYTTÆ, LIN. CANTHARIDIS (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Collier.) Tincture of cantharides and soap liniment, equal parts.

2. (Ph. D.) Cantharides (in fine powder), 3 oz.; olive oil, 12 fl. oz.; digest for 3 hours over a waterbath, and strain through flannel, with expression.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Spanish flies, 1 oz.; oil of turpentine, 8 fl. oz.; proceed as last. The above are irritant and rubefacient; but should be used cautiously, lest they produce strangury.

=Liniment of Capsicum.= 1. (Dr Copland.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM CAPSICI. _Prep._ Compound camphor liniment, 1 fl. oz.; volatile liniment, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of capsicum, 3 fl. oz.; mix.

2. (Dr Turnbull.) Capsicums, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz. Macerate 7 days, and strain for use.

=Liniment of Colchicum.= (Ear Infirmary.) _Syn._ LINIMENTUM COLCHICI. _Prep._ Soap liniment, 1 fl. oz.; wine of colchicum seed, 1/2 fl. oz.; mix.

=Liniment of Colocynth.= (Heim). _Syn._ LINIMENTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS. _Prep._ Tincture of colocynth, 1/2 fl. oz.; castor oil, 1-1/2 oz.