Chapter LIX: Part 2 (20)

Mr Collins mentions a very alarming and unsuspected source of aerial poisoning in many town-houses to be the existence of old disused cesspools in the centre of the buildings. These receptacles, which are frequently nearly filled with decaying fæcal substances, are very often found to be insecurely covered over with tiles, stones, or boarding. To ensure the construction of a healthy dwelling-house, Mr Collins regards attention to the following conditions as essential:——“All subsoil should be properly drained, proper thickness of the concrete should be applied to the foundations, damp-proof courses should be inserted over footings, earth should be kept back from walls by dry areas properly drained and ventilated, external walls should be built of good hard well-burnt stock brickwork, of graduated thicknesses, and never less than 14 inches thick; internal divisions should be of brick in cement. The mortar and cement should be of good quality. All basement floors should have a concrete or cement bottom, with air flowing under the same, and the boarding thereof should be tongued so as to prevent draught and exhalation penetrating through the joints of the same. Ample areas back and front should be insisted on, the divisional or party fence walls of which should never be allowed to exceed 7 feet in height, to allow free circulation and to prevent the areas becoming wells or shafts for stagnant air. The main drains should be carried through the back yards, and, to prevent inconvenience to adjoining owners from any obstruction, they should be laid in subways, so that the sewer inspector could gain ready access thereto without entering any of the premises or causing any annoyance to the tenants. No basement should on any account be allowed to be constructed at such a level as will not permit of the pipes having good steep gradients to the sewer.

All sinks should be placed next external walls, having windows over the same, and removed from the influence of the fire-grates. All wastes should discharge exteriorly over and not into trapped cess-pits, all of which should be provided with splashing stones fixed round the same. The basement cisternage should be placed in convenient and accessible positions, protected from dirt and guarded from the effects of alternations of temperature. They should be of slate and galvanised iron, and never of lead or zinc. They should be fitted with overflows discharging over the sink, or over trapped cesses as just mentioned. They should be supplied with stout lead encased, block-tin pipe, the services therefrom for all drinking purposes should be of the same description, and should be attached to an ascending filter, so that water may be delivered free from lead or organic impurities. Lead poisoning is more frequent than is generally believed. Cupboards under stairs, under sinks, under dressers, or out-of-the-way places should be avoided, and when fitted up should always be well ventilated. All passages should be well lighted and ventilated. Borrowed lights are better than none at all. Every room should be furnished with a fireplace, and Comyn and Chingo ventilators over doors and windows should be freely disposed. It would conduce to the health of the house, without adding one shilling to its cost, to build next the kitchen flue a separate ventilating flue, and to conduct the products of combustion from gas and other impure or soiled air, &c., into the same, from ventilators placed in the centre of or close to the ceilings, as may be found most convenient. By carefully proportioning the inlet and outlet ventilation, the air will be kept moving without draught, and preserved in a pure and sweet condition for respiration. The windows and doors will then serve only their legitimate objects of admitting light, and of affording ingress and egress to the various apartments. The staircase should be made the main ventilator of the house, and it is essentially necessary to preserve the air surrounding the same, uncontaminated, pure, and undefiled. It will be better to light and ventilate it from the top; and to prevent the Ethiopians or blacks of London finding their way into the house, an invisible gauze net may be placed under it, which can periodically be easily removed and cleansed, or it may be furnished with a movable inner, ornamental flat light.

Under no circumstances must lavatories or sinks be brought in connection with the drains. Most people desire the bath-room to be in proximity to the bedrooms; whether so placed or not, all connection with main drainage must be studiously avoided. The hot and cold pipes, known as the flow and return pipes, should be of galvanised iron, with junctions carefully made with running joints in red lead; on no account should these be in contact with any other pipes. The wastes from the bath safe (and lavatories if any) should be carried through the front wall of the house, and should turn over and into rain-water head, covered with domical wire grating to prevent birds building their nests therein, and carried down to the basement area, where they must discharge over a trapped cess-pit, as before described, surrounded with a splash-stone or curve to obviate the nuisance of the soap-suds flowing over the pavement. A brush passed up and down these waters now and then will effectually remove any soapy sediment which may cling to their surfaces. The waste from bath, &c., into heads should be furnished with a ground valve flap and collar to prevent draught, and the bath should be fitted with india-rubber seatings between the metal and wood framing. Mansarde or sloping roofs should be avoided; they are injurious to the health of the domestics, whose sleeping chambers they are generally appropriated to; they are unhealthy, hot in summer, and prejudicially cold in winter, laying the basis for future disease for those least able to bear it. Gutters taken through roofs, known as ‘trough,’ should never be permitted; they congregate putrescent filth, which remains in them for years to taint and poison the atmosphere.” Consult also, as supplementing this subject, the articles DRAINS, DUSTBINS, CESSPOOLS, TANKS, TRAPS, WATER-CLOSETS.

=SAN′TALIN.= The colouring principle of red sanders wood.

=SAN′TONIN.= C_{15}H_{18}O_{3}. _Syn._ SANTONIC ACID; SANTONINUM, L. The crystalline and characteristic principle of the seed of several varieties of _Artemisia_.

_Prep._ (Ph. Baden, 1841.) Take of worm-seed, 4 parts; hydrate of lime, 1-1/2 part; mix, and exhaust them with alcohol of 90%; distil, off 3-4ths of the spirit, and evaporate the remainder to one half, which, at the boiling temperature, is to be mixed with acetic acid in excess, and afterwards with water; on repose, impure santonin subsides; wash this with a little weak spirit, then dissolve it in rectified spirit, 10 parts, decolour by ebullition for a few minutes with animal charcoal, and filter; the filtrate deposits colourless crystals of santonin as it cools; these are to be dried, and kept in opaque bottles.

Mr W. G. Smith, M.B., states that two singular effects are known to result from the administration of santonin in moderate doses, viz. visual derangements and a peculiar alteration in the colour of the urine. He adds that three hours after taking 5 gr. of pure white santonin, he became conscious, while reading, of a yellowish tint on the paper, and a yellow haze in the air. His own hands, and the complexions of others, appeared of a sallow unhealthy colour; and the evening sky, which was really of a pale lavender colour, seemed to be light green. Vision was not perfectly distinct for some hours, and was accompanied by a certain vagueness of definition. Mr Smith endorses the observations of previous observers who had noticed that the urine of persons under the influence of santonin is tinged of a saffron yellow or greenish colour. The coloured urine resembles that of a person slightly jaundiced, and like this permanently stains linen of a light yellow colour.

The best test for santonin in the urine is an alkali, upon the addition of which the urine immediately assumes a fine cherry-red colour, varying in depth according to the amount of santonin present. Potash was found to be the preferable alkali.

_Prop., &c._ Prismatic or tubular crystals; inodorous; tasteless, or only slightly bitter; fusible; volatilisable; soluble in 4500 parts of cold and about 250 parts of boiling water; soluble in cold alcohol and ether; freely soluble in hot alcohol. It is much esteemed as a tasteless worm medicine, and is especially adapted to remove lumbricales (large round worms).——_Dose_, 6 to 18 or 20 gr., repeated night and morning, followed by a brisk purge.

(Ph. B.) Boil 1 lb. of santonico, bruised, with 1 gall. of distilled water, and 5 oz. of slaked lime, in a copper or tinned iron vessel for an hour, strain through a stout cloth and express strongly. Mix the residue with 1/2 gall. of distilled water and 2 oz. of lime, boil for half an hour, strain and express as before. Mix the strained liquors, let them settle, decant the fluid from the deposit, evaporate to the bulk of 2-1/2 pints. To the liquor while hot add, with diligent stirring, hydrochloric acid, until the fluid has become slightly and permanently acid, and set it aside for five days that the precipitate may subside. Remove, by skimming, any oily matter which floats on the surface, and carefully decant the greater part of the fluid from the precipitate. Collect this on a paper filter, wash it first with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless and nearly free from acid reaction, then with 1/2 fl. oz. of solution of ammonia, previously diluted with 5 oz. of distilled water, and, lastly, with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless. Press the filter containing the precipitate between folds of filtering paper, and dry it with a gentle heat. Scrape the dry precipitate from the filter, and mix it with 60 gr. of purified animal charcoal. Pour on them 9 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, digest for half an hour, and boil for ten minutes. Filter while hot, wash the charcoal with 1 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and set the filtrate aside for two days in a cool dark place to crystallise. Separate the mother liquor from the crystals, and concentrate to obtain a further product. Collect the crystals, let them drain, redissolve them in 4 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and let the solution crystallise as before. Lastly, dry the crystals on filtering paper in the dark and preserve them in a bottle protected from the light.

=SAP GREEN.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=SAPONIFICA′TION.= See SOAP.

=SAP′ONIN.= _Syn._ SAPONINUM, L. A white, non-crystallisable substance, obtained by the action of hot diluted alcohol on the root of _Saponaria officinalis_ (Linn.), or soapwort.

_Prop., &c._ Saponin is soluble in hot water, and the solution froths strongly on agitation. The smallest quantity of the powder causes violent sneezing.

=SARCOCOL′LA.= A gum-resin supposed to be derived from one or more plants of the natural order _Renæaceæ_, growing in Arabia and Persia. It somewhat resembles gum Arabic, except in being soluble in both water and alcohol, and in having a bitter-sweet taste. It was formerly used in surgery.

=SAR′COSINE.= C_{3}H_{7}O_{2}N. A feebly basic substance, obtained by boiling kreatine for some time with a solution of pure baryta. It forms colourless, transparent plates, freely soluble in water, sparingly so in alcohol, and insoluble in ether; it may be fused and volatilised.

=SARSAPARIL′LA.= _Syn._ SARSÆ RADIX (B. P.), RADIX SARZÆ, RADIX SARSAPARILLÆ, SARZA (Ph. L. & E.), SARSAPARILLA (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. “Jamaica sarza. The root of _Smilax officinalis_, Kunth” (Ph. L.); “and probably of other species.” (Ph. E.)

The sarsaparillas of commerce are divided by Dr Pereira into two classes:——‘Mealy sarsaparilla’ and ‘non-mealy sarsaparillas.’ In the first are placed Brazilian or Lisbon, Caraccas or gouty Vera Cruz, and Honduras; the second includes Jamaica, Lima, and true Vera Cruz.

The mealy sarsaparillas are distinguished by “the mealy character of the inner cortical layers, which are white or pale-coloured. The meal or starch is sometimes so abundant, that a shower of it, in the form of white dust, falls when we fracture the roots.” The medulla or pith is also frequently very amylaceous.

The non-mealy sarsaparillas “are characterised by a deeply coloured (red or brown), usually non-mealy, cortex. The cortex is red, and much thinner than in the mealy sorts.” “If a drop of oil of vitriol be applied to a transverse section of the root of the non-mealy sarsaparillas, both cortex and wood acquire a dark-red or purplish tint;” whilst in the preceding varieties, the mealy coat, and, sometimes, the pith, is but little altered in colour. “The decoction of non-mealy sarsaparilla, when cold, is somewhat darkened, but does not yield a blue colour when a solution of iodine is added to it.” The aqueous extract, when rubbed down with a little cold distilled water in a mortar, does not yield a turbid liquid, nor become blue on the addition of iodine. The reverse is the case with the decoction and extract of the mealy varieties.

The JAMAICA, RED JAMAICA, or RED-BEARDED SARSAPARILLA (SARZA JAMAICENSIS——Ph. D.), is the variety which should alone be used in medicine. This kind yields from 33 to 44% of its weight of extract (Battley, Hennell, Pope), and contains less starchy matter than the other varieties. It is distinguished by exhibiting the above peculiarities in a marked degree, by the dirty reddish colour of its bark, which “is not mealy,” and by being “beset very plentifully with rootlets” (fibres).——Ph. L. Its powder has also a pale reddish-brown colour. The other varieties of sarsaparilla, viz. the Lisbon, Lima, Vera Cruz, and Honduras, are frequently substituted for the Jamaica by the druggists in the preparations of the decoctions and extracts of this drug; but the products are vastly inferior in quantity, colour, taste, and medicinal virtue, to those prepared from the officinal sarsaparilla. Decoction of sarsaparilla, when made with the Honduras root, is very liable to ferment, even by a few hours’ exposure, in hot weather. We have seen hogsheads of the strong decoction, after exposure for a single night, in as active a state of fermentation as a gyle of beer, with a frothy head, and evolving a most disagreeable odour, that was not wholly removed by several hours’ boiling. When this occurs the decoction suffers in density, and the product in extract is, consequently, considerably lessened. Yet this is frequently allowed to occur in the wholesale laboratory, where the rule should be——always begin a ‘bath of sarza’ (as it is called), and, indeed, of other perishable articles, early in the morning, and finish it, completely and entirely, the same day.

Sarsaparilla has been recommended as a mild but efficacious alterative, diaphoretic and tonic. It has long been a popular remedy in chronic rheumatism, rheumatic and gouty pains, scurvy, scrofula, syphilis, secondary syphilis, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin diseases; and, especially, in cachexia, or a general bad habit of body, and to remove the symptoms arising from the injudicious use of mercurials, often falsely called ‘secondary syphilis.’ During its use the skin should be kept warm, and diluents should be freely taken. Its efficacy has been greatly exaggerated. It is, however, much more effective in warm than in northern climates.——_Dose._ In substance, 1/2 to 1 dr., three or four times daily; but, preferably, made into a decoction or infusion.

The articles so much puffed under the names of American or United States sarsaparilla and extract of sarsaparilla are “nothing more than the decoction of a common herb, a sort of ‘aralia,’ inhabiting the swamps and marshes of the United States. When cut up it has the appearance of chaff, but not the slightest resemblance in character, colour, or taste, to even the most inferior species of smilax (or sarza). The decoction is sweetened with a little sugar, flavoured with benzoin and sassafras, and, finally, preserved from decomposition by means of the bichloride of mercury.” “I have heard of several cases of deadly sickness, and other dangerous symptoms, following its use.” “We do not believe that a particle of real sarsaparilla ever entered into the composition of either of the articles referred to.” (‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 227.) See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.

=SARSAPARIL′LIN.= _Syn._ PARIGLIN, PARILLIC ACID, SALSAPARIN, SMILACIN. A white, crystallisable, odourless, and nearly tasteless substance, discovered by Pallotta and Folchi, in sarsaparilla.

_Prep._ The bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla is treated with hot rectified spirit, and the resulting tincture reduced to about one third by distilling off the spirit; the residual liquid is then filtered, whilst boiling, slightly concentrated by evaporation, and set aside to crystallise; the crystalline deposit is redissolved in either hot rectified spirit or boiling water, and decoloured by agitation with a little animal charcoal; the filtrate deposits crystals of nearly pure smilacin as it cools. It may also be extracted by boiling water.

_Prop., &c._ A non-nitrogenised neutral body. Water holding a very small quantity of it in solution froths considerably on agitation. This is especially the case with infusion of Jamaica sarsaparilla, and this property has consequently been proposed as a test of the quality of sarsaparilla root. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of sarsaparilla. According to Pallotta, it is a powerful sedative, and diminishes the vital energies in proportion to the quantity taken.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr.; in the usual cases in which the root is given.

=SAS′SAFRAS.= _Syn._ SASSAFRAS RADIX (B. P.), SASSAFRAS RADIX, SASSAFRAS (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The root of _Sassafras officinale_, Nees. _Laurus sassafras_, Linn.”——Ph. L. It has a fragrant odour, and a sweetish aromatic taste. It has long been reputed a stimulating, alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and tonic; and an infusion of the chips (sassafras chips), under the name of sassafras tea, has been a popular ‘diet drink’ in various cutaneous affections, gout, chronic rheumatism, &c.

=SATURA′TION.= The state in which a body has taken its full dose, or chemical proportion, of any other substance with which it can combine, or which it can dissolve; as water with sugar or a salt, or an alkali with an acid, when the properties of both are neutralised.

=SAUCERS (for Dyeing).= _Prep._ 1. (BLUE.) From blue carmine, made into a paste with gum water, which is then spread over the inside of the saucers, and dried.

2. (PINK.)——_a._ From pure rouge mixed with a little carbonate of soda, then made into a paste with thin gum water, and applied as the last.

_b._ Well-washed safflower, 8 oz.; carbonate of soda, 2 oz.; water, 2 gall.; infuse, strain, add of French chalk (scraped fine with Dutch rushes), 2 lbs.; mix well, and precipitate the colour by adding a solution of tartaric acid; collect the red powder, drain it, add a very small quantity of gum, and apply the paste to the saucers. Inferior. Both the above are used to tinge silk stockings, gloves, &c.

=SAUCE.= A liquid or semi-liquid condiment or seasoning for food. The following receipts for sauces may be useful to the reader:

=Sauce, Ancho′vy.= 1. (Extemporaneous.) From 3 or 4 anchovies, chopped small; butter, 3 oz.; water, a wine-glassful; vinegar, 2 tablespoonfuls; flour, 1 do.; stir the mixture over the fire till it thickens, then rub it through a coarse hair sleeve.

2. (Wholesale.) As essence of anchovies. Other fish sauces may be made in the same manner.

=Sauce, Apple.= From sharp apples, cored, sliced, stewed with a spoonful or two of water, and then beaten, to a perfectly smooth pulp with a little good moist sugar. Tomato, and many other like sauces, may be made in the same manner.

=Sauce, Aristocratique.= From green-walnut juice and anchovies, equal parts; cloves, mace, and pimento, of each, bruised, 1 dr. to every lb. of juice; boil and strain, and then add to every pint, 1 pint of vinegar, 1/2 pint of port wine, 1/4 pint of soy, and a few shallots; let the whole stand for a few days, and decant the clear liquor.

=Bech′amel.= A species of fine white broth or consommée, thickened with cream, and used as ‘white sauce.’

=Sauce, Caper.= Put twelve table-spoonfuls of melted butter into a stewpan, place it on the fire, and, when on the point of boiling, add 1 oz. of fresh butter and 1 table-spoonful of capers; shake the stewpan round over the fire until the butter is melted, add a little pepper and salt, and serve where directed. Also as mint sauce.

=Sauce, Chut′ney.= 1. From sour apples (pared and cored), tomatoes, brown sugar, and sultana raisins, of each 3 oz.; common salt, 4 oz.; red chillies and powdered ginger, of each 29 oz.; garlic and shallots, of each 1 oz.; pound the whole well, add, of strong vinegar, 3 quarts; lemon juice, 1 do.; and digest, with frequent agitation, for a month; then pour off nearly all the liquor, and bottle it. Used for fish or meat, either hot or cold, or to flavour stews, &c. The residue is the ‘Chutney,’ ‘Chetney,’ or ‘Chitni,’ which must be ground to a smooth paste with a stone and muller, and then put into pots or jars. It is used like mustard.

2. (BENGAL CHITNI.) As the last, but using tamarinds instead of apples, and only sufficient vinegar and lemon juice to form a paste.

=Cor′atch.= From good mushroom ketchup, 1/2 gal.; walnut ketchup, 3/4 pint; India soy and chillie vinegar, of each 1/2 pint; essence of anchovies, 5 or 6 oz.; macerate for a fortnight.

=Sauce, Epicurienne.= To the last add of walnut ketchup and port wine, of each 1 quart; garlic and white pepper, of each (bruised) 4 oz.; chillies (bruised), 1 oz.; mace and cloves, of each 1/2 oz.

=Sauce, Fish.= From port wine 1 gall.; mountain do., 1 quart; walnut ketchup, 2 quarts; anchovies (with the liquor), 2 lbs.; 8 lemons, 48 shallots, scraped horseradish, 1-1/2 lb.; flour of mustard, 8 oz.; mace, 1 oz.; cayenne, q. s.; boil the whole up gently, strain, and bottle.

=Ketchup.= See under that name.

=Sauce, Kitchener’s.= _Syn._ KITCHENER’S RELISH. From salt, 3 oz.; black pepper, 2 oz.; allspice, horseradish, and shallots, of each 1 oz.; burnt-sugar colouring, a wine-glassful; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart (all bruised or scraped); macerate for 3 weeks, strain, and bottle.

=Lem′on Pickle.= From lemon juice and vinegar, of each 3 gall.; bruised ginger, 1 lb.; allspice, pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each 8 oz.; salt, 3-1/2 lbs.; cayenne, 2 oz.; mace and nutmegs, of each 1 oz.; digest for 14 days.

=Sauce, Lobs′ter.= From lobsters, as ANCHOVY SAUCE.

=Sauce, Mint.= From garden mint, chopped small, and then beaten up with vinegar, some moist sugar, and a little salt and pepper.

=Sauce, On′ion.= From onions boiled to a pulp and then beaten up with melted butter and a little warm milk.

=Sauce, Oys′ter.= From about 12 oysters, and 6 or 7 oz. of melted butter, with a little cayenne pepper, and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of cream, stirred together over a slow fire, then brought to a boil, and served.

=Sauce, Piquante.= From soy and cayenne pepper, of each 4 oz.; port wine, 1/2 pint; brown pickling vinegar, 1-1/2 pint; mix, and let them stand for 7 or 8 days before bottling.

=Sauce, Quin’s.= From walnut pickle and port wine, of each 1 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart; anchovies and shallots (chopped fine), of each 2 dozen; soy, 1/2 pint; cayenne, 1/4 oz.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, and in a fortnight strain, and bottle.

=Sauce au Roi.= From brown vinegar (good), 3 quarts; soy and walnut ketchup, of each 1/2 pint; cloves and shallots, of each 1 doz.; cayenne pepper, 1-1/2 oz.; mix, and digest for 14 days.

=Sauce, Shrimp.= From shrimps or prawns, as ANCHOVY SAUCE.

=Soy.= See that article.

=Sauce, Superlative.= From port wine, and mushroom ketchup, of each 1 quart; walnut pickle, 1 pint; soy, 1/2 pint; powdered anchovies, 1/2 lb.; fresh lemon peel, minced shallots, and scraped horseradish, of each 2 oz.; allspice and black pepper (bruised), of each 1 oz.; cayenne pepper and bruised celery seed, of each 1/4 oz. (or currie powder, 3/4 oz.); digest for 14 days, strain, and bottle. Very relishing.

=Sauce, Toma′to.= From bruised tomatoes, 1 gall.; good salt, 1/2 lb.; mix, in 3 days press out the juice, to each quart of which add of shallots, 2 oz.; black pepper, 1 dr.; simmer very gently for 20 to 30 minutes, strain, and add to the strained liquor, mace, allspice, ginger, nutmegs, and cochineal, of each 1/4 oz.; coriander seed, 1 dr.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, strain, cool, and in a week put it into bottles.

=Sauce, Waterloo.= From strong vinegar (nearly boiling), 1 quart, port wine, 3/4 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1/2 pint; walnut ketchup, 1/4 pint; essence of anchovies, 4 oz.; 8 cloves of garlic; cochineal (powdered), 1/2 oz. (or red beet, sliced, 3 oz.); let them stand together for a fortnight or longer, occasionally shaking the bottle.

=Sauce, White.= _Syn._ BUTTER SAUCE, MELTED BUTTER. From good butter, 4 oz.; cream, 2-1/2 oz.; salt (in very fine powder), 1/2 teaspoonful; put them into a pot or basin, set this in hot water, and beat the whole with a bone, wooden, or silver spoon, until it forms a perfectly smooth, cream-like mixture, avoiding too much heat, which would make it run oily. A table-spoonful of sherry, marsala, lemon juice, or vinegar, is sometimes added; but the selection must depend on the dishes the sauce is intended for. Used either by itself, or as a basis for other sauces. Beaten up with any of the ‘bottled sauces,’ an excellent compound sauce of the added ingredient is immediately obtained.

=Sauces, American.= White vinegar, 15 gall.; walnut ketchup, 10 gall.; Madeira wine, 5 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 10 gall,; table salt, 25 lbs. (troy); Canton soy, 4 gall.; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. (troy); allspice, powdered, coriander powder, of each 1 lb. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each 1/2 lb. (troy); assafœtida, 1/4 lb. (troy); dissolved in brandy, 1 gall.; 20 lbs. of hog’s liver is boiled for 12 hours with 10 gall. of water, renewing the water from time to time. Take out the liver, chop it, mix it with water, and work it through a sieve; mix with the sauce.

2. White vinegar, 240 gall.; Canton soy, 36 gall.; sugar-house syrup, 30 gall.; walnut ketchup, 50 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 50 gall.; table salt, 120 lbs. (troy); powdered capsicum, 15 lbs. (troy); allspice, coriander, of each 7 lbs. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each 4 lbs. (troy); assafœtida, 2-1/2 lbs. (troy), dissolved in St Croix rum, 1 gall.

3. White vinegar, 1 gall. Canton soy, molasses, of each 1 pint; walnut ketchup, 1-1/2 pint; table salt, 4 oz.; powdered capsicum, allspice, of each 1 oz.; coriander, 1/2 oz.; cloves, mace, of each 1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 6 dr., assafœtida 1/4 oz. in 4 oz. of rum.

=SAUERKRAUT.= [Ger.] _Prep._ Clean white cabbages, cut them into small pieces, and stratify them in a cask along with culinary salt and a few juniper berries and caraway seeds, observing to pack them down as hard as possible, without crushing them, and to cover them with a lid pressed down with a heavy weight. The cask should be placed in a cold situation as soon as a sour smell is perceived. Used by the Germans and other northern nations of Europe, like our ‘pickled cabbage,’ but more extensively.

=SAU′SAGES.= From the fat and lean of pork (PORK SAUSAGES), or of beef (BEEF SAUSAGES), chopped small, flavoured with spice, and put into gut skins, or pressed into pots or balls (SAUSAGE MEAT). Crum of bread is also added. Their quality is proportionate to that of the ingredients, and to the care and cleanliness employed in preparing them.

A pea sausage, composed of pea flour, fat pork, and a little salt, was largely consumed by the German soldiers during the Franco-German campaign. Dr Parkes found 100 parts of this sausage to consist of——16·2 parts of water, 7·19 of salts, 12·297 of albuminates, 33·65 of fat, and 30·663 of carbohydrates. It is ready cooked, but can be made into soup, although much relished for a few days. The soldiers soon became tired of it. In some cases it gave rise to flatulence and diarrhœa. See MEAT.

=SAV′ELOYS.= Pork sausages made in such a way that they keep good for a considerable time. _Prep._ (Mrs Rundell.) Take of young pork, free from bone and skin, 3 lbs.; salt it with 1 oz. of saltpetre, and 1/2 lb. of common salt, for 2 days; then chop it fine, add, 3 teaspoonfuls of pepper, 1 doz. sage leaves, chopped fine, and 1 lb. of grated bread; mix well, fill the skins, and steam them or bake them half an hour in a slack oven. They are said to be good either hot or cold.

=SAV′INE.= _Syn._ SAVIN; FOLIA SABINÆ, SABINA (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The recent and dried tops of _Juniperis sabina_, Linn.,” or common savine. (Ph. L.) It is a powerful stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic; and, externally, rubefacient, escharotic and vesicant. In large doses it is apt to occasion abortion, and acts as a poison. SAVINE POWDER mixed with verdigris is often applied to corns and warts. It is now chiefly used in the form of ointment.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr., twice or thrice daily (with care), in amenorrhœa and worms. See CERATE.

=SAVONETTES.= [Fr.] _Syn._ WASH BALLS. These are made of any of the mild toilet soaps, scented at will, generally with the addition of some powdered starch or farina, and sometimes sand. The spherical or spheroidal form is given to them by pressure in moulds, or by first roughly forming them with the hands, and, when quite hard, turning them in a lathe. According to Mr Beasley, “they are formed into spherical balls by taking a mass of the prepared soap in the left hand, and a conical drinking-glass with rather thin edges in the right. By turning the glass and ball of soap in every direction, the rounded form is soon given; when dry, the surface is scraped, to render it more smooth and even.”

_Prep._ 1. Take of curd soap, 3 lbs.; finest yellow soap, 2 lbs. (both in shavings); soft water, 3/4 pint; melt by a gentle heat, stir in of powdered starch (farina), 1-1/2 lb.; when the mass has considerably cooled, further add of essence of lemon or bergamot, 1 oz., and make it into balls.

2. (CAMPHOR.) Melt spermaceti, 2 oz.; add camphor (cut small), 1 oz.; dissolve, and add the liquid mass to white curd soap, 1-1/2 lb., previously melted by the aid of a little water and a gentle heat, and allowed to cool considerably as above. These should be covered with tin-foil.

3. (HONEY.) From the finest bright-coloured yellow soap, 7 lbs.; palm oil, 1/4 lb.; melt, and add of oil of verbena, rose-geranium, or ginger-grass, 1 oz.; as No. 1. Sometimes 1/2 oz. of oil of rosemary is also added.

4. (MOTTLED.)——_a._ RED. Cut white curd or Windsor soap (not too dry) into small square pieces, and roll these in a mixture of powder bole or rouge, either with or without the addition of some starch; then squeeze them strongly into balls, observing to mix the colour as little as possible.——_b._ BLUE. Roll the pieces in powdered blue, and proceed as before.——_c._ GREEN. Roll the pieces in a mixture of powder blue and bright yellow ochre. By varying the colour of the powder, mottled savonettes of any colour may be produced.

5. (SAND.) From soap (at will), 2 lbs.; fine siliceous sand, 1 lb.; scent, q. s.; as No. 1. For the finer qualities, finely powdered pumice-stone is substituted for sand.

6. (VIOLET.) From palm-oil soap, 4 lbs.; farina, 2 lbs.; finely powdered orris root, 1 lb. Sometimes a little smalts, or indigo, is added.

=SAWDUST, Preparation of Alcohol from.= M. Zetterland[146] states that he has obtained alcohol from sawdust by the following process:——Into an ordinary steam-boiler, heated by means of steam, were introduced 9 cwt. of very wet sawdust, 10·7 cwt. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·18), and 30 cwt. of water; after eleven hours boiling there was formed 19·67 per cent. of grape sugar.

[Footnote 146: ‘Chemical News,’ xxvi——181.]

The acid was next saturated with chalk, so as to leave in the liquid only a small quantity (1/2 degree by Ludersdorf’s acid areometer); when the saccharine liquid was cooled down to 30° yeast was added, and the fermentation finished in twenty-four hours. By distillation there were obtained 26·5 litres of alcohol of 50 per cent. at 15°, quite free from any smell of turpentine, and of excellent taste. It appears that the preparation of alcohol from sawdust may be successfully carried on industrially when it is precisely ascertained what degree of dilution of acid is required, and how long the liquid has to be boiled.

If all the cellulose present in sawdust could be converted into sugar, 50 kilos of the former substance would yield, after fermentation, 12 litres of alcohol at 50 per cent.

=SCAB′IES.= See ITCH.

=SCAB IN SHEEP.= This disease, corresponding to mange in the dog, the horse, or in cattle, is caused by a species of acaris, a minute insect which burrows under the skin of the sheep, and sets up therein a considerable amount of irritation, which is followed by an irruption of pimples, accompanied with scurf, but frequently the wool comes off from the affected part.

The following are some of the numerous remedies employed for this disease:——

1. Quicksilver, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 lb.; rub them together until the globules are no longer visible; then add 1/2 pint of oil of turpentine, and 4 lbs. of lard. The mode of applying this ointment is as follows:——Begin at the head of the sheep, and proceeding from between the ears along the back to the end of the tail, divide the wool in a furrow till the skin can be touched; and let a finger, slightly dipped in the ointment, be drawn along the bottom of the furrow. From this furrow similar ones must be drawn along the shoulders and thighs to the legs, as far as the wool extends. And if much infected, 2 or more should also be drawn along each side, parallel with that on the back, and one down each side before the hind and fore legs. It kills the sheep-fag, and probably the tick and other vermin. It should not be used in very cold or wet weather. (Sir Joseph Banks.)

2. Tar oils. Tobacco juice. Stavesacre. (Finlay Dun.)

3. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 part; lard, 5 parts; mix. (Youatt.)

4. Quicksilver, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 lb.; spirit of turpentine, 2 oz., lard, 4-1/2 lb.; to be made and used as No. 1. In summer 1 lb. of resin may be substituted for alike quantity of lard. (Clater.)

5. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 8 oz.; sulphur, 12 oz.——WHITE.

6. _Mild._ Flowers of sulphur, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; rancid lard, 2 lbs.; strong mercurial ointment, 4 oz.; mix well.——CLATER.

7. Lard or other fat, with an equal quantity of oil of turpentine.——DAUBENTON.

8. _Without mercury._ Lard, 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 4 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 6 oz.——WHITE.

9. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 8 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz. If mixed by heat, care must be taken not to use more heat than is necessary, and to add the oil of turpentine when the other ingredients begin to cool and to stir till cold.——M’EWEN.

10. Corrosive sublimate, 2 oz.; white hellebore, 3 oz.; fish oil, 6 quarts; resin, 1/2 lb.; tallow, 1/2 lb. The sublimate and then the hellebore to be rubbed with a portion of the oil till perfectly smooth, and then mixed with the other ingredients melted together.——STEVENSON.

11. The following once had considerable local celebrity, but it obviously requires to be used with caution. Dissolve 2-1/4 oz. of corrosive sublimate in the same quantity of muriatic acid, and beat up the solution with 6 lbs. of strong mercurial ointment; put in a large pan, and pour on it 19-1/2 lbs. of lard, and 1-1/2 lb. of common turpentine, melted together and still hot, and stir the whole continually until it becomes solid.

12. Castor-oil seeds well bruised and steeped for 12 hours in sour milk, after straining rub the liquid briskly into the skin. (An Indian remedy.)

=SCAGLIO′LA.= A species of plaster or stucco, made of pure gypsum, with variegated colours, in imitation of marble. In general, the liquid employed is a weak solution of Flanders glue; and the colours, any which are not decomposed or destroyed by admixture with sulphate of lime and exposure to the light. The composition is often applied upon hollow columns formed of wood, or even of laths nailed together, and the surface, when hard, is turned smooth in a lathe, and polished.

=SCALES.= A special article under the head of “BALANCE” has been devoted to the scales employed by the chemist and analyst.

But although these claimed from their greater complexity of structure and the extreme delicacy of movement required of them a separate notice, every pharmacist and apothecary will recognise the importance of bestowing an equal amount of attention upon his dispensing scales; and, to ensure accurate weighing by them, will take care to keep them scrupulously clean, and properly poised.

For dispensing purposes, scales fitted with glass pans (or at least with one glass pan, in which medicinal substances can be weighed) should always be employed. The beams should be of steel, and the attachments of one piece of brass only, in preference to chains, or supports of silken thread. The beams are best cleaned with sand paper, or rotten stone, and may be protected from rust by being rubbed over with a little almond oil.

=SCALD-HEAD.= See RINGWORM.

=SCALDS.= See BURNS AND SCALDS.

=SCALL.= _Syn._ SCALD. The popular name of several skin diseases distinguished by scabs or scurfiness, whether dry or humid. See ERUPTIONS, RINGWORM, &c.

=SCAM′MONY.= _Syn._ SCAMMONIUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The “gum resin emitted from the cut root of _Convolvulus Scammonia_, Linn.” (Ph. L.), or Aleppo scammony plant.

There are three principal varieties or qualities of scammony known in the market; viz. VIRGIN (sp. gr. 1·21); SECONDS (sp. gr. 1·460 to 1·463); and THIRDS (sp. gr. 1·465 to 1·500). The best, and that only intended to be used in medicine, is imported from Aleppo.

_Pur._ Scammony is not only largely adulterated in the country of its production, but again after its arrival in England. SMYRNA SCAMMONY, a very inferior variety, is also commonly dressed up, and sold as Aleppo scammony. In many cases substances are sold at the public sales in London, and elsewhere, as scammony, which contain only a mere trace of that article. This is all ground up to form the scammony powder of the shops. (_Vide_ ‘Evid. Com. Ho. Com.,’ 1155.) PURE SCAMMONY has a peculiar cheesy smell, and a greenish-grey colour. It is “porous and brittle, and the freshly broken surface shines; hydrochloric acid being dropped on it, it emits no bubbles; nor does the powder digested in water, at heat of 170° Fahr., become blue by the simultaneous addition of iodide of potassium and dilute nitric acid. Out of 100 gr., 78 (80——Ph. E.) should be soluble in ether.” (Ph. L.) The tincture of pure scammony is not turned green by nitric acid. If the powder effervesce with dilute acids, it contains chalk.

_Uses, &c._ Pure scammony is a powerful drastic purgative and anthelmintic, inadmissible in inflammatory conditions of the alimentary canal, but well adapted for torpid and inactive conditions of the abdominal organs. Associated with calomel, rhubarb, or sulphate of potassa, it is useful in all cases in which an active cathartic or vermifuge may be required, especially for children.——_Dose._ (For an adult) 5 to 15 gr., in powder, or made into a bolus or emulsion.

=SCARLATI′NA.= See SCARLET FEVER.

=SCAR′LET DYE.= _Proc._ (Poërner.)——_a._ The ‘Bouillon.’ Take of cream of tartar, 1-3/4 oz.; water, q. s.; boil in a block-tin vessel, and when dissolved, add of solution of tin (made by dissolving 2 oz. of grain tin in a mixture of 1 lb. each of nitric acid and water, and 1-1/2 oz. of sal ammoniac), 1-3/4 oz.; boil for 3 minutes, then introduce the cloth, boil for 2 hours, drain it, and let it cool.——_b._ The ‘Rougie.’ Next take of cream of tartar, 1/4 oz.; water, q. s.; boil, and add powdered cochineal, 1 oz.; again boil for 5 minutes, then gradually add of solution of tin, 1 oz., stirring well all the time; lastly, put in the goods and dye as quickly as possible. The quantities given are those for 1 to 1-1/4 lb. of woollen cloth. The result is a full scarlet. To make the colour turn on the ‘ponceau’ or poppy, a little turmeric is added to the bath.

_Obs._ Scarlet is red with a tinge of yellow; it is nearly always produced by cochineal. See RED DYE.

=SCARLET FE′VER.= _Syn._ SCARLATINA, FEBRIS SCARLATINA, L. A highly contagious disease, so named after the peculiar eruption or efflorescence of the skin which accompanies it. The milder form of this disease (SCARLATINA SIMPLEX, S. MITIS) comes on with languor, chilliness alternated by fits of heat, nausea, vomiting (frequently), and other common symptoms of fever; followed, on the third or fourth day, by a scarlet efflorescence upon the skin, which after three or four days ends in the cuticle or scarf-skin peeling off in branny scales. Dropsical swelling of the whole body sometimes follows the disappearance of the eruption; but this, with the febrile symptoms, and the soreness of the throat (if any), then give way, and the patient gradually regains his former health and strength. In the _malignant form_ of scarlet fever (SCARLATINA CYNANCHICA, S. ANGINOSA, S. MALIGNA) the febrile symptoms, from the first, are more alarming; there is bilious vomiting, great soreness and ulceration of the throat, the pulse is small and quick, and the breathing laborious. These symptoms rapidly increase on the appearance of the eruption; the body then becomes swollen, the nose and eyes inflamed, the breath fetid, the throat suppurates, putrid symptoms ensue, and the patient is either suddenly cut off or recovers very slowly.

The early symptoms of scarlet fever are distinguished from those of the MEASLES and SMALLPOX by the greater extent and want of elevation of the eruption, and by its not congregating into patches. Nor are there the cough or running from the eyes and nose which usher in the measles.

The treatment of the milder form of scarlet fever, especially that of childhood, may consist of the administration of an emetic, followed by a saline aperient, to clear the bowels; the latter being repeated as occasion may require. The patient should be kept in a cool and well-ventilated room, the diet should be light and farinaceous, and the use of diluent drinks copiously indulged in. If the febrile symptoms are severe, or the throat much affected, small doses of some mild mercurial, as calomel, mercurial pill, or quicksilver with chalk, may be administered, either separately or combined with antimonial diaphoretics or Dover’s powder. In malignant scarlet fever a smart emetic should be given early, and mercurials and diaphoretics at once freely exhibited. Acidulated gargles may be used for the throat, and, when the heat of the body is much above the natural standard, sponging the whole body with cold water, or with vinegar and water, may be had recourse to. If the malignant symptoms run high, and assume a typhoid or putrid character, the system must be supported with stimulant tonics as wine, bark, capsicum, &c.

According to Hahnemann, Koreff, and Randhahn, belladonna is a prophylactic against scarlet fever. The homœopathists also hold it to be almost a specific in the disease.

Dr Renfrew’s medicinal treatment consists in the administration of a mixture consisting of tincture of perchloride of iron and chlorate of potash. He contends that the chlorine which the mixture contains destroys the blood poison, that the hydrochloric acid supplies a desirable ingredient for the blood, that the iron improves the impaired red blood disks and assists in forming new ones, whilst the chlorate of potash is a source of oxygen whereby the disintegrated matters floating in the blood are burnt up and destroyed.

Scarlet fever is common to all ages of life, but children and young persons are the most subject to it. Unlike the smallpox, it occasionally attacks the same person more than once. It is most common in dirty, close, damp situations.

_In horses_, the commencing symptoms are very similar to those in man——indisposition to movement, febrile symptoms as indicated by a hot and dry skin, and sore throat, the glands about the head and neck being frequently tender and swollen. The respiration becomes quickened and the pulse thready. In about 48 hours scarlet spots about the size of a pea show themselves on the mucous membrane about the lips and nostrils, the spots after a time becoming confluent. Except the attack be a very mild one, similar spots spread all over the body, but are most plentiful about the animal’s head and neck. After about a fortnight or three weeks, the hair leaves the parts on which the spots are, and then desquamation sets in, and bare bald patches are left. The after results bear a great resemblance to those which frequently follow an attack of the same disease in the human being. The best treatment consists in placing the animal in a cool, well-ventilated loose box, applying bandages to the legs, and a linen cover to the body, with a warm rug over that.

A dose of nitre and Mindererus spirit should be given in water three times a day, combined with mild tonics, stimulants, and diuretics. See DISINFECTANTS.

=SCENE′-PAINTING.= A variety of distemper painting employed in theatres, &c., governed by perspective, and having for its object the production of striking effects when viewed at a distance. Water, size, turpentine, and the ordinary pigments, are the materials used for the purpose.

=SCENT BAGS.= See SACHETS.

=SCENT BALLS.= _Syn._ PASTILLES DE TOILETTE ODORANTES, Fr. These are prepared from any of the materials noticed under POT POURRI, SCENTED POWDERS, and SACHETS, made into a paste with mucilage of gum tragacanth, and moulded into any desired forms, as that of balls, beads, medallions, &c. The larger ones are frequently polished.

=SCENTED CAS′SOLETTES.= See POT POURRI, and _above_.

=SCENTS (Pommade).= _Prep._ 1. (COWSLIP.) From essence of bergamot, 8 oz.; essence of lemon, 4 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 oz,; essence de petit grain, 1 oz.

2. (JONQUILLE.) From essence of bergamot and lemon, of each 8 oz.; oils of orange peel and cloves, of each 2 oz.; oil of sassafras, 1 oz.; liquid storax, 1/2 oz,; digest, with warmth and agitation, for a few hours, and decant the clear portion in a week.

3. (MILLEFLEUR.) From essence of ambergris (finest), 4 oz.; essence of lemon, 3 oz.; oil of cloves and English oil of lavender, of each 2 oz.; essence de petit grain, essence of bergamot, and balsam of Peru (genuine), of each 1 oz.; as the last.

_Obs._ The above are employed to scent pomatums, hair oils, &c. 1 oz. of any one of them, dissolved in one pint of the strongest rectified spirit, produces a delicious perfume for the handkerchief.

=SCENTS (Snuff).= _Prep._ 1. Essence of bergamot, 2 oz.; otto of roses and neroli, of each 1 dr.

2. Oil of lavender, 1 oz.; essence of lemon, 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 4 oz.

3. To the last, add of oil of cloves, 2 oz.

4. Essence of musk and ambergris, of each 1 oz.; liquor of ammonia, 1/2 dr. See SNUFF, &c.

=SCHEELE’S GREEN.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=SCHLIPPE’S SALT.= Sulphantimoniate of sodium. See ANTIMONY, SULPHANTIMONIATE.

=SCHWARTZ’S DROPS.= See DROPS, WORM.

=SCIAT′ICA.= See RHEUMATISM.

=SCIENCE.= “Man,” says Whewell, “is the interpreter of nature. Science the right interpretation. The senses place before us the _characters_ of the ‘Book of Nature,’ but these convey no knowledge to us till we have discovered the alphabet by which they are to be read.”

Various classifications of the sciences have been proposed by different authors. Dr Neil Arnott conceived that the object of all the sciences, viz. a knowledge of nature, might be best attained by the study of physics, chemistry, life and mind, including under this latter the laws of society, or the modern science of sociology.

As to mathematics he regarded it as a system of “technical mensuration,” invaded by the mind in order to enable it to study the other sciences. In his ‘Cours de Philosophie Positive,’ Comte traverses the entire circle of the theoretical, abstract, or fundamental sciences, and divides them into mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. He admits no distinct science on psychology or the science of mind.

Mr Herbert Spencer proposes to classify the sciences into three groups; viz.:——1. Abstract science, which treats of the forms of phenomena detached from their embodiments. 2. Abstract concrete science, or the phenomena of nature analysed into their separate elements. 3. Concrete science or natural phenomena in their totalities.

“For the classification of the sciences it is convenient to prepare the way by distinguishing between theoretical sciences which are the sciences properly so called, and practical science. A theoretical science embraces a distinct department of nature, and is so arranged as to give in the most compact form the entire body of ascertained (scientific) knowledge in that department, such as mathematics, chemistry, physiology, and zoology. A practical science is the application of scientifically obtained facts and laws in one or more departments to some practical end, which end rules the selection and arrangement of the whole; as for example, navigation, engineering, mining, and medicine. Another distinction must be made before laying down the systematic order of the theoretical sciences.

“A certain number of these sciences have for their subject-matter each a separate department of natural forces or powers; thus, biology deals with the department of organised beings, psychology with mind. Others deal with the application of powers elsewhere recognised to some region of concrete facts or phenomena. Thus, geology does not discuss any natural powers not found in other sciences, but seeks to apply the laws of physics, chemistry, and biology to account for the appearance of the earth’s crust.

“The sciences that embrace peculiar natural powers are called abstract, general, or fundamental sciences; those that apply to the powers treated of under these, to regions of concrete phenomena, are called concrete, derived, or applied sciences.”[147]

[Footnote 147: ‘Chambers’s Encyclopædia.’]

The separation of the sciences into these two sections is that now generally accepted.

The first section, that of the abstract or theoretical sciences, is subdivided by almost common consent into mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology (vegetable and animal physiology), psychology (mind), and sociology (the laws of society).

The second section, that of the concrete sciences, includes meteorology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, geology, and geography.

The order in which the abstract sciences are arranged above has also been found to best illustrate the sequence in which they may be most advantageously studied.

=SCIL′LITIN.= _Syn._ SCILLITINA, SCILLITITE. A whitish, resinous, translucent, bitter, deliquescent substance, obtained by Vögel from squills. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and acetic acid, and is purgative, acrid, and poisonous.

=SCORBU′TUS.= See SCURVY.

=SCO′′RIA.= Dross; the refuse or useless part of any substance, more especially that left from bodies which have been subjected to the action of fire. It is frequently used in the plural (SCORIÆ).

=SCOTT’S DROPS.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=SCOUR′ING.= The common method of cleaning cloth is by heating and brushing it, unless it be very dirty, when it undergoes the operation of scouring. This is best done on the small scale, as with ARTICLES OF WEARING APPAREL, as follows:——A little curd soap is dissolved in water, and, after mixing it with a little clarified ox-gall, is applied to all the spots of grease, dirt, &c., and well rubbed into them with a stiff brush, until they appear to be removed; after which the article is well cleaned all over with a brush or sponge dipped into some warm water, to which the previous mixture and a little more ox-gall has been added. The cloth is next thoroughly rinsed in clean water, and hung up to dry. For dark-coloured cloths, some fullers earth is often added to the mixture of soap and gall. When the article is nearly dry, the nap is laid smooth, and it is carefully pressed (if with a hot iron, on the wrong side), after which a soft brush, moistened with a drop or two of olive oil, is frequently passed over it, to give it a finish and gloss.

Cloth is also cleaned in the dry way:——The spots being removed, as above, and the wetted parts having become dry, clean damp sand is strewed over it, and beaten into it with a brush, after which the article is well gone over with a hard brush, when the sand comes out, and brings the dirt with it.

BUFF and DRAB CLOTH is generally cleaned by covering it with a paste made with pipe-clay and water, either with or without a little umber to temper the colour, which, when dry, is rubbed and brushed off.