Chapter VI (1)

_Character of the inhabitants of Java--Difference between the
Súndas and the Javans--The Lower Orders--The Chiefs--Nature
of the Native Government--Different Officers of the
State--Judicial Establishments and Institutions--Laws, and how
administered--Police Institutions and Regulations--Military
Establishments--Revenue._

Having, in the foregoing pages, attempted to introduce the inhabitants of Java to the reader, by an account of their person, their manners, and employment in the principal departments of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, I shall now endeavour to make him, in some degree, acquainted with their intellectual and moral character, their institutions, government, and such other particulars as may contribute to enable him to form some estimate of their relative rank in the scale of civilized society.

From what has been stated of their progress in the manufacturing and agricultural arts, their general advancement in knowledge may be easily estimated. There are no establishments for teaching the sciences, and there is little spirit of scientific research among them. The common people have little leisure or inclination for improving their minds or acquiring information, but they are far from being deficient in natural sagacity or docility. Their organs are acute and delicate, their observation is ready, and their judgment of character is generally correct. Like most Eastern nations, they are enthusiastic admirers of poetry, and possess a delicate ear for music. Though deficient in energy, and excited to action with difficulty, the effect probably of an enervating climate and a still more enervating government, they are capable of great occasional exertion, and sometimes display a remarkable perseverance in surmounting obstacles or enduring labours. Though ignorant and unimproved, they are far from wanting intelligence in the general objects of their pursuit, and frequently astonish Europeans by the ingenuity of their expedients, and the facility with which they accomplish difficult operations by apparently inadequate means.

People in a rude state of society are not always prepared to admit their inferiority, or inclined to adopt manifest improvements: what is much beyond their skill or their power, may excite their wonder, but does not always tempt their imitation. This is more peculiarly the case, where national pride or religious prejudice stand in the way; and the contempt of unbelievers, with which the Mahomedan system inspires its votaries, leads them usually to undervalue the arts in which others excel, or the instruction which they communicate. The Javans, though far from deficient in national pride, and though Mahomedans, are free from this senseless and pernicious prejudice, and are ready to acknowledge the superiority of the Europeans, as well as disposed to imitate their arts and to obey their direction. No people can be more tractable; and although their external appearance indicates listlessness and sometimes stupidity, none possess a quicker apprehension of what is clearly stated, or attain a more rapid proficiency in what they have a desire to learn. The restraints under which conversation labours by the necessity of using different dialects in addressing different orders of society, as well as the respect paid to superiority of rank, prevents them from such a frequent intercourse of thought and opinion as might otherwise be expected, and often renders them, to appearance, reserved and taciturn, although in fact, they are social, cheerful, and good humoured.

An uninstructed people are often credulous, and the Javans are remarkable for their unsuspecting and almost infantine credulity. Susceptible of every impression that artifice may attempt to make upon them, and liable to every delusion propagated by the prejudiced or the designing, they not inaptly compare themselves to a piece of pure white cloth, on which any dye or shade of colour may be laid. They lend an easy credence to omens, to prognostics, to prophets, and to quacks. They easily become the dupes of any religious fanatic, and credit, without scruple or examination, his claim to supernatural powers. Their profession of Mahomedanism has not relieved them from the superstitious prejudices and observances of an anterior worship: they are thus open to the accumulated delusion of two religious systems.

They are great observers of lucky or unlucky days, or natural phenomena, and undertake no journey or enterprize without attending to them. It is unlucky to go any where on the day that you hear of the death of a friend: the sight of two crows fighting in the air is unlucky: two small birds (called _prenjak_) fighting near a house, afford a prognostic of the arrival of a friend from a distance. Explosions or noises heard from the mountains not only excite terror for their immediate consequences, but are thought to forebode some great calamity, unconnected with the convulsions of nature, of which they are the symptoms, such as a sanguinary war, a general famine, or an epidemic sickness. The eclipses of the sun and moon powerfully excite this superstitious spirit, and induce many absurd notions and observations. Earthquakes furnish certain prognostics, according to the day of the month on which they happen. In none of their superstitions, however, is there any thing of that gloomy, dark, or malignant cast, which distinguishes those of less favoured climates or of more savage tribes.

Although, on many occasions, listless and unenterprising, their religious enthusiasm is no sooner excited, than they become at once adventurous and persevering, esteeming no labour arduous, no result impossible, and no privation painful. We witnessed an instance, both of their simplicity and of their energy, connected with this part of their character, which excited our astonishment. The population of some of the districts of _Bányumás_ contributed their voluntary labour, in 1814, to the construction of a broad high road, from the base to the summit of one of the loftiest mountains on the island (the mountain _Súmbing_), and this extraordinary public work was almost completed, before intelligence of its commencement reached the government. It was in consequence examined, and found to be a work of immense labour and care, but without the least appearance of object or utility. Upon enquiring into the motive of such a singular undertaking, it was learnt that a general belief prevailed, that there was a very holy man at the top of the mountain, who would not come down till there should be a good road made for him. The _Madúrese_ are said to believe, that the spirits of the dead revisit the earth; but this does not appear to be a Javan superstition.

Their prejudices are neither very numerous nor unyielding, and seem generally to have originated in some laudable feeling or amiable weakness. Their nationality, which is very strong, although it delights in the traditionary narratives of ancient Javan exploits, and supports a hope of future independence, which they are not backward to express, does not lead them to despise the character, or to undervalue the acts of strangers. They have a contempt for trade, and those of higher rank esteem it disgraceful to be engaged in it; but the common people are ever ready to engage in the labours of agriculture, and the chiefs to honour and encourage agricultural industry. Those of the highest rank and greatest authority, generally attend at the opening of new _sáwah_ fields, performing part of the work with their own hands, and leading their inferiors or dependents, as they express it, to pay respect to the earth, in whose honour they also observe annually the _sedéka búmi_, or feast to the earth. It is in the same spirit that the buffalo, as the chief assistant of the husbandman, is viewed with such peculiar regard, that in some of the interior districts, new-born infants are sometimes carried to be breathed upon by them, from a superstitious belief that such a ceremony will render them fortunate.

Notwithstanding the despotic nature of their government, and the feudal principles on which it rests, the Javan must be considered as a patriarchial people, still retaining many of the virtues, and all the simplicity, which distinguish that state of society. Their village settlements constitute detached societies, under their local chief and priest, and the same internal concord prevails in these little associations which characterises patriarchial tribes. Vicinity and daily intercourse afford opportunities of conferring real assistance and acts of kindness: injustice and even violence may sometimes be committed against the inhabitants of other villages, but very seldom by the inhabitants of the same village against each other. The patriarchial spirit of the Javans may be further traced, in the veneration which they pay to age, the respect and acquiescence with which they receive the maxims or the counsels of experience, the ready contented submission which they shew to the commands of their immediate superiors, the warmth of their domestic attachments, and the affectionate reverence with which they regard and protect the tombs and the ashes of their fathers. To the same description of feelings may be referred that consideration for ancestry, that attention to the line of descent, and that regard to the history and merits of distant kindred, which in the meanest people appears often to assume the character of family pride.

These observations apply principally to the inhabitants of villages, at some distance from the seats of the princes or regents, and the contagion of the larger capitals, and more particularly to the people of the _Súnda_ districts. Those of higher rank, those employed about court, or in administering to the pleasures or luxuries of the great, those collected into the capitals or engaged in the public service, are frequently profligate and corrupt, exhibiting many of the vices of civilization without its refinement, and the ignorance and deficiencies of a rude state without its simplicity. The people in the neighbourhood of Batavia are the worst in the Island, and the long intercourse with strangers has been almost equally fatal to the morals of the lower part of Bantam. The population collected at the native capitals is naturally influenced, to a certain extent, by the vices of the court; but the further they are removed from European influence and foreign intercourse, the better are their morals and the happier are the people.

In attempting to exhibit some of the more striking features of the Javan character, it becomes necessary to distinguish between the privileged classes of society and the mass of the people. Long continued oppression may have injured the character of the latter, and obliterated some of its brighter traits; but to the former, the constant exercise of absolute dominion has done a more serious injury, by removing every salutary restraint on the passions, and encouraging the growth of rank and odious vices. In the peasantry we observe all that is simple, natural, and ingenuous: in the higher orders we sometimes discover violence, deceit, and gross sensuality.

Where not corrupted by indulgence on the one hand, or stupified by oppression on the other, the Javans appear to be a generous and warm-hearted people. In their domestic relations they are kind, affectionate, gentle, and contented; in their public, they are obedient, honest, and faithful. In their intercourse with society, they display, in a high degree, the virtues of honesty, plain dealing, and candour. Their ingenuousness is such, that as the first Dutch authorities have acknowledged, prisoners brought to the bar on criminal charges, if really guilty, nine times out of ten confess, without disguise or equivocation, the full extent and exact circumstances of their offences, and communicate, when required, more information on the matter at issue than all the rest of the evidence. Although this may, in some degree, be the result of the former use of torture, it cannot be wholly so.

Though not much addicted to excess, and of rather a slow temperament, they are in general liberal and expensive, according to their means, seldom hoarding their wealth, or betraying a penurious disposition. Fond of show and pomp, they lay out all their money, as soon as it is acquired, in the purchase of articles of dress, horses, splendid trappings, &c.: but they possess a quality which is not always joined with a love of splendour, either in nations or individuals; they are cleanly in their persons, and pay the greatest attention to neatness, as well as to glare and finery.

Hospitality is universal among them; it is enjoined by their most ancient institutions, and practised with readiness and zeal. The Javans are exceedingly sensible to praise or shame[74], and ambitious of power and distinction; but their national oppressions or agricultural habits have rendered them somewhat indifferent to military glory, and deprived them of a great portion of their ancient warlike energy. They are more remarkable for passive fortitude than active courage, and endure privations with patience, rather than make exertions with spirit and enterprize.

Though living under a government where justice was seldom administered with purity or impartiality, and where, of course, we might expect to see the hand of private violence stretched out to punish private wrong, or a general spirit of retaliation and insidious cruelty prevailing, the Javans are, in a great degree, strangers to unrelenting hatred and blood-thirsty revenge. Almost the only passion that can urge them to deeds of vengeance or assassination, is jealousy. The wound given to a husband's honour by seducing his wife, is seldom healed, the crime seldom forgiven; and what is remarkable, the very people who break the marriage tie on the slightest caprice, or the most vague pretence, are yet uncommonly watchful over it while it remains entire. They are little liable to those fits and starts of anger, or those sudden explosions of fury, which appear among northern nations. To this remark have been brought forward as exceptions, those acts of vengeance, proceeding from an irresistible phrenzy, called _mucks_, where the unhappy sufferer aims at indiscriminate destruction, till he himself is killed like a wild beast, whom it is impossible to take alive. It is a mistake, however, to attribute these acts of desperation to the Javans.

That such have occurred on Java, even during the British administration, is true, but not among the Javans: they have happened exclusively in the large towns of Batavia, _Semárang_, and _Surabáya_, and have been confined almost entirely to the class of slaves. This phrenzy, as a crime against society, seems, if not to have originated under the Dutch, certainly at least to have been increased during their administration, by the great severity of their punishments. For the slightest fault, a slave was punished with a severity which he dreaded as much as death; and with torture in all its horrid forms before his eyes, he often preferred to rush on death and vengeance.

Atrocious crimes are extremely rare, and have been principally owing to misgovernment when they have occurred. In answer to what has been asserted concerning robberies, assassinations, and thefts, it may be stated, that during the residence of the English, an entire confidence was reposed in the people, and that confidence was never found misplaced. The English never used bars or bolts to their houses, never travelled with arms, and no instance occurred of their being ill used. The Dutch, on the contrary, placed no confidence: all their windows were barred, and all their doors locked, to keep out the treacherous natives (as they called them), and they never moved five miles abroad without pistols and swords. What could be expected by a government that derived a principal part of its revenue by the encouragement of vice, by the farms of gaming, cock-fighting, and opium shops? After the two former were abolished by the English, and the local government had done all in its power to discourage the latter, a visible amelioration took place in the morals of the lower ranks.

Hordes of banditti, formidable for their numbers and audacity, formerly infested some parts of the country, particularly the provinces of Bantam and Chéribon; but since they have been dispersed by the strong hand of government, the roads of Java may be travelled in as much security as those of England.

Much has been said of the indolence of the Javans, by those who deprived them of all motives for industry. I shall not again repeat what I have formerly on several occasions stated on this subject, but shall only enter a broad denial of the charge. They are as industrious and laborious as any people could be expected to be, in their circumstances of insecurity and oppression, or as any people would be required to be, with their advantages of soil and climate. If they do not labour during the whole day, it is because such persevering toil is unnecessary, or would bring them no additional enjoyments. The best refutation of the charge of indolence is to be found in the extent of their cultivation, the well dressed appearance of their rice fields, and the abundant supplies of their harvests. They generally rise by daylight: at half-past six they go out to the rice fields, where they employ their buffaloes till ten, when they return home, bathe, and refresh themselves with a meal. During the violent heat of the noon they remain under the shade of their houses or village trees, making baskets, mending their implements of husbandry, or engaged in other necessary avocations, and at about four return to the _sáwahs_ to labour them, without buffaloes or other cattle. At six they return to their homes, sup, and spend the remainder of their time till the hour of rest (which is generally between eight and nine) in little parties for amusement or conversation, when the whole village becomes a scene of quiet content and pleasure. The same round of toil and relaxation is observed during the season for garden culture, dry field labour, or other employments.

Under this system, the villagers seem to enjoy a greater degree of happiness than they could derive from those increased means that would result from increased exertion. I can bear testimony to their general cheerfulness, contentedness, and good humour, for having visited their villages at all seasons, and often when least expected or entirely unknown, I have always found them either pleased and satisfied with their lot when engaged at their work, or social and festive in their hours of pleasure. One observation generally made and admitted, would seem to militate against this part of the Javan character; they are remarked to be envious and jealous of one another's success: but if this trait of character be with difficulty reconciled to their general reputation for contentedness and benevolence, it is surely still more inconsistent with that indolent apathy with which they are often charged.

It will appear throughout their history, that when strongly excited by the animosities of the constant wars in which they were engaged, they were frequently guilty of acts of great barbarity: such as decapitating a vanquished enemy, and kicking his head about like a football. In war and politics, much is not to be said in their favour, stratagem and intrigue being relied upon in preference to discipline, courage, or good faith: even the Chinese, during what is called the Chinese war on Java (A.D. 1750), would appear to deserve a higher character for bravery and good faith than the Javans. But it is reasonable to attribute this, in some measure, to the degrading influence of European despotism. A great disregard for the _little people_ is shewn throughout their political history, as is particularly exemplified in the instance of a mock battle that was fought between the Chinese and Javans, near _Semárang_, in order to impose upon the Dutch. The Chinese wished to know how they should act upon the occasion. "Attack the whole army of the Javans by surprize," said the Javan negotiators," but be careful not to kill any of the chiefs or great people, and it will be a sham fight."

Of their nationality it may be observed, that ever since the first arrival of Europeans, they have neglected no opportunity of attempting to regain their independence. A reference to the chapters on history will be sufficient to illustrate this, as well as to shew the national feeling on the encroachments and assumptions of their European rulers. In the great cause of national independence all would unite, but they seem hardly to be sufficiently advanced in civilization to effect such an object, without the risk of relapsing into many barbarities, from the practice of which they have been weaned, by a long continuance of established government and general tranquillity. Quiet and peaceable as the Javans now are, were they once roused to insurrection, their blood would rapidly boil, and they would no doubt be guilty of many excesses.

I might illustrate the Javan character still further by a comparison of it with the Malayan, by shewing, from the remains of those customs that are to be referred to an anterior and milder system, how much it has been altered by the introduction of Mahomedanism, and by giving an estimate of the effects produced upon it by the government of the Dutch; but this would anticipate some observations which will be more appropriate in other parts of this work.

Of the causes which have tended to lower the character of the Asiatics in comparison with Europeans, none has had a more decided influence than polygamy. To all those noble and generous feelings, all that delicacy of sentiment, that romantic and poetical spirit, which virtuous love inspires in the breast of an European, the Javan is a stranger, and in the communication between the sexes he seeks only convenience, and little more than the gratification of an appetite. But the evil does not stop here: education is neglected and family attachments are weakened. Among the privileged orders, the first wife is generally selected by the friends of the party, from motives of interest, and to strengthen family alliances, and the second is rather to be considered as the object of the husband's choice. But if his circumstances admit of it, he has no scruple to entertain other women as concubines, who hold an honourable rank in his household. The progeny from these connections is often immense. It has already been stated, that a Javan chief has been known to have upwards of sixty acknowledged children; and it too often happens, that in such cases sons having been neglected in their infancy, become dissipated, idle and worthless, and spring up like rank grass and overrun the country, or serve but to fill up a long and useless retinue. Fortunately for the peasantry, who are the mass of the population, they have escaped this deteriorating institution; and perhaps much of the comparative superiority of the character of the peasantry over that of the higher orders is to be attributed to this advantage. The higher orders have also been more exposed to the influence of Mahomedanism and European innovation; and if the former has removed from their usages some traits of barbarism, and tended to the developement of their intellectual qualities, it has introduced Mahomedan vices; and the European power having gradually obtained its supremacy over the island, rather by stratagem and intrigue than by open conquest, it is probable that the necessity under which the natives found themselves to resist its encroachments by similar means, has powerfully contributed to corrupt their natural ingenuousness. It is not at the court of the sovereign, penned up as he now is, and kept like a bird in a cage by the intrigues and power of the European authority, that we are to look for the genuine character of the people; neither is it among those numerous chiefs and petty chiefs attendant on the European authorities, who by continual association have, in a great degree, assimilated with them. What we have said of the Javans must therefore be considered, as more particularly applicable to the peasantry or cultivators, who compose three-fourths of the whole population, and is to be received with some reserve in its application to the higher classes.

Thus far I have given a faithful representation of the people as they appeared to me; but it may be amusing to the reader to read the Javan character, as transcribed from the impressions of the Dutch. The following is an official account[75] of this people given by a subject of that nation, which has contributed so much to depress and degrade them.

"If the Javan is a person of rank, or in affluent circumstances, he will be found superstitious, proud, jealous, vindictive, mean, and slavish towards his superiors, haughty and despotic towards his inferiors and those unfortunate beings that are subject to his orders, lazy and slothful.

"The lower class is indolent and insensible beyond conception, and although certain persons, who presume to be perfectly acquainted with the character of the Javan, maintain the contrary, still I am convinced by daily experience, that the Javan in general is most shockingly lazy, and that nothing but fear of his superior, and apprehension of being punished, or momentary distress or want, can compel him to labour. If left to himself, he will do no more than what is absolutely requisite to furnish the necessaries of life, and as he needs but little, his labour is proportionate: yet as soon as he has a sufficiency for four days, or for the next day only, nothing will put him in motion again but force or fear.

"Cowardly, vindictive, treacherous, inclined to rob and to murder rather than work, cunning in evil practices, and unaccountably stupid (supposed intentionally,) if any good is required of him. These are the principal traits of the Javan character.

"The _Maláyu_, speaking of him as an inhabitant of this island, because I am unacquainted with the character of those living at a distance, is possessed of a little more courage and activity, fond of small trade and travelling, and but seldom a robber like the Javan, whom in other respects he very much resembles. A _Maláyu_, who is a little cunning, will, as soon as an opportunity offers, commit a fraud, especially when he has had some loss which he wishes to retrieve."

Others of the colonists, and some particularly who are likely to have greater influence with the restored government, entertained more correct, because more favourable opinions of the Javans, coinciding nearly with those which I have stated as my own.

The following extracts are intended to convey some notion of Javan ethics. The first is from a popular work, called _Raja Kapa-kapa_[76].

"It is incumbent upon every man of condition to be well versed in the history of former times, and to have read all the chiríta (written compositions) of the country: first, the different _Ráma_, the _B'rata yúdha_, _Arjúna wijáya_, _Bíma súchi_; secondly, the different accounts of _Panji_; thirdly, the _Júgúl múda_, _Pralámbang_, and _Jáya langkára_; also to know their different tunes, as well as the mode of striking the _gámelan_; he must know how to count the years, months, and days, and comprehend the _Sangkála_, understand the _Káwi_ language, and also must be clever in all

_Niúng'ging_ Painting;

_Ukir ukir_ Carving in wood;

_Pándi_ Iron-work;

_Kemásan_ Gold-work;

_Argénding_ Musical instrument making;

_M'ráng'gi_ Kris-sheath making;

_N'gapús_ Compositions (literary);

_Gárdji_ Sewing with the needle; working;

_Anyára-wedi retna_ Jewellery;

_Anyádur-rasa_ In gilding and the application of quicksilver.

And he must also be skilled in horsemanship, and in the management of an elephant, and have courage to destroy all bad men, and drive away all women of loose character."

The _Níti sástra_ is a work of the greatest celebrity on Java: the original is in the _Káwi_ language, but there are many versions. The following is translated from a modern version in the present language of Java.

"Praise be to _Batára Gúru_, who is all powerful! to _Batára
Vishnu (wísnu)_, who purifieth the minds of men! and to _Batára
Súria_, who enlighteneth the world! May they render their divine
assistance to the author who composeth this work, _Níti Sástra_,
which contains an account of the truths to be found in the sacred
writings, and which are highly necessary to be known by all
public officers.

"A man who cannot regulate his conduct according to circumstances,
and to the situation in which he may be placed, is like unto
a man who has lost the senses of taste, and enjoyeth not the
advantage of _síri_, for such a man doth not shine in the world,
however fair may be his appearance.

"A man who is ignorant of the sacred writings, is as one who has
lost his speech; for when these become the conversation of other
men, he will be under the necessity of remaining silent.

"It is an abomination to the Divinity to worship him in an unclean
place; and the man who does so may be compared to one who eats
another man's bread without his consent. The food is unwholesome
to him, even as if he ate of his own bread with aversion, in
which case he resembles the poor man who overeats himself and
afterwards suffers from hunger.

"A woman who takes not a husband until her hair becomes grey and
her teeth fall out, is despicable in her own eyes, because men
will no longer feel any inclination to her.

"A man, to be accounted able, must know how to adapt his words
to his actions and his actions to his words, so that he may
give offence to no one, but render himself agreeable to his
companions: he must also know how to command in war, and to
inspire his followers with courage.

"In order to obtain this distinction, a man must conduct himself
towards his equals even as a lover conducts himself towards his
mistress; for as the lover cannot obtain his object without
flattery and indulgence, so must we strive to obtain the good
will of mankind by flattering them occasionally, and by indulging
them in those things to which they are most inclined, and which
consists, if we are in company with religious men, in treating of
religious matters, and if in company with warriors, in treating
about war. This will not only make them like us the better, but
at the same time, excite them to excel in their profession.

"The subtle nature of the snake, and the venom of its poison, as
well as the ferocious disposition of the tiger, may be removed
by sympathetic remedies; the wild elephant may also be tamed by
means of the well-known small iron hook: but the fierceness of
the warrior, when once in close engagement, is not to be tamed,
unless his enemy surrender; and even then not entirely, for
although the vanquished surrender, it is to be inferred that he
still harbours resentment for the loss of his freedom, and the
conqueror must keep a lively watch over the vanquished, lest he
still oppose him.

"It is well known that waters, however deep, may be fathomed; but
the thoughts of men cannot be sounded. In order to know the
nature of another, we must attentively observe his appearance,
his manner of speaking, and his judgment; and if a man gives
himself out as a holy man, it must be proved by his observance
of the service of the Deity and his knowledge of the sacred
writings.

"Such a man is distinguished, who is able to expound all abstract
expressions.

"A rich man, who maketh not use of his riches in procuring for
himself good food and clothing, is an abomination, and ought not
to be admitted into the society of the learned or men of rank;
neither ought a man, who has learnt a profession or studied
religion, but who still continues attached to his idle and
vicious propensities.

"The man who advances in years, and he who is too lazy to labour,
and does nothing but eat and sleep, is like a sheep, which is
useless except on account of its flesh.

"It is said, that neither the ravens nor the _gadárbo_ birds, are
good for man; but much less are such men who having once embraced
a holy life, return to worldly pursuits, or such as can find
it in their hearts to seduce the wives and daughters of their
friends to commit adultery.

"The water in a vessel which is only partly full will by the least
agitation splash on the sides: experience also proves, that the
cow which has the loudest voice gives the least milk. So it is
with men: those who have least understanding or wealth make the
greatest noise and show; but in reality they are inferior, and
all they say and do vanisheth like smoke.

"Friends must be faithful and forbearing towards each other,
otherwise the consequences will be fatal to both. Of this we have
an example in the fable of the tiger and the forest.

"The forest and the tiger lived together in close friendship, so
that no one could approach the forest, for the tiger was always
in the way; nor the tiger, for the forest always afforded him
shelter. Thus they remained both undisturbed, on account of the
mutual security they afforded to each other; but when the tiger
abandoned the forest and roamed abroad, the people seeing that
the tiger had quitted it, immediately cut down the forest and
converted it into plantations: the tiger, in the meantime, taking
shelter in a village, was seen by the people, who soon found
means to kill him. In this manner, both parties, by abandoning
their mutual duties to each other, were lost.

"A child ought, in every respect, to follow in the footsteps of its
father; but this is seldom the case, either among men or animals
in general. Among the latter, however, there are three sorts
which follow their parents in every respect: all kinds of fish,
frogs, and tortoises. The first and second spawn in water, which
is carried away until the young are produced, when they again
join their parents: the last lay their eggs in holes, and as soon
as the young are hatched they follow the old ones into the water.

"Man, although he is borne in his mother's womb a long time, and
after his birth is taken care of and nourished, still seldom
follows in the footsteps of his parents. If his father is a holy
man, he ought to follow the same profession; but instead of this,
children do not generally attend to the advice of their parents,
nor to the lessons of the sacred writings, or those given by holy
or good men.

"That men of rank should do every thing in their power to attach
the lower class of people to them, is not only proper but
necessary, in order to keep them faithfully to their duty. To
this end, therefore, men of rank ought to be indulgent and
liberal towards their inferiors, like a woman who implores the
assistance of man to bring forth children and support her; but
not like a tigress that brings forth its cubs, nor the snake
which brings forth so many young, that sometimes having no food
for them or for herself, she devours them.

"Man is pleased with the _dódot_ cloth (apparel), and women are
proud of their bosom; but a good man prefers the sacred writings,
which may lead him to the life to come.

"Property obtained by man's own labour is valuable, but more
valuable is that which is obtained by a man's blood in time of
war: of less value is property inherited from a man's parents. Of
little value is the property taken from a man's parents or his
wife, but still less valuable is that which comes to a man from
his children.

"It is the duty of the chief of the nation to inquire into every
thing which can affect his subjects; to know whether they are
prosperous or not, if every one attends to his duty, if they are
skilful in the execution of it or not, and in all cases to take
measures accordingly, never losing sight of justice. He must,
as far as possible, be lenient in the punishment of the guilty,
and liberal in the reward of the deserving; particularly in the
field of battle, when in sight of the enemy, when presents ought
then to be distributed to the soldiers (_prajúrit_), in order
to animate them; for if ever so justly treated, they will not,
except they have been obliged by their commander, either be so
faithful, or risk so much in an attack against the enemy.

"Highly prejudicial is it for the chiefs to discover fear before
their enemies, for in that case the men will also be afraid; but
when the chiefs conduct themselves in such a manner as to shew
they do not fear the enemy, then the men are animated by their
example.

"A chief should keep his plan of attack as secret as possible,
because the knowledge of it may enable the enemy to be on his
guard, and turn the measures taken to his own advantage. He ought
not to challenge his enemy to give battle, as in that case the
enemy will have an opportunity of preparing himself for the same:
but he should attempt to surprize him, and rush upon him like
a fire, that quickly and without much noise consumeth all with
which it comes in contact.

"The most formidable enemy of a man is his own conscience, which
always brings his crimes before his eyes, without leaving him the
means of avoiding it.

"The most valuable and lasting friendship is that which exists
between persons of the same rank.

"The severest misfortune which a man can suffer, is to be deprived
by force, of the land upon which he lives and which he has
cultivated, or to have his wife and children taken from him by
force.

"Man loveth nothing more than his own children, and he always
esteems his own feelings in preference to those of others.

"Of all birds the _chíong_ (miner) is the most highly prized,
because it has a beautiful appearance and can imitate the speech
of man.

"A woman who loves her husband so tenderly, that at his death she
wishes to die with him, or surviving never marries again, but
lives as if she were dead to the world, is valued above all
others of her sex.

"The lessons of our parents are like the lessons of the ten wise
masters. No master con be called wise, unless he attends to
what is written, as well on sacred as on worldly subjects. Such
a master may be justly called a superior mortal; for it is a
difficult task to learn and to attend to the same, even as
difficult as to catch and tame a wild elephant on the edge of a
precipice without injury.

"Melancholy is it to see a young man of condition unacquainted with
the sacred writings; for, be he ever so gracefully formed or
elegant in his manners, he remains defective; like the _wúrawári_
flower, which, notwithstanding its fine appearance and bright red
colour, emits no fragrance whatever.

"No man can be called good or bad, until his actions prove him so.
Thus if a man declares that he has never taken any but delicious
food, it will be shewn in his appearance. If he is stout and well
looking, then may he be credited; but if, on the contrary, he is
poor and lean, then it is impossible that he should have lived on
good food.

"In like manner, when a man pretends to be the friend of mankind,
it must be proved by his behaviour when he receives the visits of
others. If he receives his guests with kindness and hospitality,
then is he the friend of mankind, otherwise he is not so. And
further, if a man pretends to have fasted and prayed, and to have
become a holy man, it will be known whether he is really so,
by the success which attends the prayers which he puts up for
another: if the Deity hears them not, then is he a deceiver.

"A caterpillar has its poison in its head, a scorpion in its tail,
and a snake in its teeth, but it is unknown in what part of the
body the poison of man is concealed: a bad man is therefore
considered poisonous in his whole frame.

"A child which is indulged by its parents in every thing, is like
a young fish in a clear and pure stream, in which it grows and
sports, unconscious whither it may lead.

"As the strength of a bird is in its wings, so does the power of a
prince consist in his subjects; but then only through the means
of persons properly informed on the following points. First, how
a country ought to be properly administered; secondly, how to
please a prince; thirdly, how to prepare all delicacies for him;
and fourthly, how to preserve discipline and direct the conduct
of an army.

"The dread of the subject should be such, that the orders of the
prince should be to him like a clap of thunder, that may be heard
far and wide.

"A man who does evil to his companions acts against the sacred
writings and the lessons of his instructor: he can never
enjoy prosperity, but will meet with misfortunes in all his
proceedings. Such a man is like a piece of porcelain, which when
it falls to the ground breaks into many pieces and can never be
rendered perfect.

"A field without pasture is not frequented by cattle, neither does
a river without water contain fish. An instructor who knoweth
not how to perform the duties of his situation can have but few
disciples, and a prince who pays little regard to his country and
subjects, will in time not only lose his fame and glory, but his
authority also.

"It is well known that a man cannot take the goods of this world
with him to the grave, and that man after this life is punished
with heaven or hell, according to the merits of his actions in
this life: a man's duty, therefore, requires of him to remember
that he must die; and if he has been merciful and liberal in
this life to the poor, he will be rewarded hereafter. Happy is
the man who divides his property equally between himself and the
indigent, who feeds the poor and clothes the naked, and relieves
all who are in distress; he has hereafter to expect nothing but
good.

"The following animals, as being injurious to the health of man,
are not proper to be used by him as food: rats, dogs, frogs,
snakes, worms, monkeys, lizards, and the like.

"A handsome man is an ornament to the community, and one that has
good manners besides, is an ornament to his prince; but he who
understands the sacred writings is the pride of the community and
a delight to his prince.

"A prince who wishes to know his subjects well, ought to be
attentive to their manners, actions, and courage; and as gold
is known by the touchstone, or broken into pieces in order to
ascertain its intrinsic value, so ought a prince to try his
subjects, before he intrust them with the charge of his women
or treasure, and make himself acquainted with their valour and
knowledge: for a person who does not possess the qualifications
required for this purpose, is unworthy to associate with people
of condition, and much less to be the servant of a prince.

"If a man violates the law, he may for the first offence be
punished by a pecuniary fine, for the second by punishment
affecting his person, but for the third offence he may be
punished with death.

"A joy generally followed by sorrow is that which we feel in
borrowing money. We feel happy in having obtained what we wished,
but as soon as our creditors come for their money, our joy is
converted into grief; and that is the greatest when the money is
spent, and we have not wherewith to satisfy our creditors: then
arise quarrels and ill will, and yet no sooner are these settled
than we again have recourse to the old habit of lending and
borrowing.

"Laughing and joking at our companions is also a bad custom, for it
generally begets quarrels, and is thus the cause of grief.

"Should medicine be mixed with poison, we would naturally separate
the poisonous parts before we swallowed it, and we would also
clean rusty metal in time before it becomes rusty and corroded.
In the same manner we should distinguish between the good and bad
actions of man, rewarding knowledge and opposing evil: and be it
recollected, that a woman, however low her birth, if her manners
are amiable and her person good, may without impropriety be made
the wife of a great man.

"Riches only tend to torment the mind of man, and sometimes even
to death; they are therefore, with justice, disregarded and
despised by the wise. They are collected with pain and troubles
in afterwards administering them; for if we neglect to watch
them properly, thieves will come and steal them, and the loss
occasions as much grief as the point of death.

"Therefore is it advisable to give part of our property to the poor
and indigent, who will thence naturally become under obligations
to us, and not only assist in guarding our property against
all accidents, but pray that our property may increase, being
themselves interested in our success, and our names will be
blessed by our children and grandchildren.

"As dykes cannot long resist the force of water, unless the water
is allowed a free current and a place to pass through, so riches
cannot long be enjoyed, unless employed for charitable purposes;
but, on the contrary, they will turn to the injury of the
possessor, both here and hereafter, who will be exposed to the
wrath of all the nine deities.

"_Batára gúru_ is cool, still colder is the moon; but the coolness
of neither is to be compared to that which is instilled by the
voice of a holy man. Fire is hot, still hotter is the sun; but
neither is to be compared to the heat of a man's heart.

"Like those flies and birds, which fly in the air to procure food,
and still continue to feed on filth and dirt, is the man of bad
character; for although he may have the means of procuring an
honest subsistence, still will he continue to take what he should
not, by unlawful means, to the prejudice of others. But a good
man wishes the success of another, and is happy when his brother
prospers.

"As the moon and stars enlighten the night, and the sun
enlighteneth the day, so do the Holy Scriptures enlighten the
hearts of men; and a son who is superior in knowledge to his
father, is a light to his family.

"A child accustomed to nothing but amusement, neglects the lessons
of its parents. The child on this account, often abandoned to its
fate, becomes a dangerous subject; it is therefore essential that
a child should be kept under subjection while it is yet time to
prevent its committing any bad acts. For this purpose these rules
should be attended to:

"A child under five years of age may be indulged in many things;
but afterwards it must be kept under strict subjection, and
instructed in the knowledge of the Holy Writings until its tenth
year, when a commencement may be made to instil that sort of
knowledge which will form the intellects for the benefit of
society. After the sixteenth year further instruction must be
given in the higher and more important branches of knowledge.

"Man should always be on his guard against the commission of wicked
acts, for the end of them is always pain and misery.

"A man must, on no account, listen to the advice of a woman, be she
ever so good; for the end of it will be death and shame: but he
must always consult his own mind in what he has to do or not to
do, never losing sight of the lessons of his instructors. Thus,
not only will he obtain knowledge, but his actions will be good.

"Riches, beauty, knowledge, youth, and greatness often lead a man
into error; he, therefore, who is blessed with any of them ought
to be, at the same time, humble and generous, for then he will
excel; otherwise, his virtues will be hidden.

"As the man who advances by fair means from poverty to riches, or
from insignificance to greatness, is rewarded in this world, so
will he who is generous and kind-hearted be rewarded hereafter
in heaven. So will the warrior killed in battle, who is like a
conqueror, enjoy all the delights imaginable; while a deserter is
despised by all men, and covered with shame and disgrace, because
he deserted his comrades in the moment of danger.

"No man ought to be termed a hero but he who has already conquered
a hundred heroes; nor should any man be termed a holy man until
he can boast of surpassing in virtue a hundred holy men: for as
long as a hero has not conquered a hundred heroes, or a holy man
has not surpassed a hundred other holy men in virtue, he can
neither be considered as a real hero or holy man.

"The signs of the approaching end of this world will be all kinds
of depravity among mankind; that is to say, the wise will turn
foolish, the holy men will become worldly, children will abandon
their parents, princes will lose their empires, the little will
become great, and commit depredations; in short, every thing will
be in confusion, and an entire revolution take place.

"In the beginning every thing was at rest and quiet. During the
first thousand years princes began to start up, and wars arose
about a woman named _Déwi Darúki_: at this period writing was
first introduced. One thousand five hundred years after this
another war began, about a woman named _Déwi Sínta_. Two thousand
years after this a third war broke out, about a woman named _Déwi
Drupádi_: and two thousand five hundred years afterwards another
war took place, about the daughter of a holy man not named in
history.

"Every man can thus see what has been the first cause of war.
Even as the roots of trees and the course of rivers cannot run
straight, but wind here and there, so cannot a woman be upright:
for the saying is, that a raven can sooner turn white, and the
_tanjang_-plant (a water lily) grow from a rock, than a woman can
be upright.

"A perfect man should be, in firmness and ability, equal to eight
women; and to satisfy a woman, a man must be able to please her
in nine different manners.

"A bad man is like a fire, which inflames every thing which
approaches it; we, therefore, ought never to go near it with
an intention to extinguish it. A good man, on the contrary, is
like a sweet-scented tree, which continues to produce flowers
and fruit, pleasant to the taste and smell of every one, and the
fragrance of which remains in the wood even after the tree is cut
down and rooted out.

"When a harlot begins to feel shame, then is her improvement
approaching; but when a holy man begins to meddle with worldly
affairs, then is he about to become a worldly man himself.

"When a prince allows encroachments to be made on his territories,
it is a sign that the loss of both his court and lands is nigh at
hand.

"A man may receive instruction from his _gúru_ (instructor) until
his twentieth year: after which he should apply himself to study
until his thirtieth year; at which time he ought to know every
thing necessary, as well for this world as for that to come.

"The art of elocution may properly be reckoned superior to all
others, because happiness and misery, fortune or misfortune, very
often depend upon it: it is, therefore, necessary to use prudence
in speech.

"A man who does not eat _síri (betel_) does not shine.

"Married people who have no children ought to lead a retired life,
and people without fortune should not attempt to make a shining
appearance: they should look pale and melancholy, like unto the
dullness and quiet of a country without a prince.

"These are the qualities necessary to constitute a good
housewife:--She must be well-made and well-mannered, gentle,
industrious, rich, liberal, charming, of good birth, upright, and
humble. A stingy, curious, dirty, foul-mouthed, vulgar, false,
intriguing, lazy, or stupid woman, is not only entirely unfit for
a housewife, but will never be beloved by a husband."

Intimately connected with the character, moral and intellectual, of a people, are its civil and political institutions. In a country like Java, the frame of society is so simple, the hand of power is so universally felt or seen; rank, wealth, and authority are so identified, and the different classes of the community are so referable to each other, by contrast or reciprocal influence, that it was impossible to give any account of the state of the peasantry, or of the tenure and distribution of the land, without introducing some notices concerning government and revenue. As there is little division of labour among a rude people, so there is no division of power in a despotism: the despot is proprietor, all the rest is property.