Chapter XI: {george III. 1780–1781} (2)

The opening of this year added to the naval renown of England. As the Spanish persevered in their siege of Gibraltar, and as their treaty with the Barbary States stopped the supplies of provisions, the garrison began to feel the effects of famine, and it was necessary to send them supplies from England. Admiral Rodney, who had recently been appointed to the chief command in the West Indies, was therefore ordered to relieve Gibraltar on his way thither. He had only been a few days at sea when he fell in with a rich Spanish convoy, going from St. Sebastian to Cadiz, and consisting of fifteen merchantmen, four frigates, and three armed vessels; one being a fine new ship of sixty-four guns. These were all captured, and while he took those with him which were laden with wheat, flour, and other provisions, the rest were sent to England. It was expected by the Bourbon cabinets that Rodney would leave his transports in a certain latitude, to make their own way to Gibraltar, and accordingly they ordered Admiral Don Juan de Langara to proceed, with eleven men of war and two frigates, to intercept the supply. Rodney, however, accompanied the transports, and on the 16th of January he encountered the Spanish admiral near Cape St. Vincent. The Don, when he discovered the superior force of the English, endeavoured to make his escape, but Rodney got between him and the shore, and compelled him to engage. The action commenced in the midst of a rough gale, at four in the afternoon, and in the first hour of the engagement a Spanish ship of the line blew up, and all on board perished. At six in the evening another struck her colours, and by two the next morning the Phoenix of eighty guns, the Spanish admiral’s own ship, and three of seventy guns each were taken and secured. Two more, of seventy guns each, struck their colours, but were driven on shore by the violence of the tempest and lost. The rest of the squadron escaped in a shattered condition to Cadiz. Rodney now proceeded triumphantly to the relief of Gibraltar, and after lying there for some weeks, he proceeded with a part of his fleet to the West Indies, while the remainder, under the command of Admiral Digby, returned to the Channel. On his way home, Digby captured a French ship of the line, and two or three vessels laden with military stores. These successes raised the spirit of the nation, and the name of Rodney especially filled every breast with hope and confidence. The very ministers began to look upon him as the main stay of their power; well knowing that his success would silence the clamours which had so long been raised against them on the ground of incompetency.

{GEORGE III. 1780–1781}

ARMED NEUTRALITY.

The high hopes entertained by the people of England were soon doomed to be modified by the prospect of new enemies, some of whom were more powerful than those already arrayed against their country. At this time a strong combination was formed against England by several powers constituting what is called in history “The Armed Neutrality.” The Spanish cabinet claimed the merit of this system; but it would rather appear to have originated with the court of Petersburg, which had been regarded by the ministers as their best ally in this momentous crisis. In consequence of the large shipments of ammunition, and other materials of war, made to the colonies of America by neutral states, England had, from the commencement of the war, exercised the right of stopping and searching all neutral vessels wherever they could be found. England also had acted upon another established principle; namely, that a neutral flag could not cover or protect the cargoes and property of a state with which she was at war, and her cruizers had therefore stopped many vessels having French and American property on board. This, however, involved her in many quarrels with neutral powers, and Russia, Prussia, Denmark, Holland, Sweden, etc. entered into a league, pledging themselves to maintain the principle, “that free ships make free goods, with the exception of arms and munitions of war.” About this time, also, the native powers of India entered into a formidable coalition, under French influence, for driving the British from their territories. England had, therefore, almost the whole world arrayed in arms against her, or entertaining hostile intentions towards her, while within her own bosom she was destined to suffer from faction. Never, indeed, was there a period in her history when she so much needed the unanimity and undivided strength of her brave family.

RODNEY ENGAGES THE FRENCH FLEET.

Admiral Rodney arrived at St. Lucie, in the West Indies, on the 27th of March. Here he joined Admiral Hyde Parker, and his fleet then consisted of twenty-two sail of the line and six frigates. Parker had been menaced for several days by the French Admiral de Guichen, who had only quitted that water a few hours before Rodney’s arrival. Admiral de Guichen retired to Fort Royal Bay, Martinique, and on the 2nd of April Rodney appeared off that fort, and offered him battle. Finding that the challenge would not be accepted, Rodney, after two days, returned to St, Lucie, leaving some fast-sailing vessels to watch the motions of the French. On the night of the 15th de Guichen put to sea, and Rodney, warned of the fact, went in search of him with twenty sail of the line. The two fleets came in contact on the 17th, and Rodney threw out his signal for every ship to bear down and attack the rear of the French as closely as they could, in order to break their line, and fight their detached ships. The spirit of political party, however, reigned in the fleet, and his signal was not obeyed as it ought to have been, several ships continuing at a cautious distance from the enemy. In the meantime, Rodney in the Sandwich came to close quarters with the French, and having beaten de Guichen’s own ship fairly out of the line, and compelled two others to bear away, he succeeded in separating his enemy’s fleet into two unequal parts. He was, however, only aided by five or six captains, and the French were allowed time to haul off after their admiral and reform their line; after which de Guichen stood away with the whole fleet under a press of sail, in order to make his escape. The great distance between the British van and rear, and the crippled state of his own ship, prevented Rodney from following; and he was thus stopped short in the career of victory. One of the delinquent captains—Bateman, of the Yarmouth—whose disobedience was more notorious than the rest, was put under arrest, tried by a court-martial, and dismissed the service. This example had the effect of restoring discipline, and Rodney again sought the enemy. On the 20th he again got sight of the French admiral, whose object was to make Fort Royal Bay in Martinique, in order to repair his ships. Rodney cut him off from this port, and de Guichen took shelter under Guadaloupe; when the British fleet returned to St. Lucie to refit and to land the wounded. The hostile fleets again came in sight of each other on the 10th of May, between St. Lucie and Martinique. But it was in vain that Rodney sought to bring the French admiral to an engagement; and the latter having at length got into the long-desired harbour of Fort Royal, the British fleet ran into Barbadoes. At this time the Spanish fleet was expected to join the French; and though Rodney soon sailed from Barbadoes in order to prevent the junction, the cautious Spanish admiral, Don Joseph Solano, contrived to elude his vigilance, and to unite his fleet, consisting of twelve sail of the line, several frigates, and a swarm of transports, with that of de Guichen. Before their united force Rodney was obliged to retire; and he retreated with the sad conviction that the enemy was strong-enough to capture every British island in those seas. The storm, however, which seemed to threaten these islands blew over without pouring its fury upon one of them. The Spaniards had so over-crowded their transports with men, that a terrible sickness broke out among them, destroying first its scores, and then its hundreds daily. The pestilence extended its ravages to the French fleet; and in order to check it, it was agreed to land the troops and part of the seamen at Martinique. Its ravages were arrested; but while at Martinique, hostilities broke out between the French and the Spaniards, and the two commanders could not agree as to the line of operations to be pursued. Their combined fleets set sail again on the 5th of July, and directed their course to St. Domingo, where they separated; de Guichen returning to Europe with the homeward-bound convoy from the French sugar islands, and Solano proceeding to the Havanah, to assist in the military operations which the Spaniards were carrying on in Florida. All these circumstances saved Jamaica and the other islands in the West Indies; and conscious that they were safe, after detaching a part of his force to Jamaica, Rodney set sail for New York.

EXPEDITION AGAINST SOUTH CAROLINA.

While Rodney was bravely supporting the honour of the British flag on the ocean, the British arms were equally successful on the continent. During the last days of December, Sir Henry Clinton, leaving New York under the care of General Knyphausen, sailed away from Sandy Hook for Charlestown in South Carolina. The ships in which he sailed, however, were driven from their course by a long and terrible storm, so that it was not till the 11th of February that he was enabled to disembark on John’s Island, about thirty miles from Charlestown. Other delays took place; and it was the 29th of March when Clinton’s army crossed Ashby River and landed on Charlestown-neck. Ground was broken in front of the American lines on the 11th of April; but as these lines were formidable, it was evident that some time must elapse before the town could be taken. Thus the Americans had built a chain of redoubts, lines, and batteries right across the peninusular, from Ashby River to Cooper River, on which were mounted eighty cannons and mortars; they had dug a deep canal in front of this line, which was filled with water, and had thrown two rows of abattis, and made a double picketed ditch; in the centre of their works they had erected a kind of citadel, which was bomb-proof; they had erected numerous batteries on the waterside, to prevent the approach of ships; and they had raised a bar or sand-bank, that rendered the approach of our largest ships of war impracticable, and of the smaller craft difficult and dangerous. Within the bar, however, there was a place called Five Fathom Hole, with a sufficient depth of water to float second-rate ships; and here nine American ships were moored, under the American commodore Whipple. Behind the bar and Whipple’s squadron there was Fort Moultrie, upon Sullivan’s Island, which was now much stronger than when, in a previous year, it repulsed Clinton, and cut up Sir Peter Parker’s squadron. Such were the formidable obstacles which Clinton had to surmount before he could hope to capture Charlestown; and, moreover, within the town was the American General Lincoln, at the head of about 7000 men. It was necessary first to take possession of Five Fathom Hole; and accordingly Admiral Arbuthnot, who had escorted Clinton to Charlestown, made the attempt. The American commodore retired before Arbuthnot to Sullivan Island, and then the English were permitted to pass the bar at their leisure. This was effected with great labour, and on the 9th of April Arbuthnot was in full possession of the harbour. Soon after Clinton finished his first parallel, and began to erect his batteries; and then Arbuthnot sailed, passed Fort Moultrie under a heavy fire, and anchoring just without range of the shot from the town batteries, summoned Lincoln to surrender. The American general having replied that he would defend the place to the last extremity, the English batteries were opened, and they soon made a visible impression. In the meantime Clinton detached Colonel Tarleton against Lincoln’s cavalry, which were placed outside the lines in order to keep the country open beyond Cooper Hiver. Tarleton was successful: the cavalry were surprised at a place called Biggin’s Bridge, and completely routed, leaving behind them all their stores, camp-equipage, and baggage, with some two or three hundred horses. By this victory a passage was opened across the head of Cooper River, and a detachment was sent under the command of Earl Cornwallis to scour the country beyond that river. All supplies were thus cut off from Charlestown, as well as all hope of retreat for Lincoln and his garrison. A council of war was called, and Lincoln offered to surrender upon certain conditions; but as Clinton considered them too favourable, they were rejected. The British now continued their approaches; a second parallel was completed by the 20th of April, and a third by the 6th of May. On this latter day the garrison of Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan Island, surrendered to Captain Hudson of the navy; and on the same day the broken remains of Lincoln’s cavalry, which had been recollected, were again routed by Tarleton. Clinton’s third parallel was erected close to the canal; and this canal was drained by means of another excavation. Consternation and despair seized upon the inhabitants of the town, but still Lincoln and the garrison resolved to hold out. Hostilities were recommenced with additional fury, and an incessant fire was kept up for two days, in the midst of which the besiegers advanced to the very ditch, and drove the Americans from several of their guns. At length, at the prayer of the terrified inhabitants, Lincoln resolved to accept the terms which Clinton had offered before the last assault. A flag of truce was sent out by him, and Clinton instantly signed the capitulation. Between 6000 and 7000 men, consisting of regular troops, militia, and sailors became prisoners of war; and four hundred pieces of ordnance, and a large quantity of naval stores fell into the hands of the victors. The garrison were allowed some of the honours of war: they were to march out and deposit their arms between the canal and the lines; but the drums were not to beat a British march, nor were the colours to be reversed. The militia were to return home upon parole, and the citizens were to be considered prisoners on parole; but their property was to be respected so long as they kept their word. As for the officers of both army and navy they were to retain their swords, pistols, servants, and baggage, the latter of which was not to be searched. The town was taken possession of by the British on the 12th of May; and General Clinton set on foot several expeditions, calculated to extinguish every idea of resistance in the interior of the province. At the same time he issued proclamations for the purpose of conciliating the inhabitants. These measures seemed to produce the desired effect. The only body of troops that still held out was defeated by Colonel Tarleton, and the people in every part of South Carolina seemed to submit to King George. In this happy state of affairs, Clinton, on the 5th of June, embarked for New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis behind him with 4000 men, to maintain the acquisition, and to penetrate into North Carolina, so soon as the intense heat of the season and other circumstances should admit of such an enterprise.

BATTLE OF CAMDEN, ETC.

The loyalty of the people of South Carolina was like a morning cloud; it soon passed away. It was not long before they began to manifest a change of disposition. Those who had accepted protection, because they could not help themselves, manifested their antipathy to the British government; while those who were in heart favourable to the cause of King George, were indignant at seeing the disloyal part of the community enjoying immunities and advantages, which they would employ against the English on the first opportunity. The disaffected were encouraged by the hope of speedy aid from Virginia and by congress, who were resolved to make the most strenuous efforts to recover South Carolina. At length, therefore, treachery began openly to show itself. One Lisle, who had taken the oath of allegiance, and obtained rank and command, went over to the republicans with a battalion of militia, well equipped with arms and ammunition. A similar instance of treachery also occurred in another part of the province, where a colonel of militia, who was entrusted with the escort of some sick and wounded soldiers, carried them into North Carolina, and gave them up to Baron de Kalb, a German, who was at the head of some regular troops, and of 3000 militia. Kalb was appointed to drive the royalists out of the country in North Carolina, and to encourage the disaffected in South Carolina. He was soon joined by General Gates, whom congress sent to take the supreme command of the American forces. On his arrival, Gates having 6000 men under his command, prepared at once to drive the British from their line of posts across the state of South Carolina, and carry the war up to the very walls of Charlestown. Intelligence of these preparations induced Lord Cornwallis to repair to Camden, though his effective force did not exceed 2000 men. After some skirmishing, and two attacks on detached positions, conducted by Colonel Sumter, and both unsuccessful, Gates moved forward to Camden, in the full assurance of victory. Having received intelligence of this, Lord Cornwallis, instead of retreating or waiting to receive Gates, set out in the dead of the night to meet him. The advanced parties met in the woods at two o’clock in the morning, and a Maryland regiment was defeated; but after this temporary conflict both armies betook themselves to rest, and waited for the morning light. When the morning dawned, Cornwallis discovered that the ground which he occupied was exceedingly favourable for an action; his flanks being secured by two swamps, which narrowed the ground in his front by which Gates must advance. He formed in two lines: the first consisting of two divisions under Lord Rawdon and Colonel Webster, and the second consisting of the seventy-first regiment, and some squadrons of horse under his Own command. The arrangement of the enemy was similar; but Gates made some disposition on the left, as if intending to change his position, and Lord Cornwallis seizing the critical moment, ordered Webster to advance and charge the enemy on their left. This division was chiefly composed of Virginia militia, and as Webster advanced they threw down their loaded muskets and fled from the field. Their example was soon followed by the North Carolina division, which formed the centre of Gates’s army. Gates now brought up his second line, or reserve, and endeavoured to rally his militia. It was all in vain; the reserve corps were utterly routed, and the militiamen ran for their lives into the woods. Gates, aware that all was lost, fled with a few friends to Charlotte, about eighty miles off; and in this battle he lost nearly nine hundred slain, among whom was Baron de Kalb, and about 1000 were taken prisoners, he also lost all his baggage and camp-equipage, many stands of colours, seven pieces of cannon, and one hundred and fifty waggons, containing a large quantity of military stores and provisions. The English lost about three hundred and fifty men in killed and wounded, nearly all belonging to the regiment under Webster, and the Irish volunteers under Lord Rawdon, who had borne the chief weight of the action. This victory was followed by another. At this time Colonel Sumter was on the other side of the Wateree, with the intention of striking into the heart of South Carolina, and Tarleton, with some cavalry and mounted infantry, was dispatched against him. Sumter, warned of Gates’s disaster, had already began a retreat towards North Carolina, when he was overtaken by Tarleton near the Catawba Fords, where his corps were almost annihilated. He lost one hundred and fifty men killed, three hundred prisoners, and an immense quantity of arms and military stores: two hundred and fifty British prisoners were also recaptured. Thus victorious, Lord Cornwallis again sent emissaries into North Carolina, to assure the royalists there, that he would march into their country as soon as he received necessary supplies from Charlestown. In the meantime, as lenity had not disarmed the hostility of the disloyal, he gave some examples of severity. He sequestered the estates of all those who had broken their parole or their oath, and who had left the province; denounced death against those who, after receiving British protection, should desert; and executed some of the South Carolina militia, whom he had taken in arms near Camden, with British protection in their pockets. Cornwallis then marched into North Carolina, and he took possession of Charlottetown; but hearing of the defeat of a body of loyal militia, under Major Ferguson, who were attacked at King’s Mountain by 1000 backwoodsmen, he retreated to South Carolina, and deferred the prosecution of his enterprise till reinforcements should arrive from New York. He took up a position between Camden and the district of Ninety-Six, where he waited for the arrival of General Leslie, who had been detached by Sir Henry Clinton to penetrate into Virginia, in order to co-operate with Cornwallis. Leslie was afterwards ordered round by sea to Charlestown; and while Cornwallis was waiting for him, Tarleton with his flying column drove back an enterprising partizan, named Marion, and again defeated his old adversary, Sumter. Meanwhile congress, though greatly dejected by these reverses, had appointed General Greene to supersede Gates, Greene arrived at Charlottetown on the 2nd of December; but he found himself in no condition to advance into South Carolina; and as Cornwallis had not yet been reinforced, no further events transpired in the south during this campaign.

AFFAIRS AT NEW YORK.

On the side of New York, during this year, a variety of petty enterprises were undertaken. While Sir Henry Clinton was absent, Knyphausen was at first occupied in making preparations for the defence of that city? for, by the extreme severity of the winter, New York was deprived of that natural defence which arises from its insular situation. The Hudson, called the North River, was so completely covered with thick ice that a large army, with heavy artillery and baggage, might have crossed it with ease, and by that means have approached the very walls of the city. Knyphausen expected that Washington would avail himself of this circumstance to attack with his whole force, and therefore he adopted judicious measures for the city’s protection. Washington, however, was not in a condition to attempt anything so bold and important. His army had been weakened by draughts made upon it for the service of the south; he had scarcely any provisions or clothing for his men in the camp; and not only discontent but open mutiny had begun to manifest itself. Hence Knyphausen was secure from danger, though, in the month of January, Washington detached Lord Stirling to Staten Island, to act on the offensive. Stirling crossed over the ice from the Jersey shore, surprised a small post, and took some prisoners; but he was obliged to quit the island, and in his retreat lost some of his own men, who served to exchange for the prisoners he had taken. This expedition was followed by another on the part of the British, to drive the Americans from a post at Young’s House, in the neighbourhood of the White Plains, which was attended with greater success. The post was stormed and carried; forty of the enemy were killed, and about one hundred taken prisoners. Nothing further was attempted by Knyphausen during the continuance of the frost; but in the month of June, encouraged by the weakness and distress which still prevailed in Washington’s camp, he detached a considerable force, under Brigadiers Mathew and Stirling, to make an attempt to re-establish the ancient government in New Jersey. Mathew and Stirling marched up the country towards Springfield, but they were disappointed in their expectation of the people joining them, and were obliged to retreat to Elizabethtown. A few days after this Sir Henry Clinton arrived from Charlestown, and though he did not approve of the movement which Knyphausen had ordered, as the soldiers were at Elizabethtown, and as Washington had come down to the hills near Springfield to protect the Jerseys, he resolved to attempt to bring him to action. Mistaking some of the movements made by the British, Washington marched towards Pompton to defend West Point, and in his absence Sir Henry Clinton defeated General Greene, who was left at Springfield for its protection, and reduced the town to ashes. Washington, however, could not be brought to action, and Clinton, expecting the arrival of the French armament, returned in haste to New York. In the meantime, Lafayette, who had returned to France to quicken the exertions of his countrymen, presented himself in the American camp, with a promise from his sovereign of speedy assistance. Encouraged by this promise, congress, who had recently neglected Washington’s army, probably from the feelings of despair, made an extraordinary effort to give his troops some appearance of respectability before the arrival of their French allies. These allies arrived in July at Rhode Island, and they amounted to 6000 veteran troops. They were commanded by the Count de Rochambeau, an experienced officer, who had fought in the battle of Minden; but in order to obviate all quarrels about rank and precedence, Washington received a commission from the French monarch, appointing him lieutenant-general in the French armies, and investing him with the chief command in America. No precaution, however, could prevent the French and Americans from quarrelling with each other. The Americans complained that the French had come too late in the season to do any good, and the French complained, that on their arrival the American army were not ready to co-operate. Washington suggested an immediate attack upon New York; but this could not be attempted without a decided superiority at sea, and before any thing could be done, the arrival of Admiral Graves at Sanely Hook gave the superiority to the British. This determined Sir Henry Clinton to act upon the offensive. The French fleet which had brought the troops from France lay at Newport, and Sir Henry proposed to Admiral Arbuthnot a plan for attacking this fleet, while the troops proceeded up to the Sound to co-operate by land. Hoping to meet the enemy at sea, Arbuthnot deferred his co-operation till the enemy had strongly fortified their position, and then it was too late. Clinton proceeded with 8000 men to Huntingdon Bay, on Long Island; but Washington, having received reinforcements, crossed the North River, and rapidly advancing towards Kingsbridge, put a stop to their enterprise.

TREASON OF ARNOLD, AND FATE OF MAJOR ANDRE.

It had been expected by the French and American commanders that they would soon be joined by de Guichen, with a land-force and twenty ships of the line from the West Indies. Had their expectations been realized, it was resolved to attack New York in every direction, with irresistible fury. About this time however, intelligence arrived of de Guichen’s departure for Europe, and of the consequent naval superiority of the British. Thus frustrated in their designs, Washington and Rochambeau held a meeting midway between their respective camps, to concert new measures. While Washington was absent upon this service, General Arnold, who commanded a considerable body of troops at West Point, on the New River, and who had recently entered into a secret correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton for delivering up that important post to the British, requested that a confidential person might be sent to him, in order to adjust the business, and to carry it into effect without delay. The officer charged with this commission was Major André, a young man of spirit and undaunted courage, and in whom General Clinton reposed unlimited confidence. Major Andre had a secret interview with Arnold, and matters were arranged by them for the defection, but as he was returning in disguise he was taken by three men of the New York militia, and on examination the papers found upon him discovered all the particulars of the conspiracy. By some means or other—but how is not sufficiently clear—Arnold received intelligence of Andre’s capture in time to make his escape to New York, where, on his arrival, he received the commission of a brigadier-general in the British service. Major André had hitherto passed himself off as one John Anderson, but when he found that Arnold was safe, he announced his name and rank; and with more anxiety for his military honour than for his life, he wrote a letter to Washington, to secure himself from the imputation of having assumed the character of a spy for treacherous purposes or self-interest. His letter concluded with expressions of confidence in the generosity of Washington’s mind; but he soon found that his confidence was misplaced; that Washington was an implacable judge. A board of general officers was appointed to inquire into his case, and notwithstanding the solicitations and menaces of Sir Henry Clinton, who anxiously sought to save him, he was condemned to die an ignominious death. He died on a gibbet on the 2nd of October! His death is one of the blackest stains on the character of Washington; for his obduracy alone prevented the mitigation of the punishment. In vain was it represented to him that Sir Henry Clinton, and his predecessor Sir William Howe, had never put to death any person for a breach of the rules of war: in vain was it shown that Captain Robinson of the American army, who had been taken as a spy by the British, had recently been exchanged as a prisoner of war; and in vain did Arnold, through whose plots he had been captured, plead by letter for his life—Washington was obdurate still, and left his victim to perish by the hands of the common hangman! And yet this obdurate commander-in-chief of the Americans professed to commiserate his victim’s fate; and applauded the fortitude with which he met his death: but so did others of the American generals, and yet all the while kept twisting the rope that was to hang him! The same may be said of Lafayette. He also praised his courage, frankness, and delicacy, and “lamented his fate,” and yet did nothing to avert his doom. How much more nobly did Sir Henry Clinton act on this trying occasion. Although he had yet many Americans in his power, and although he had held out a threat that if André should perish, they should perish likewise, yet no reprisals were made; not one in his power was condemned by a military tribunal for their flagrant, and in some instances repeated breaches of the rules of war. Yet Washington seems to have considered that he had only acted in the character of a just judge. He could imagine that Arnold was undergoing “the torments of a mental hell,” for the part he had acted in this transaction, but he felt no compunction for his own unjust and uncalled-for severity—he could see the mote in Arnold’s eye, but could not discover the beam which was in his own. As regards Arnold he was probably correct. After the death of André that renegade issued addresses to the Americans, but he was scorned and unheeded; and he was employed during the remainder of the war, but he was shunned by the British officers, and although the British soldiers on guard were bound to salute his uniform and respect his rank, yet they whispered as he passed along, “There goes the traitor Arnold!” The death of André is the last recorded act in this campaign. All the belligerents went early into winter-quarters; and with the exception of a few foraging expeditions, Clinton’s army remained at New York and its dependencies during winter doing nothing; while Washington continued to occupy his old station on the high lands above the Hudson, and the French troops under Rochambeau, staid at Rhode Island, all being equally inactive. About the same time that the troops went into winter-quarters. Admiral Rodney left the American shores, and returned to his old station in the West Indies.

{GEORGE III. 1780–1781}

MARITIME LOSSES SUSTAINED BY THE BRITISH.

In the European seas British commerce suffered some blows during this year, which spread a gloom over the whole nation. Admiral Geary, who on the death of Sir Charles Hardy in May, had been appointed to the command of the fleet in the Channel, captured, in the beginning of July, twelve French merchantmen from Port-au-Prince; but while he proceeded southward, in hopes of falling in with a detached squadron of French and Spanish ships, of which he had received intelligence, and was cruizing off Cape Finisterre, a rich convoy for the East and West Indies, attended by the Ramillies and two frigates, were intercepted by the combined fleets of the enemy, and nearly fifty merchant ships were captured and carried into Cadiz. Many of these ships were laden with naval and military stores for the different settlements to which they were destined; and the loss of these, together with that of 3000 men taken prisoners on board, so increased public dissatisfaction at the mode of employing the Channel-fleet, that Geary soon afterwards resigned the command. But this was not the only disaster which the English met with on the seas during this year. About the same time, fourteen ships of the outward-bound Quebec fleet were captured by some American privateers off the banks of Newfoundland. These concurrent losses, in their nearer or more remote consequences, affected all classes of society.

WAR WITH HOLLAND.

It has been seen that Holland was one of those states which entered into the league called “The Armed Neutrality.” From the very commencement of the American war, the Dutch had secretely favoured the cause of the colonists; or at least had sought a commercial advantage in supplying some of their wants at the expense of the commerce and interests of England. Then again, after the interference of France and Spain in the quarrel, the ports of Holland were open equally to all the enemies of Great Britain; the advantages of a contraband trade making the Dutch regardless of the faith of treaties, and of every other consideration. Remonstrances were made on this subject by the British ambassador at the Hague, but without effect. The States General were determined to follow their own line of policy, and the breach thus made between the two countries gradually widened as the war with America progressed. It was easy to foresee, indeed, that sooner or later Holland would be joined to the long list of our open enemies. An event which occurred early in September of this year, led to such a consummation. At that time a congress packet was taken by the Vestal frigate off the banks of Newfoundland, as it was steering its course towards Holland. On board this packet was Henry Laurens, the late president of congress; who, as soon as he perceived that he should be captured, threw a box containing papers overboard. The lead which was attached to this box was not sufficiently heavy to sink it immediately, and a British sailor leaped into the sea and caught it as it was sinking. The papers which it contained were found to contain a treaty of amity and commerce between the republic of Holland and the States of America, some articles of which had been provisionally agreed to and signed two years before at Aix-la-Chapelle, by William Lee, agent for congress, and John de Neufville, a merchant of Amsterdam, acting under powers delegated to him by Van Berkel, the grand pensionary of that city. Laurens, the bearer of these papers, was brought to England, and committed to the Tower on a charge of high-treason; and our government transmitted the papers to their ambassador at the Hague, and instructed him to present a memorial to the States General, requiring them to disavow the proceedings of Van Berkel and his accomplices, and to punish them for their offence. No answer was returned to this memorial on the 12th of December, and Sir Joseph Yorke sent in another, expressing, in diplomatic language, his astonishment at the silence of the States General. The truth was, that although the Statholder neither approved of the treaty with the United States nor of war with England, the great trading interest of Amsterdam and the whole French party in Holland were eager for the completion of the treaty, and fondly imagined that Great Britain, through the number and power of her enemies and the Armed Neutrality, must succumb. Hence the memorial of the British ambassador was still treated with silent contempt, and there was no alternative left for our government but to declare war against Holland. Sir Joseph Yorke was recalled, and a royal manifesto was issued, declaring that Great Britain had issued letters of reprisals against the Dutch, and justifying her conduct in taking this hostile step. This manifesto was issued, on the 20th of December, and it would appear that the States General were alarmed at this firmness of the British government, for they did not put forth their answer to the manifesto of his Britannic majesty till the March following. The States General were, in truth, ill prepared for war with England, and they had soon reason to repent that they had even provoked it: it brought them only loss and degradation.

GENERAL ELECTION.

Parliament was unexpectedly dissolved, on the 1st of September, by royal proclamation. The elections proved to be much in favour of the court, for in several places the most popular members of the opposition side of the house lost their seats. In the whole, one hundred and thirteen new members were elected. Burke was returned, but in consequence of his support to the Irish Trade Acts, to the Roman Catholic Relief Bill, and to other measures of a liberal nature, he lost his seat for Bristol, and was compelled to be contented with the more humble one of the borough of Malton. Mr. Fox, after a hard struggle, was returned for Westminster.

MEETING OF PARLIAMENT.

The new parliament met on the 31st of October. The first debate was occasioned by the election of a speaker. Sir Fletcher Norton had given offence to ministers during the last session, and Lord George Germaine, urging the precarious state of Sir Fletcher’s health, moved that Mr. Cornwall should fill the chair. Sir Fletcher and his friends replied, that his health was now re-established, and that Lord George Germaine’s condolence was a mockery of the house; and Dunning moved that he should be continued speaker. The house was divided on his re-election, but opposition were left in a minority of one hundred and thirty-four to two hundred and three: Mr. Cornwall was therefore elected speaker. His majesty delivered his opening speech on the following day. In it he declared his satisfaction in having an opportunity, by the recent election, of receiving the most certain information of the disposition and wishes of his people; and again complained of the unprovoked aggression of France and Spain, who were exerting all their power to support the rebellion of his colonies, to destroy the commerce of Great Britain, and to give a final blow to her power. He added, that the bravery of his fleets and armies had enabled him to withstand their hostility; and that he hoped the late successes in Georgia and Carolina would have important consequences in bringing the war to a happy conclusion. The opposition denied that the successes obtained in America were likely to be decisive, and an amendment was moved in the house of commons by Mr. Thomas Grenvilie, consisting in the omission of several complimentary paragraphs, but it was negatived by two hundred and twelve against one hundred and thirty. In the upper house there was but little debate, and the original address was carried by an equally large majority. The same success attended ministers with reference to the army and navy estimates, which were carried by such large majorities as served to remind Lord North of the earlier years of his administration, and to efface the recollection of the narrow divisions and minorities of the last session. In the course of the debates on the estimates, Fox pledged himself to move, after the Christmas holidays, for the dismissal of the Earl of Sandwich, and afterwards to bring him to condign punishment. He should found these motions, he said, on two different causes: first, for Sandwich’s having advised his majesty to promote Sir Hugh Palliser to the government of Greenwich Hospital; and, secondly, for his having shamefully neglected the navy. This led to a display of fierce party spirit, which was subsequently renewed from a remark made by Mr. Thomas Townshend; namely, that he thought it was highly necessary that the house should inquire why, in this season of public danger, the nation was deprived of the services and abilities of such men as Admiral Keppel, Lord Howe, Sir Robert Harland, Pigot, Campbell, and Barrington. This remark was made on the 4th of December, and in the course of the debate which ensued, Mr. Fox having again censured the promotion of Sir Hugh Palliser, Lord North defended the unpopular admiral in one of his most ready and effective speeches. Two days after this the two houses of parliament adjourned to the 23rd of January.