Chapter LVIII: Part 2 (19)

Dr Muter gives the following method for estimating the value of commercial samples of salicylic acid, and of detecting it in milk and similar organic solutions:——A standard solution of pure salicylic acid (1 grain of acid dissolved in 1 litre of water, so that 1 c.c. represents 1 mgm. of acid) is prepared; the _indicator_ solution consists of a solution of pure neutral ferric chloride, of such a strength that 1 c.c. added, drop by drop, to 50 c.c. of standard acid, just ceases to give any increase in intensity of colour; 1 gram of the commercial sample is then dissolved in 1 litre of water, and 50 c.c. is put into a Nessler tube; to this 1 c.c. of ferric solution is added, and the colour observed after standing for five minutes, some of the standard acid is also poured into another tube, and made up to 50 c.c. with water, and the 1 c.c. of ferric chloride added. When the colours are alike the amount of pure acid present in the sample is equal to the amount of pure acid added. All mineral acids should be absent, even acetic acid affects the reaction. To detect the presence of salicylic acid added to beer or milk, four ounces of these liquids are dialysed for twelve hours in a pint of distilled water; if after that time salicylic acid is still found to be present, the dialysis must be continued for forty-eight hours. The amount present is determined in the manner above stated.

=SALICYL′OUS ACID.= C_{7}H_{6}O_{2}. _Syn._ SALICYLOL, HYDROSALICYLIC ACID†, HYDRIDE OF SALICYL, ARTIFICIAL OIL OF MEADOW-SWEET. A nearly colourless, oily, inflammable liquid, discovered by Pagenstecher in the volatile oil of _Spiræa ulmaria_ (meadow-sweet), which, when pure, entirely consists of it; and by Piria, as a product of the decomposition of salicin.

_Prep._ The oil of meadow-sweet is mixed with a strong solution of caustic potassa, and the yellow crystalline mass which separates on agitation is purified by pressure between folds of bibulous paper and recrystallisation from alcohol; the resulting crystals (salicylite of potassium) are then decomposed by the addition of dilute sulphuric acid, the floating oil separated from the water, and freed from moisture by careful distillation from chloride of calcium.

_Prop., &c._ Salicylous acid is soluble in ether and alcohol, and slightly so in water, to which it imparts its peculiar fragrance and the characteristic property of striking a deep violet colour with the sesquisalts of iron. It is distinguished from salicylic acid, which also exhibits this reaction, by its liquid form and odour.

=SALI′VA.= See MASTICATION.

=SALM′ON.= _Syn._ SALMO, L. The _Salmo Salar_ (Linn.), a well-known, soft-finned abdominal fish. Its normal locality is at the mouth or estuary of the larger rivers of the northern seas, which, during the breeding season, it ascends, sooner or later, in the summer months, against all obstacles, for the purpose of depositing its spawn.

The salmon is an excellent and highly esteemed fish; but it is rich, oily, and difficult of digestion, and, therefore, ill adapted to the delicate or dyspeptic. When pickled, salted, or smoked it is only fitted for persons of very strong stomachs, although in this state it is regarded as a great delicacy by epicures.

Salmon has the following composition:——

Nitrogenous matter 16·1
Fat 5·5
Saline matter 1·4
Water 77·
———————
100·0

Salmon is preferably cooked by boiling. One weighing 10 lbs. will require to be gently simmered for about an hour, reckoning from the time the water commences boiling. For fish of other weights, from 6 to 7 minutes per lb. may be allowed. See FISH, &c.

=SALOOP′.= Sassafras (chips) tea, flavoured with milk and sugar. A wholesome and useful drink in cutaneous and rheumatic affections. See SALEP.

=SALT.= _Syn._ SAL, L.; SEL, Fr. Salts may be regarded as acids in which one or more atoms of hydrogen, a constant constituent of all true acids, are replaced by a metal or other basic radical. This relationship between acids and salts will be better understood by reference to the subjoined list of acids and their corresponding potassium and ammonium salts:——

Acids. Salts.

HCl (Hydrochloric acid) —— KCl (Chloride of potassium).
” ” ” —— NH_{4}Cl (Chloride of ammonium).
HNO_{3} (Nitric acid) —— KNO_{3} (Nitrate of potassium).
” ” ” —— NH_{4}NO_{3} (Nitrate of ammonium).
H_{2}SO_{4} (Sulphuric acid) —— K{2}SO_{4} (Sulphate of potassium).
” ” ” —— (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4} (Sulphate of
ammonium).

Acids are, in fact, hydrogen salts. The so-called DOUBLE SALTS are, according to one view, combinations of two salts of the same acid, but of different basic radicles; thus, common alum is a compound of sulphate of aluminum and sulphate of potassium.

The salts are a most important class of bodies, and their applications and uses in the arts of life and civilisation are almost infinite. See NOMENCLATURE, &c.

=Salt of Bark.= See EXTRACT OF BARK, DRIED.

=Salt, Bitter Pur′ging.= Epsom salt.

=Salt, Cathar′tic.= Of GLAUBER, sulphate of sodium; ENGLISH or BITTER S., sulphate of magnesium (Epsom salt).

=Salt, Common.= _Syn._ CULINARY SALT. Chloride of sodium.

=Salt, Diuret′ic.= Acetate of potassium.

=Salt, Ep′som.= Sulphate of magnesium.

=Salt, Feb′rifuge.= Chloride of potassium.

=Salt, Fu′′sible.= Phosphate of ammonium.

=Salt, Glauber’s.= Sulphate of sodium.

=Salt, Macqueer’s.= Binarseniate of potassium.

=Salt, Microcos′mic.= Phosphate of sodium and ammonium.

=Salt, Red.= Common salt wetted with an infusion of beet-root, or cochineal, or tincture of red sanders wood, then dried, and rubbed through a sieve. Used to impart a colour to gravies, &c. Infusion of saffron also gives a beautiful colour for this purpose. It has been proposed to colour Epsom salt in this way, to distinguish it from oxalic acid.

=Salt, Rochelle.= Tartrate of potassium and sodium.

=Salt, Sea.= Chloride of sodium.

=Salt, Sed′ative.= Boracic acid.

=Salt, Smelling.= See SALTS (_below_).

=Salt, Sore-throat.= Sal prunella.

=Salt, Taste′less.= Phosphate of sodium.

=Salt, Veg′etable.= Tartrate of potassium.

=Salt, Vol′atile.= Common carbonate of ammonium.

=Salt of Lem′ons.= _Syn._ SAL LIMONUM, L. Citric acid. That sold in the shops for the removal of ink spots from linen is binoxalate or quadroxalate of potassium, either alone or mixed with one half its weight of cream of tartar.

=Salt of Sor′rel.= Binoxalate or quadroxalate of potassium.

=Salt of Steel.= Sulphate of iron.

=Salt of Tar′tar.= Carbonate of potassium.

=Salt of Vit′riol.= Sulphate of zinc.

=Salt of Wormwood.= Carbonate of potassium.

=SALT′ING.= PICKLING. _Syn_. This is an easy method of preserving butcher’s meat, fish, and, indeed, most animal substances. It is performed in two ways:——

1. (DRY SALTING.) This, as practised in Hampshire, Yorkshire, and in various large establishments elsewhere, consists in merely well rubbing ordinary culinary salt, mixed with a little saltpetre, into the meat, until every crevice is thoroughly penetrated, and, afterwards, sprinkling some over it, and placing it on a board or in a trough, in such a manner that the brine may drain off. On the small scale, in private families, a mixture of salt, 2 lbs., with saltpetre, 1-1/2 or 2 oz., either with or without about an oz. of good moist sugar, is commonly used for the purpose, and imparts a fine flavour to the meat. In both cases the pieces are turned every day, or every other day, until sufficiently cured, a little fresh salt being added as required. Sometimes the fresh meat is packed at once in casks, with the best coarse-grained or bay salt. This method is that commonly adopted for sea stores.

2. (WET SALTING, or PICKLING IN BRINE.) When the meat is allowed to lie in the liquor that runs from it (see _above_), or is at once plunged into strong brine, it is said to be ‘pickled,’ or ‘wet salted.’ On the small scale, this is most conveniently performed by rubbing the fresh meat with salt, &c., as above, and, after it has lain a few hours, putting it into a pickle formed by dissolving about 4 lbs. of good salt and 2 oz. of saltpetre in 1 gall. of water, either with or without the addition of 1/2 to 1 lb. of moist sugar. This pickling liquor gets weaker by use, and should, therefore, be occasionally boiled down a little, and skimmed, at the same time adding some more of the dry ingredients. Three to ten days, depending on the size, is sufficiently long to keep meat in the brine. When it is taken out it should be hung up to dry, after which it may be packed in barrels with coarse-grained salt, or smoked, whichever may be desired. Saltpetre added to brine gives the meat a red colour, and brown sugar improves the flavour.

The sooner animal substances, more especially flesh, are salted after being killed, the better, as they then possess considerable absorbent power, which they gradually lose by age. See PUTREFACTION, SCURVY, SMOKING, &c.

=SALTPE′TRE.= Nitrate of potassium.

=SALTS for producing Factitious Mineral Waters.= AERATED, OR CARBONATE WATERS. These require the aid of the powerful machine employed by soda-water manufacturers, to charge the waters strongly with carbonic-acid gas. The gas is made from whiting and diluted sulphuric acid, and is forced by a pump into the watery solution. Sometimes the gas is produced by the mutual action of the ingredients introduced into the bottle of water, which must be instantly closed; but this method is found practically inconvenient, and is only adopted in the absence of proper apparatus. The quantity of gas introduced is directed, in the French and American pharmacopœias, in most cases, to be 5 times the volume of liquid. For chalybeate and sulphuretted waters the water should be previously deprived of the air it naturally contains, by boiling, and allowing it to cool in a closed vessel.

There are various manufacturers of aerated-water machines, and of syphon bottles for holding these waters when made. The names and addresses of these makers may be found in any trade directory.

SIMPLE AERATED WATER. Carbonic-acid gas water. Water charged with five or more volumes of carbonic-acid gas, as above.

ALKALINE AERATED WATERS. Aerated soda and potash waters should be made by dissolving a drachm of the carbonated alkali in each pint of water, and charging it strongly with carbonic-acid gas. The soda water of the shops generally contains but little (or no) soda.

AERATED MAGNESIA WATER. This is made of various strengths.

MURRAY’S and DINNEFORD’S FLUID MAGNESIA may be thus made:——To a boiling solution of 16 oz. of sulphate of magnesia in 6 pints of water add a solution of 19 oz. of crystallised carbonate of soda in the same quantity of water; boil the mixture till gas ceases to escape, stirring constantly; then set it aside to settle; pour off the liquid, and wash the precipitate on a cotton or linen cloth, with warm water, till the latter passes tasteless. Mix the precipitate, without drying it, with a gallon of water, and force carbonic-acid gas into it under strong pressure, till a complete solution is effected. The _Eau Magnésienne_ of the French codex is about a third of this strength; and we have met with some prepared in this country not much stronger.

CARBONATED LIME WATER. Carrara water. Lime water (prepared from lime made by calcining Carrara marble) is supersaturated by strong pressure with carbonic acid, so that the carbonate of lime at first thrown down is redissolved. It contains 8 gr. of carbonate of lime in 10 fl. oz. of water.

AERATED LITHIA WATER. This may be conveniently made from the fresh precipitated carbonate, dissolved in carbonated water, as directed for fluid magnesia. Its antacid and antilithic properties promise to be useful.

SALINE CARBONATED WATERS.

The following afford approximate imitations of these waters. The earthy salts, with the salts of iron, should be dissolved together in the smallest quantity of water. The other ingredients to be dissolved in the larger portion of the water, and the solution impregnated with the gas. The first solution may be then added or be previously introduced into the bottles. The salts, unless otherwise stated, are to be crystallised.

BADEN WATER. Chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 40 gr.; perchloride of iron, 1/4 gr. (or 3 minims of the tincture); chloride of sodium, 30 gr.; sulphate of soda, 10 gr.; carbonate of soda, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint; carbonic-acid gas, 5 volumes.

CARLSBAD WATER. Chloride of calcium, 8 gr.; tincture of chloride of iron, 1 drop; sulphate of soda, 50 gr.; carbonate of soda, 60 gr.; chloride of sodium, 8 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint.

EGER. Carbonate of soda, 5 gr.; sulphate of soda, 4 scruples; chloride of sodium, 10 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; chloride of calcium, 5 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint. (Or it may be made without apparatus, thus:——Bicarbonate of soda, 30 gr.; chloride of sodium, 8 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve, and add a scruple of dry bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle immediately.)

EMS. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of potash, 1 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 5 gr.; chloride of sodium, 10 gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; carbonated water, a pint.

MARIENBAD. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of soda, 96 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 8 gr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; chloride of calcium, 10 gr.; carbonated water, a pint. (Or, bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr.; sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 10 gr.; dissolve in a pint of water, add 25 gr. of dry bisulphate of soda, and cork immediately.)

MARIENBAD PURGING SALTS. Bicarbonate of soda, 5 oz.; dried sulphate of soda, 12 oz.; dry chloride of sodium, 1-1/2 oz.; sulphate of magnesia, dried, 2 oz.; dried bisulphate of soda, 2-1/2 oz. Mix the salts, previously dried, separately, and keep them carefully from the air.

PULLNA WATER. Sulphate of soda, 4 dr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; chloride of calcium, 15 gr.; chloride of magnesium (dry), a scruple; chloride of sodium, a scruple; bicarbonate of soda, 10 gr.; water, slightly carbonated, 1 pint. One of the most active of the purgative saline waters.

PULLNA WATER WITHOUT THE MACHINE. Bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; chloride of sodium, a scruple; dissolve in a pint of water; add, lastly, 2 scruples of bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle immediately.

SALTS FOR MAKING PULLNA WATER. Dry bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; exsiccated sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; exsiccated sulphate of magnesia, 1-1/2 oz.; dry chloride of sodium, 2 dr.; dry tartaric acid, 3/4 oz. (or rather dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.).

SEIDLITZ WATER. This is usually imitated by strongly aerating a solution of 2 dr. of sulphate of magnesia in a pint of water. It is also made with 4, 6, and 8 dr. of the salts to a pint of water.

SEIDLITZ POWDER. The common seidlitz powders do not resemble the water. A closer imitation would be made by using effloresced sulphate of magnesia instead of the potassio-tartrate of soda. A still more exact compound will be the following:——Effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 2 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 1/2 oz.; dry bisulphate of soda, 1/2 oz.; mix, and keep in a close bottle.

SEIDSCHUTZ WATER. Sulphate of magnesia, 3 dr.; chloride of calcium, nitrate of lime, bicarbonate of soda, of each 8 gr.; sulphate of potash, 5 gr.; aerated water, 1 pint.

SELTZER WATER. Chloride of calcium and chloride of magnesium, of each 4 gr.; dissolve these in a small quantity of water, and add it to a similar solution of 8 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 20 gr. of chloride sodium, and 2 gr. of phosphate of soda; mix, and add a solution of 1/4 gr. of sulphate of iron; put the mixed solution into a 20-oz. bottle, and fill up with aerated water. Much of the Seltzer water sold is said to be nothing more than simple carbonated water, containing a little chloride of sodium. An imitation of Seltzer water is also made by putting into a stone Seltzer bottle, filled with water, 2 dr. bicarbonate of soda, and 2 dr. of citric acid in crystals, corking the bottle immediately. Sodaic powders are sometimes sold as Seltzer powders.

VICHY WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; tincture of chloride of iron, 2 drops; aerated water, a pint. Dorvault directs 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 4 gr. of chloride of sodium, 1/5 gr. sulphate of iron, 10 gr. sulphate of soda, 3 gr. sulphate of magnesia, to a pint of water. By adding 45 gr. (or less) of citric acid, an effervescing water is obtained.

M. Soubeiran, relying on the analysis of Longchamps, imitates Vichy water by the following combination:——Bicarbonate of soda, 135 gr.; chloride of sodium, 2-1/2 gr.; cryst. chloride of calcium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, 11-1/2 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3-3/4 gr.; tartrate of iron and potash, 1/8 gr.; water, 2-1/10 pints (1 litre); carbonic acid, 305 cub. inches (5 litres). Dissolve the salts of soda and iron in part of the water, and add the sulph. magnes. and then the chlor. calc. in the remaining water. Charge now with the carbonic-acid gas under pressure.

VICHY SALTS. Bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 oz.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; effloresced sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 1 scruple; dry tartarised potash and iron, 1 gr.; dry tartaric acid, 1 oz. (or dry bisulphate of soda); mix the powders, previously dried, and keep them in a close bottle.

SALINE WATERS, &C., NOT CARBONATED.

SEA WATER. Chloride of sodium, 4 oz.; sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; chloride of calcium, 1/4 oz.; chloride of magnesium, 1 oz.; iodide of potassium, 4 gr.; bromide of potassium, 2 gr.; water, a gallon. A common substitute for sea water as a bath is made by dissolving 4 or 5 oz. of common salt in a gallon of water.

The following mixture of dry salts may be kept for the immediate production of a good imitation of sea water:——Chloride of sodium (that obtained from evaporating sea water, and not recrystallised, in preference), 85 oz.; effloresced sulphate of soda, 15 oz.; dry chloride of calcium, 4 oz.; dry chloride of magnesium, 16 oz.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr. Mix, and keep dry. Put 4 or 5 oz. to a gallon of water.

BALARUC WATER. Chloride of sodium, 1 oz.; chloride of calcium, 1 oz.; chloride of magnesium, 1/2 oz.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr.; water, a gallon. Chiefly used for baths.

SULPHURETTED WATERS.

SIMPLE SULPHURETTED WATERS. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen into cold water (previously deprived of air by boiling, and cooled in a closed vessel) till it ceases to be absorbed.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 12 gr.; chloride of sodium, 25 gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; simple sulphuretted water, 2-1/2 oz.; water, slightly carbonated, 17-1/2 oz.

BARÈGES WATER. (Cauterets, Bagnères de Luchon, Eaux Bonnes, St Sauveur, may be made the same.) Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, of each 1-1/2 gr.; water (freed from air), a pint. A stronger solution for adding to baths is thus made:——Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, of each 2 oz.; water, 10 oz.; dissolve. To be added to a common bath at the time of using.

NAPLES WATER. Crystallised carbonate of soda, 15 gr.; fluid magnesia, 1 oz.; simple sulphuretted water, 2 oz.; aerated water, 16 oz. Introduce the sulphuretted water into the bottle last.

HARROGATE WATER. Chloride of sodium, 100 gr.; chloride of calcium, 10 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 6 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 gr.; water, 18-1/2 oz. Dissolve, and add simple sulphuretted water, 1-1/2 oz.

CHALYBEATE WATERS.

SIMPLE CHALYBEATE WATER. Water freed from air by boiling, 1 pint; sulphate of iron, 1/2 gr.

AERATED CHALYBEATE WATER. Sulphate of iron, 1 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; water (deprived of air and charged with carbonic-acid gas), a pint. Dr Pereira recommends 10 gr. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate of soda to be taken in a bottle of ordinary soda water. This is equivalent to 4 gr. of carbonate of iron.

BRIGHTON CHALYBEATE. Sulphate of iron, chloride of sodium, chloride of calcium, of each 2 gr.; carbonate of soda, 3 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint.

BUSSANG, FORGES, PROVINS, and other similar waters, may be imitated by dissolving from 1/2 to 2/3rds of a grain of sulphate of iron, 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate of magnesia, and 1 of chloride of sodium, in a pint of aerated water.

MONT D’OR WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 70 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2/3 gr.; chloride of sodium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, 1/2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

PASSY WATER. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; chloride of sodium, 3 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

PYRMONT WATER. Sulphate of magnesia, 20 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 4 gr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 16 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; Carrara water, a pint.

VARIOUS AERATED MEDICINAL WATERS NOT RESEMBLING ANY NATURAL SPRING.

MIALHE’S AERATED CHALYBEATE WATER. Water, a pint; citric acid, 1 dr.; citrate of iron, 15 gr.; dissolve, and add 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda.

TROSSEAU’S MARTIAL AERATED WATER. Potassio-tartrate of iron, 10 gr.; artificial Seltzer water, a pint.

BOUCHARDAT’S GASEOUS PURGATIVE. Phosphate of soda, 1-1/2 oz.; carbonated water, a pint.

MIALHE’S IODURETTED GASEOUS WATER. Iodide of potassium, 15 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 75 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve and add sulphuric acid, diluted with its weight of water, 75 gr. Cork immediately.

DUPASQUIER’S GASEOUS WATER OF IODIDE OF IRON. Solution of iodide of iron (containing 1/10th of dry iodide), 30 gr.; syrup of gum, 2-1/2 oz.; aerated water, 17-1/2 oz.

=SALTS (Smelling).= _Syn._ SAL VOLATILIS OLEOSUS, L. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia commonly passes under the name of ‘SMELLING SALTS,’ and, with the addition of a few drops of essential oil, is frequently employed to fill ‘SMELLING BOTTLES,’ but when a strong and durable pungency is desired, the carbonate should alone be used, as in one or other of the following formulæ:——

1. Carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 1/4 oz.; rub them together, and sublime; keep the product in well-stopped bottles.

2. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender, 2 oz.; oils of bergamot and lemon, of each 1 oz.; as the last.

3. Carbonate of ammonia, 1/2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of verbena, 1/4 oz.; otto of roses, 1 dr.; as before.

4. Carbonate of ammonia, 3/4 lb.; essences of bergamot and lemon, of each 1/2 oz.; essence de petit grain, 1/4 oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; as before.

5. (Extemporaneous.)——_a._ From sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; pure potassa, 3 dr.; grind them together, and add, of essence of lemons, 15 drops; oil of cloves, 3 or 4 drops.——_b._ From carbonate or sesquicarbonate of ammonia (bruised), q. s.; volatile ammoniacal essence, a few drops.

According to Dr Paris, GODFREY’S SMELLING SALTS are made by resubliming volatile salt with subcarbonate of potassa and a little spirits of wine (and essential oil).

=SALVE.= A name indiscriminately applied by the vulgar to any consistent, greasy preparation used in medicine.

=Salve, Lip-.= _Syn._ CERATUM LABIALE, L.

_Prep._ 1. (RED or PERUVIAN.) From spermaceti ointment, 1/2 lb.; alkanet root, 1/2 oz.; melt them together until sufficiently coloured, strain, and, when the strained fat has cooled a little, add of balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; stir well, and in a few minutes pour off the clear portion from the dregs; lastly, stir in of oil of cloves, 20 or 30 drops. This never gets rancid.

2. (ROSE.) See CERATE.

3. (WHITE.) From the finest spermaceti ointment or cerate, 3 oz.; finely powdered white sugar, 1 oz.; neroli or essence de petit grain, 10 or 12 drops, or q. s.

_Obs._ Numerous formulæ are extant for lip-salves, as for other like articles, but the preceding are those generally employed in trade. The perfumes may be varied at will and the salve named after them. A very small quantity of finely powdered borax is occasionally added. FRENCH LIP-SALVE is said to contain alum, in fine powder; and GERMAN LIP-SALVE is said to be made of cacao butter. See CERATE, POMMADE, and OINTMENT.

=SAND.= _Syn._ ARENA, L. River and sea sand consist chiefly of finely divided siliceous matter, mixed, occasionally, with carbonate of lime. That of Lynn and Alum Bay is nearly purely silica, and is, therefore, selected for the manufacture of glass. Sand is used by moulders in metal, and as a manure for heavy land. It is a large and necessary portion of every fertile soil.

=SAND PAPER.= The ‘American Builder’ gives the following process for making sand-paper of superior quality, at almost nominal cost:

“The device for making sand-paper is simple and at hand to any one who has occasion to use the paper. A quantity of ordinary window glass is taken (that having a green colour is said to be the best) and pounded fine, after which it is passed through one or more sieves of different degrees of fineness, to secure the glass for coarse or fine paper. Then any tough paper is covered evenly with glue, having about one third more water than is generally employed for wood work. The glass is sifted upon the paper, allowed a day or two in which to become fixed in the glue, when the refuse glue is shaken off, and the paper is fit for use.”

=SAN′DAL WOOD.= 1. (RED SANDERS WOOD, R. SAUNDERS W.; LIGNUM SANTALI RUBRI, LIGNUM SANTALINUM RUBRUM, PTEROCARPUS——Ph. L. & E.) The wood of _Pterocarpus santilinus_. It is used in medicine as a colouring matter. It is also employed in dyeing, and to stain varnishes. WOOL may be dyed a carmine red by dipping it alternately into an infusion of this wood and an acidulous bath, (Trommsdorff.) Prepared with a mordant of alum and tartar, and then dyed in a bath of sandal wood and sumach, it takes a reddish-yellow. (Bancroft.) See SANTALIN.

2. (WHITE SANDAL WOOD, WHITE SANDERS; SANTALUM ALBUM.) The young timber, or, according to others, the outside wood of _Santalum album_. (Linn.)

3. (YELLOW SANDAL WOOD; SANTALUM CITRINUM, S. FLAVUM.) The old timber, or, according to others, the heart of the same tree. Both the latter are much esteemed on account of their fragrance, and yield a valuable essential oil.

=SAN′DARACH.= _Syn._ SANDRAC, GUMS. A resin obtained from _Thuja articulata_, and _Juniperus communis_ (in warm climates). It is slightly fragrant, is freely soluble in rectified spirit, and has a sp. gr. of 1·05 to 1·09. It is used as incense, pounce, in varnishes, &c.

=SAN′DERS WOOD.= See SANDAL WOOD.

=SAN′DIVER.= _Syn._ GLASS GALL; FELL VITRI, SAL VITRI, L. The saline scum that swims on glass when first made. It is occasionally used in tooth powders.

=SANGUINA′RINE.= _Syn._ SANGUINARINA, L. Obtained from the root of _Sanguinaria Canadensis_ (Linn.), or blood-root, by digesting it in anhydrous alcohol; exhausting it with weak sulphuric acid; precipitating by liquor of ammonia; dissolving out by ether, and precipitating sulphate of sanguinarine by the addition of sulphuric acid. The sulphate may be decomposed by ammonia, which precipitates the alkaloid as a white pearly substance, of an acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, also soluble in ether and volatile oils. With acids it forms soluble salts, remarkable for their beautiful red, crimson, and scarlet colours. These salts are used in medicine as expectorants, in doses of fractions of a grain.

The ‘sanguinarin’ of the American ‘Eclectics’ is prepared by precipitating a saturated tincture of blood-root by water. It contains an uncertain proportion of the alkaloid, and is of a deep reddish-brown colour. See RESINOIDS.

=SANITARY AUTHORITIES AND SANITARY DISTRICTS.= With the exception of the metropolis, the whole of England and Ireland is divided into urban and rural sanitary districts, which are respectively governed by urban and rural authorities.

The Public Health Act (sec. 6) thus defines an urban district, and an urban authority in England:——

----------------------------------------+---------------------
_Urban Districts._ | _Urban Authority._
----------------------------------------+---------------------
Borough, constituted such either before | The mayor, aldermen,
or after the passing of this Act. | and burgesses,
| acting by the
| council.
|
Improvement act district, constituted | The improvement
such before the passing of the Public | commissioners.
Health Act, 1872, and having no |
part of its area situated within a |
borough or local government district. |
|
Local government district constituted | The local board.
such either before or after the passing |
of this Act, having no part of |
its area situated within a borough, |
and not coincident in area with a |
borough or improvement act district. |
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Provided that——

1. Any borough the whole of which is included in and forms part of a local government district or improvement act district, and any improvement act district which is included in and forms part of a local government district, and any local government district which is included in and forms part of an improvement act district, shall, for the purposes of this Act, be deemed to be absorbed in the larger district in which it is included, or of which it forms part; and the Improvement commissioners, or local board, as the case may be, of such larger district, shall be the urban authority therein; and

2. Where an improvement act district is coincident in area with a local government district, the improvement commissioners, and not a local board, shall be the urban authority there; and

3. Where any part of an improvement act district is situated within a borough or local act district, or where any part of a local government district is situated within a borough, the remaining part of such improvement act district or of such local government district so partly situated within a borough, shall for the purposes of this Act continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if this Act had not been passed, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs.

For the purposes of the Public Health Act, the boroughs of Oxford, Cambridge, Blandford, Calne, Wenlock, Folkestone, and Newport, Isle of Wight, are not to be deemed boroughs.

The borough of Cambridge is to be deemed an improvement act district, the borough of Oxford is to be included in the local government district of Oxford, and there is a special provision in the case of the borough of Folkestone.

An English rural sanitary district and authority are thus defined by the Public Health Act (sec. 9):——

“The area of any union which is not coincident in area with an urban district, nor wholly included in an urban district (in this section called a rural union), with the exception of those portions (if any) of the area which are included in any urban district, shall be a rural district, and the guardians of the union shall form the rural authority of such district, provided that——

“1. An _ex officio_ guardian resident in any parish or part of a parish belonging to such union, which parish or part of a parish forms or is situated in an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority, unless he is the owner or occupier of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify him as an elective guardian for the union.

“2. An elective guardian of any parish belonging to such union, and forming or being included within an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority.

“3. Where part of a parish belonging to a rural union forms or is situated in an urban district, the Local Government Board may by order divide such parish into separate wards, and determine the number of guardians to be elected by such wards respectively, in such manner as to provide for the due representation of the part of the parish situated within the rural district; but until such order has been made, the guardian or guardians of such parish may act and vote as members of the rural authority in the same manner as if no part of such parish formed part of, or was situated in, the urban district.”

Where the number of elective guardians, who are not by this section disqualified from acting and voting as members of the rural authority, is less than five, the Local Government Board may from time to time by order nominate such number of persons as may be necessary to make up that number, from owners or occupiers of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify them as elective guardians for the union; and the persons so nominated shall be entitled to act and vote as members of the rural authority, but not further or otherwise.

Subject to the provisions of this Act, all statutes, orders, and legal provisions applicable to any board of guardians shall apply to them in their capacity of rural authority under this Act for the purposes of this Act; and it is hereby declared that the rural authority are the same body as the guardians of the union or parish for or within which such authority act.

Sanitary districts in Ireland are:——The City of Dublin, other corporate towns above 6000, and towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts.

And urban authorities are:——

In the City of Dublin, the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses acting by the town council.

In towns corporate, the town council.

In towns exceeding 6000, having commissioners under the Lighting, Cleaning, and Watching Act of George IV; or having municipal commissioners under 3 and 4 Vict., c. 108; or town commissioners under the Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act (17 and 18 Vict., c. 103), the said commissioners, municipal, or town councillors respectively.

In towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts, the town or township commissioners (37 and 38 Vict. c. 98, s. 3).

The Irish rural sanitary districts and authorities are exactly analogous to the English.

In Scotland, sanitary powers are exercised by town councils, police commissioners, and parochial boards, controlled and supervised by a board of supervision; but the names of urban and rural sanitary authorities have not yet been applied to them.

Under the English Public Health Act, there may also be formed united districts; for example:

Where, on the application of any local authority of any district, it appears to the Local Government Board that it would be for the advantage of the districts, or any of them, or any parts thereof, or of any contributory places, in any rural district or districts, to be formed into a united district for all or any of the purposes following:——

1. The procuring a common supply of water; or

2. The making a main sewer, or carrying into effect a system of sewerage for the use of all such districts, or contributory places; or

3. For any other purposes of this Act, the Local Government Board may, by provisional order, form such districts or contributory places into a united district.

All costs, charges, and expenses of and incidental to the formation of a united district are, in the event of the united district being formed, to be a first charge on the rates leviable in the united district in pursuance section 279 of the Public Health Act.

Notice of the provisional order must be made public in the locality; and should the union be carried out, the incidental expenses thereto are a first charge on the sanitary rates of the united district. A united district is governed by a joint board consisting of such _ex officio_, and of such number of elective members as the provisional order determines.

The business arrangements of the joint board differ little from those of a sanitary authority.

The joint board is a body corporate having a name——determined by the provisional order——a perpetual succession, and a common seal, and having power to acquire and hold lands without any licence in mortmain. The joint board has only business and power in matters for which it has been formed. With the exception of these special objects, the component districts continue as before to exercise independent powers.

Nevertheless, the joint board may delegate to the sanitary authority of any component district the exercise of any of its powers, or the performance of any of its duties (Public Health Act, sec. 281).

Sanitary authorities and districts may be also combined for the execution and maintenance of works, for the prevention of epidemic diseases, as well as for the purpose of appointing a medical officer of health. Districts when once formed are not fixed and unvariable, the Local Government Board having the most extensive powers over the alterations of areas.

1. The Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve any local government district, and may merge any such district in some other district, or may declare the whole or any portion of a local government or a rural district immediately adjoining a local government district to be included in such last mentioned district, or may declare any portion of a local government district immediately adjoining a rural district to be included in such last-mentioned district; and thereupon the included area shall, for the purposes of the Public Health Act, be deemed to form part of the district in which it is included in such order; and the remaining part (if any) of such local government district or rural district affected by such order, shall continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if such order had not been made, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs.

2. In the case of a borough comprising within its area the whole of an improvement act district, or having an area coextensive with such district, the Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve such district, and transfer to the council of the borough, all or any of the jurisdiction and powers of the improvement commissioners of such district, remaining vested in them at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act.

3. The Local Government Board may, by order, dissolve any special drainage district constituted either before or after the passing of the Public Health Act in which a loan for the execution of works has not been raised, and merge it into the parish or parishes in which it is situated; but in the cases where a loan has been raised the Local Government Board can only do this by provisional order (Public Health Act, sec. 271).

Disputes with regard to the boundaries of districts are to be settled by the Local Government Board after local inquiry (Public Health Act, sec. 278).

Where districts also are constituted for the purposes of main sewerage only, in pursuance of the Public Health Act of 1848, or where a district has been formed subject to the jurisdiction of a joint sewerage board, in pursuance of the Sewage Utilisation Act of 1867, such districts or district may be dissolved by provisional order, and the Local Government Board may constitute it a united district, subject to the jurisdiction of a joint board (Public Health Act, sec. 323).

The Local Government Board may also declare by provisional order any rural district to be a local government district.

The Local Government Board has also the important power of investing a rural authority with urban powers as follows:

“The Local Government Board may, on the application of the authority of any rural district, or of persons rated to the relief of the poor, the assessment of whose hereditaments amounts at the least to one tenth of the net rateable value of such district, or of any contributory place therein, by order to be published in the ‘London Gazette,’ or in such other manner as the Local Government Board may direct, declare any provisions of this Act in force in urban districts to be in force in such rural district or contributory place, and may invest such authority with all or any of the powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, and obligations of an urban authority under this Act, and such investment may be made either unconditionally or subject to any conditions to be specified by the board as to the time, portion of its district, or manner during, at, and in which such powers, rights, duties, liabilities, capacities, and obligations are to be exercised and attach, provided that an order of the Local Government Board made on the application of one tenth of the persons rated to the relief of the poor in any contributory place shall not invest the rural authority with any new powers beyond the limits of such contributory places” (Public Health Act, sec. 276).

_Powers and Duties of Sanitary Authorities._ In England urban sanitary authorities have very extensive powers and duties under the Public Health Act of 1875, and in addition they have to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act, and the Artisans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Act. They also have power to adopt the Baths and Wash-houses Acts, and the Labouring Classes’ Lodging Houses Acts; but where adopted or in force, the powers, rights, duties, &c., of these Acts belong to the urban authority. The powers of any local act for sanitary purposes (except a River Conservancy Act) are transferred to the urban authority.

The powers of an English rural authority are exercised principally under the Public Health Act, but they have also to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act.

The powers given by the Irish Public Health Act to Irish Sanitary Authorities are similar.

The Local Government Act is not in force there, and equal powers are given without distinction to urban and rural sanitary authorities.

The duties of sanitary authorities are to carry out the Acts which apply to them, and appoint certain officers, such as medical officers of health, inspectors of nuisances, clerk, treasurer, &c.

Speaking generally, it may be affirmed that all sanitary authorities are invested with ample powers for enforcing sanitary measures. Their duty consists in perfecting drainage, sewerage, and water supply. In towns they have the control of streets and houses, both private and public, and in all localities they possess ample powers to cause every species of nuisance to be abated, which is in the least inimical to health.

The Public Health Act contains a proviso for dealing with an authority which fails in its duty. Under these circumstances, the Local Government Board is invested with compulsory powers, and may compel the due performance of whatever it may deem necessary.

=SANITARY HERBAL BITTERS——Gesundheitskräuter-Bitter.= An indispensable household remedy for every family, for colic, stomach-ache, cramp in the bladder, flatulence, loss of appetite, nausea, chronic liver diseases, constipation, and diarrhœa; also as a soothing agent for infants (Gottschlich). The fluid contains in 100 grammes the soluble portion of about ·8 gramme opium. (Hager.)

=SANITARY LIQUEUR——Gesundheits Liqueur.= Swedish elixir of life, with rhubarb in place of the aloes, made into a liqueur with sugar and spirit. (Hager.)

=SANITARY, POPULAR, ERRORS.= It is a popular sanitary error to think that the more a man eats the fatter and stronger he will become. To believe that the more hours children study the faster they learn. To conclude that, if exercise is good, the more violent the more good is done. To imagine that every hour taken from sleep is an hour gained. To act on the presumption that the smallest room in the house is large enough to sleep in. To imagine that whatever remedy causes one to feel immediately better is good for the system, without regard to the ulterior effects. To eat without an appetite; or to continue after it has been satisfied, merely to gratify the taste. To eat a hearty supper at the expense of a whole night of disturbed sleep and weary waking in the morning (‘Sanitary Record’).

=SANITARY RATAFIA——Gesundheits Ratafia.= For removing all stomach, chest, and bowel complaints, indigestion, colic, diarrhœa, vomiting, flatulence, dysuria, and affections caused by chills. A clear brown schnapps containing, in 250 grammes by weight, 75 grammes sugar, 105 grammes water, 100 grammes strong spirit, 40 grammes each of tincture of orange peel and tincture of orange berries, 2·5 grammes each tincture of cloves and tincture of wormwood, 1 drop oil of peppermint, 5 drops acetic ether, and some drops of caramel. (Dr Horn.)

=SANITARY SOUL, Flowers of.——Gesundheitsblumengeist.= A mixture of spirit, 500 parts; tinct. aromatica, 5 parts; oils of bergamot, lavender, and rosemary, of each 2 parts; oil of thyme, 3 parts; oil of spearmint, 1 part. (Hager.)

=SANITATION, DOMESTIC.= Not one of the least creditable or important benefits conferred of late years, by the efforts of philanthropic and enlightened enterprise upon the poorer classes of this country, has been the erection——in cities and large towns more particularly——of healthy houses for them to dwell in. In the construction of these habitations the architects and designers have for the most part been guided by sound sanitary principles, the carrying out of which has been effected by means of legislative supervision, and if needful, of legislative action.

The result of these measures has, in most cases, been to provide residences for our poorer brethren, wherein, amongst other advantages, they enjoy the two primary ones of pure air and water. That the richer, upper, and middle classes, whilst devising and achieving so much in the way of comfort and health for those beneath them, should themselves in so many cases live in houses notoriously unhealthy, and should fail to recognise the advantages of the compulsory enforcement of necessary hygienic arrangements, are anomalies so amazing as to be, at first sight, scarcely credible. Yet a little piece of statistics may serve to discomfit those who are incredulous on this point. The average mortality in London is 24 persons in a 1000. In the improved dwellings of the poor it is only 14 in the 1000.

This subject was ventilated in a very earnest and valuable paper read before the Social Science Congress at Brighton in 1875 by Mr H. H. Collins. In this paper Mr Collins refers only to the houses of the metropolis and its suburbs, and maintains that, as far as regards the enforcement of sanitary precautions in house building, London and its suburbs are infinitely worse provided for than many second-rate provincial towns, most of which, he says, have the construction of their buildings and streets regulated by bye-laws issued under the powers of the Public Health Act, and sanctioned by the Home Secretary, whereas in London the various Acts of Parliament for this purpose have been inoperative. Mr Collins describes the insanitary condition of some of the high-rented houses he examined and says the descriptions which follow equally apply to many others situated in the most aristocratic quarters of London.

Imagine one of our legislators who, perhaps, had been voting for the passing of the “Nuisance Removals Act,” returning from his parliamentary duties to such a mansion as is portrayed by Mr Collins in the following extract:——“I have recently purchased on behalf of a client the lease of a mansion in Portland Place from a well-known nobleman, who had spent, as I was informed, a fortune in providing new drainage; indeed, I found the principal water-closet built out of the house altogether; the soil-pipe of it, however, was carried through the basement, where it was supposed to be connected with the drain. Upon removing the floor-boards to examine it, I found the ground surrounding the connection literally one mass of black sewage, the soil oozing through the point even at the time of the examination, and the connection with the main-drain laid in it at right angles. The 9-inch drain-pipes ran through the centre of the house, having a very slight gradient, and had evidently not been laid in many years, yet they were nearly full of consolidated sewage, and but little space was left for the passage of the fluid. With but a slightly increased pressure the joints would have given way, and the sewage would have flowed under the boards instead of into the sewer. The sinks, water-closets, and cisterns were all badly situated, and all more or less defective in sanitary arrangement. In the butler’s pantry the sink was placed next to the turn-up bedstead of the butler, who must have inhaled draughts of impure atmosphere at every inspiration. The soil-pipes of the closets had indeed been ventilated with a zinc rectangular tube, but, as this had been so placed as to let the sewer-gas through an adjacent skylight into the house, and the odour being extremely disagreeable, it had been by his lordship’s directions (as I am told) closed. Here was evidence that it had at all events been doing some service, and probably had only poisoned a few of the domestics. I found the bends of soil-pipes likewise riddled with holes, as described by Dr Leargus. There happened to be a housemaids’ sink situated close to a bedroom, the waste from which had been carefully connected with the soil-pipe, so that probably had the closets been satisfactorily ventilated, this arrangement would have defeated the object in view. I should also mention that the best water-closet was situated on the bedroom floor under the stairs, and was lighted and ventilated through a small shaft formed of wood boarding and carried to the roof; it also opened by a window to the main or principal staircase. The gutter of the roof ran through the bedrooms and under the floors; at the time of examination it was full of black slimy filth. This is a fair specimen of the sanitary arrangements of a nobleman’s town house, situated in one of the best streets of this great metropolis in the year of grace 1875.”

Let us take another example:——“A few years ago a client of mine, who resided in a large house in a wealthy suburb, informed me that his wife and two daughters had suffered in health ever since they had occupied their house, that he had consulted several medical men without beneficial result, and that he wished me to make a survey of the premises. He paid a rental of about £200 per annum. I found that the drainage was in every way defective, although he told me that he had spent a large sum of money in making it ‘perfect,’ the gradients were bad, the pipes choked, and the joints unsound. The servants’ water-closet was adjacent to the scullery, which was in communication with the kitchen, the sink being directly opposite the kitchen range. The water-closet was supplied direct from the cistern, the waste from which entered the drain, although it was said to be trapped. The waste of the sink was simply connected with the drains and trapped with an ordinary bell-trap, the cover or trap of which I found broken. Under the kitchen range hot-water tap I found a trapped opening, also leading into the drain. The domestics complained of frequent headaches and general depression, and I need not add that it excited no surprise, seeing that the kitchen fire was continuously drawing in from the sewers and house drains a steady supply of sewer-gas to the house and drinking-water cistern. In addition I found the basement walls damp, owing to the absence of a damp-proof course and the want of dry areas. The upper water-closets, house-closets, and cisterns were situated over each other, off the first-floor landing, and directly opposite the bedroom doors. The bath and lavatory were fixed in the dressing-room, communicating with the best bedroom, the wastes from which were carried into the soil-pipe of closets. This latter was unventilated, but was trapped with an S pipe at bottom. The water-closets were pan closets, and were trapped by D traps. The upper closet periodically untrapped the lower closet, and both traps leaving the impure air free access to the house and cistern, which latter was also in communication by means of its waste-pipe with the house-drains. The overflows from safes of the water-closets were practically untrapped. The peculiar nauseating odour of sewer-gas was distinctly perceptible, and I had but little doubt but that atonic disease was rapidly making its inroads on the occupants. The landlord refused to recognise the truth of my report. My client, acting on my advice, relinquished his lease, took another house, the sanitation of which was carefully attended to, and his wife and children have had no recurrence of illness.”