Chapter VIII (1)

_Language--Little known to Europeans--Different Languages or
Dialects--Those of Súnda, Madúra and Báli compared with that of
Java Proper--The polite Language, or Language of Honour--The
Káwi, or Sacred and Classic Language--Numerals--Chándra
Sangkála--Literature--Compositions in the Káwi Language, and in
the modern Javan--Influence of Hindu Literature--Introduction
of Arabic Literature--Poetry--The Bráta Yúdha, a
Poem--Music--Painting--Sculpture--Architecture--Arithmetic--Astronomy._

The extensive prevalence of the Javan language, and its connexion with the languages of continental India, were not overlooked by those intelligent Europeans who visited these islands at an early period; for we find Valentyn[122] quoting the authority of Flaccourt, who published in 1661, and the Portuguese Jan de Barros, for conclusions with regard to the extent of Javan commerce in remote ages, drawn from the resemblance then traced between the languages of Java and those of Madagascar and Ambon (Amboina.) "The Javans," observes this author, "must doubtless have visited Coromandel and Malabar, for the high or court language is, in three parts out of four, derived from the Sanscrit or Brahminical language. Many Malabar words also enter into the composition, and it is besides composed in a great measure from the _Dekan_, which is the ancient language of India, in the same manner as the Sanscrit is the sacred language."

The alphabet has been exhibited, though imperfectly, by Valentyn, Le Brun, and Reland, and an _Alphabetum Bantemense_ is said to have been found amongst the posthumous papers of the learned Hyde; but the language does not appear to have been regularly cultivated by Europeans until within the last very few years. Some of the outlines of the Javan mythological stories had previously appeared in a Dutch dress, in the transactions of the Batavian Society; and these, with the translation of the Lord's Prayer in the high and low languages, published by Valentyn, some short vocabularies, and a short comparative view of the Javan and Malayan languages, which appeared in a Dutch work entitled "_Begin en vortgang den Oost Ind Compen_," or the Rise and Progress of the East-India Company, are the only contributions to our knowledge of Javan literature with which I am acquainted.

The native population of Java, _Madúra_, and _Báli_, islands most intimately connected with each other in every respect, use exactly the same written character, and it appears that one generic language prevails throughout these islands. Of this generic language, however, there are four dialects, differing so materially from each other as to be generally considered separate languages. It is, however, rather by admixture of other languages than by mere difference of dialect that they are distinguished. These dialects or languages are the _Súnda_, spoken by the inhabitants of the mountainous districts of Java west of _Tégal_; the _Jáwa_ or Javan, which is the general language of Java east of Chéribon, and throughout the districts lying on the northern coast of the island; the _Madúra_ and the _Báli_, being the dialects or languages belonging to those islands respectively.

How far these dialects or languages radically assimilate with each other, and justify the opinion that one generic language prevails throughout, may be determined by an inspection of the annexed vocabulary[123]. The _Lampung_ is added on account of the vicinity of that part of Sumatra to Java, and the intimate political connection which at all times subsisted between the people; and in order to enable the reader to compare them all with the prevailing language of the Archipelago the _Maláyu_ is prefixed. Under the Javan is included the _Bása kráma_, or polite language, which will be more particularly noticed hereafter.

In this vocabulary such words only have been introduced as are used in conversation, and in ordinary epistolary composition; but the inhabitants of these islands possess further a classic language, altogether distinct from the ordinary languages of the country, and which is to them what the _Sanscrit_ is to the _Pracrit_ language of Hindustan, and what the Pali is to the _Birman_ and _Siamese_. This language is termed _Káwi_[124]. The annexed vocabulary, No. 2[125], which affords a comparison between the _Sanscrit_, the _Pali_, and the _Káwi_, will shew how nearly these languages are allied.

These two vocabularies may serve to convey a notion of the extent, peculiarities, and antiquity of the Javan language, which will be found as intimately connected with the _Maláyu_, or general language of the Archipelago, on the one hand, as it is with the _Sanscrit_ and _Pali_ on the other.

The _Súnda_ language, though now confined to the mountainous districts, seems to have been formerly, and probably down to the period immediately preceding the revolution occasioned by the Mahomedan conversion, the general language of the western districts, and is perhaps the most ancient vernacular language of the country. It is a simple uncultivated dialect, adapted however to all the purposes of the simple and uneducated mountaineers who speak it, and has perhaps escaped the influence of foreign innovation, from the peculiar nature of the country and the independent character of that race. It possesses a considerable portion of _Maláyu_ words, and some of Sanscrit origin; the latter being, generally speaking, proper names or terms of art and science or polity, have probably been borrowed from the eastern or proper Javans, in common with whom the _Súnda_ people have adopted a _B'hasa dálam_, or _Bása kráma_, which, however, is by no means extensive. The _Súnda_, with reference to the Javan, may be viewed in much the same light as the Welch is to the English. The proportion of the people who now speak it does not exceed one-tenth of the population of the whole island; the remaining nine-tenths speak Javan.

The language of _Madúra_, which is again divided into the dialects of _Madúra_ proper and _Sumenáp_, will be found to contain many words in common with that of _Súnda_, but a much more extensive portion of _Maláyu_, varied in the termination by a peculiarity of dialect.

The languages of _Báli_ are intimately connected with those of Java and _Madúra_. In the historical part of this work it will be shewn that it was in _Báli_ the ancient religion, and with it the literature of Java, took refuge in the fifteenth century of our æra; and although, from the difference which is at this day found to exist between the vernacular languages of the two countries, as well as in their institutions, it is evident that the language, literature, and institutions of Java were there engrafted on a more rude and savage stock, still it is chiefly to _Báli_ that we must look for illustrations of the ancient state of the Javans. The relation of the political revolutions by which these islands have been convulsed at different periods of their history, will, in a great measure, account for the distinctions of language which at present exist; while, at the same time, these distinctions and peculiarities must serve to confirm many of the facts, for which we should otherwise have only the authority of tradition to rely.

At Bantam the language is much mixed with _Maláyu_ and _Súnda_. The language in ordinary use at Batavia and its immediate vicinity is a jargon of Dutch, Portuguese, Chinese, Javan, and _Maláyu_, the latter forming the principal component. In _Bógor_ and _Chai-ánjur_, the _Súnda_ is pronounced in a more drawling manner than in _Chéribon_, where it is probably most correctly spoken, as in the word _náh_, what? which at Chéribon is pronounced short and sharp, _naù_. At _Tégal_ the Javan words are in like manner lengthened in pronunciation, while at _Semárang_ they are spoken short and full. At the courts of _Sura-kérta_ and _Yugya-kérta_, the words are pronounced short, strong, and full. In the provinces east of _Surabáya_, the language partakes much of the _Madurese_, and in the extreme district of _Banyuwángí_, the _Báli_ is discernible.

The alphabet of Java is peculiar: it consists of twenty consonants (_y_ and _w_ are of the number), termed _aksára_ or letters. In common with all other characters properly Indian, these letters may be considered as syllables, composed of a consonant and an inherent vowel sound, which is invariably expressed, unless contradicted by a particular sign.

Besides the _aksára_, there are twenty auxiliary characters, termed _pasáng'an_, which in this application means corresponding or similar. They have the same power as the _aksára_ against which they stand, except that they are only used in connexion with and immediately after the _aksára_, for the purpose of suppressing their inherent vowel sound. Three of them are always placed after the _aksára_, the others below them.

When the inherent vowel sound in the _aksára_ is not contradicted, the _aksára_ is termed _lagána_. The vowel sound in this case is that of _a_ in "water," or of _o_ in "homo;" the _o_ being at present invariably used at the native courts and their vicinity for the inherent vowel of the consonant, instead of _a_. The latter, however, is still preserved on _Madúra_, _Báli_, and in the districts of Java, west of _Tégal_, and was doubtless the original inherent vowel. The consonant sounds correspond with the sounds usually attributed to the English consonants, with the exception of a second _d_ and _t_, which correspond with similar sounds in the _Devanágari_ alphabet; _ch_, which is used as _ch_ in "church;" _nia_, and _ng'_, which latter is frequently used as an initial letter.

Besides these there are five vowel signs, which supplant the inherent vowel. These signs are termed _sandáng'an_, the clothing or dress. The _répa_ consist of certain contractions of consonants and other signs used in composition. These, with a _pángkun_, or sign of elision, corresponding with the _báris máti_ of the _Malayu_, which has no sound of its own, but being placed at the end of a word or sentence denotes its termination in a pure consonant, and some few other marks corresponding with the _Devanágari_, complete the orthographical arrangement, which though complex and intricate, is remarkable for its precision.

Some of the letters occasionally occur under a capital, or rather peculiar form, for they are of the same size; but these are seldom used, and when they are, it is not as capitals are employed in European languages. They are principally found in proper names, and titles of office, and are placed alike in the beginning, middle, or end of a word.

The annexed table is intended to exhibit the powers and application of the different letters and orthographical signs. No. 1. exhibits the characters now in general use. No. 2. contains the square characters in which the _Káwi_ is usually written, and in which the different inscriptions in that language, cut in stone and copper, are found. No. 3. contains specimens of the varieties which the alphabetical characters have at different times assumed, arranged, according to the judgment of the native writers, in the order of their relative antiquity.

AKSÁRA JÁWA, or LETTERS of the JAVAN
ALPHABET.

CONSONANTS.

_ha na cha ra ka da ta sa wa la
pa da ja ya nia ma ga ba ta ng'a_]

AKSÁRA PASÁNG'AN,

(_Used in forming Compound Consonants_).

_ha na cha ra ka da ta sa wa la
pa da ja ya nia ma ga ba ta ng'a_]

RÉPA,

(_Or Contractions of certain Consonants used in composition with
other Consonants_).

_signian_ or} is placed after the letter, and is
_wignian_ } used to supply the place of the
letter _h_, when not followed by a
vowel sound.

_chákra_ is placed round two letters,
and introduces _r_ between the
consonant and its inherent vowel.

_láyar_ is placed above the letter, and is
used to supply the place of the
letter _r_ when not followed by a
vowel sound.

_péngkal_ is placed partly below the letter
and partly after, to introduce a
medial _y_ in the same manner as
chákra introduces _r_.

_chechak_ is placed above the letter, and is
used to supply the place of the
letter _ng'_, when not followed by
a vowel sound.

_chákra-gántung_ is placed below the letter, and is
pronounced _re_.

_pángkun_ is placed after a letter, and
serves as a mark of elision,
destroying the final vowel sound.

VOWELS.

_Single or _Sandáng'an, or Corresponding Medial and
unconnected Final Vowels._
Vowels._

a

i _wulu_ is placed above the
letter.

u _súku_ is placed below the
letter.

é _táling_ is placed before the
letter.

o _táling-tárung_ with the letter
between.

e _pápet_ is placed above
the letter, and is
pronounced as _le_
in French.

_ng'a lálet_ gives the sound of _le_, and _pachérak_
gives the sound of _re_, as in Sanscrit.

AKSÁRA GEDÉ,

(_Being peculiar forms under which some of the letters
occasionally occur_).

N T S S P Nia G B]

ÁNGKA or NUMERALS.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0]

AKSÁRA BÚD'DA, or ANCIENT ALPHABET.

_ha na cha ra ka da ta sa wa la
pa da ja ya nia ma ga ba ta ng'a_]

ANOTHER FORM.

_ha na cha ra ka da ta sa wa la
pa da ja ya nia ma ga ba ta ng'a_]

RÉPA.

(_Or Contractions of Consonants, &c., their Position being the same
as in the modern Javan_).

_wignian_ pronounced as _h_.

_chákra_ _r_.

_láyar_ _r_.

_péngkal_ _y_.

_chéchak_ _ng'_.

_chákra gántung_ _r_.

_pángkun_ the mark of elision.

SANDÁNGAN or VOWELS.

(_Their position being the same as in the modern Javan_).

_wúlu_ pronounced as _i_.

_súku_ _u_.

_táling_ _é_.

_táling tárung_ _o_.

_pápet_ _e_.

_ng'a lélet_ _le_.

The Javans write from left to right. Every consonant (_aksára_) is written separately, not being joined to that which precedes it, and no space is left between the words. One or two short diagonal lines are used at the close of every poetical stanza, and sometimes a comma, and this is the only mark in the language which simply indicates a stop.

In Java the natives usually write with Indian ink upon paper manufactured by themselves, as already described, and sometimes on European and Chinese paper; but in _Báli_ the natives invariably use an iron style, and cut the letters on a prepared palm leaf, in the same manner as in Western India. This practice is still partially continued in some of the more eastern parts of Java, and was no doubt, at a former period of their history, general throughout the island. The leaf is called _lóntar_ (from _ron_ a leaf, and _tal_ the palm tree, the first and last letters being transposed), and the leaves or manuscripts are strung together to form books in the same manner as on continental India. Of these I have several specimens, containing nearly all the interesting compositions of the country.

As in the _Maláyu_, by far the greater proportion of primitive Javan words are dissyllables, pronounced with a slight stress or accent on the former of the two. There are a great number of derivative words, formed after the same manner as those in the _Maláyu_, by prefixing or annexing certain inseparable and otherwise non-significant particles. Compound words, formed by the junction of two or more significant terms, are frequently met with, though they by no means form an extensive portion of the language.

Many words, in their primitive sense, are not confined to one particular part of speech, but are common to two or more. Nouns, as in the _Maláyu_, cannot be said to possess the distinctions of either gender, number, or case. The males and females of all animals are, with few exceptions, as in the instances _Pútra_--_Pútri_, _Déwa_--_Déwi_, _Bramána_--_Bramáni_, and some few others, denoted by adding to the general terms words applicable to the different sexes. Number is not denoted by any variety of termination or change in the form of the noun, but by separate words, expressive of plurality or singularity; a duplication of the singular sometimes occurs, though rarely, to denote plurality. Where the terms _bíji_, _ékor_, _buáh_, _képing_, &c. are used in the _Maláyu_ to specify a particular number, the term _wíji_ is used indiscriminately in the Javan, whatever may be the thing spoken of. The nouns have no cases.

The adjectives are indeclinable, and generally follow the noun; and these are sometimes formed from nouns by prefixing a particle. The comparative degree is sometimes formed by prefixing a word meaning higher or larger, but more frequently by placing adverbs, significant of "with," before that with which the comparison is made, as if we should say "by the side of." The superlative degree is formed by annexing adverbs signifying "very, exceedingly, entirely, alone."

The cardinal numbers are placed sometimes before and sometimes after the nouns to which they are attached. When prefixed, they undergo, for the sake of the sound, a variety in their termination, or drop the first syllable. The ordinals are formed by prefixing a distinguishing word to the cardinals. Ten characters, which are all either alphabetical letters or signs slightly altered in form, serve to express all numbers, the notation being decimal, and the numerals being combined in the same manner as the Indian and Arabian.

The pronouns of the first and second person are always significant, and vary with the relative rank of the parties. There is no proper pronoun of the third person, but a word signifying "alone, self," with the addition of the possessive particle, is used as a personal pronoun of the third person. The personal pronouns may all be used as possessive pronouns, by being placed as such after the noun to which they belong. The relative and demonstrative pronouns correspond very nearly with those of the _Maláyu_.

With regard to the verb, it may be noticed that many of the observations in Mr. Marsden's grammar, on the nature and formation of the different parts of the _Maláyu_ verb, are applicable to the Javan. It belongs rather to the detail of the grammar to point out these; but it may be remarked, that the use of these inflexions in the Javan appears to be so varied and undefined, that it is impossible, without a much more extensive knowledge of the language than Europeans at present possess, to make out a perfect conjugation, or to lay down any fixed rules for them. All that could perhaps be done, in the present state of the language and of our knowledge of it, would be to give a number and variety of correct idiomatical expressions in the Javan, by which their nature and irregularity may be shewn; and our present limits do not admit of this.

The Javan language has never been reduced within the grammatical rules adopted by Europeans, nor have the Javans themselves any notion of grammar. The construction is generally simple and regular; but owing to prosodial refinements (every writing of importance being written in verse), syllables and words necessary to express a perfect sense are often omitted; at other times, unnecessary syllables or words are added, and letters at the beginning, middle, and end of a word are transposed. Hence, and also from the usual ellipsis of the verb transitive and personal pronouns, the meaning of many passages appears obscure.

The language is remarkable for the profusion of words which it contains, for the minute distinctions and shades of meaning, and the consequent extent of synonymes, and for difference of dialect.

Of the profusion of words it may be observed, that the Javan, in this respect, may be put in competition with many of the more cultivated languages of Europe and Asia, and that a dictionary would perhaps be far from complete, if it comprehended less than twenty thousand.

Of the extent of synonymes, and the minute shades of distinction which are found in this language, some notion may be formed from the extracts from the _Dása Náma_ which are annexed[126]. In order to facilitate the acquirement of the language, it is usual to collect all the words in the different dialects, with their synonymes, and to connect them together by stringing them in classes following each other, according to the natural chain of our ideas. Thus, after commencing with the word _man_, and giving an explanation of every word in the vernacular, polite and _Káwi_ languages, applicable from his birth to his death, as _infant_, _boy_, _youth_, and the like, it proceeds to _woman_, _child_; from thence to the deities, afterwards to the various avocations of mankind, &c. This collection of synonymes is called _Dása Náma_, literally the "ten names," a term probably given to it on account of few important words in the language having less than ten synonymes. Children are no sooner taught to know the letters of the alphabet (which they first describe on the sand), and to connect them in syllables and words, than they are instructed in the _Dása Náma_, without a partial knowledge of which, no youth is considered competent to enter upon any public office, or can advance to a knowledge of the written compositions of the country. These collections are varied in their contents and order of arrangement, according to the acquirements and notions of the compiler. As books of reference they may be considered to supply the place of dictionaries, and if less convenient for this purpose than works alphabetically arranged, they have certainty an advantage over them, in the comparative facility with which their contents are impressed on the memory.

But there is no feature in the language more deserving of notice than the difference of dialect, or the distinction between the common language, and what may be termed the polite language or language of honour. The latter contains many words of Sanscrit origin, and a portion of _Maláyu_; and in those instances in which it appears to have been borrowed from the vernacular language, which may perhaps be loosely estimated at a fourth of the whole, a slight alteration is commonly made in the orthography and pronunciation, to mark the distinction. To render this distinction intelligible to those who are not locally informed, it may be necessary to explain, that from whatever cause the distinction may have originated, so clearly is the line drawn on Java, between the higher and the lower classes of society, that on no account is any one, of whatever rank, allowed to address his superior in the common or vernacular language of the country. This language is exclusively applied when addressing an inferior, or among the lower orders or uneducated, where distinction of rank may not be acknowledged. Persons of high and equal rank, when discoursing among themselves, sometimes use the polite language, but in general they adopt a medium, by introducing words belonging to both branches of the language; and this is generally adopted by them in epistolary correspondence.

It is probable, that in the earlier stages of society, the terms of respect used towards a superior were comparatively few: that this second dialect, which now forms so extensive a branch of the general language, has been gradually formed with the growth of arbitrary power; and that, at one period, the extent of these terms did not exceed what is to be at this day found in the less cultivated dialects, and among the more independent races of _Madúra_ and _Súnda_. Such, however, is their present extent in the Javan, that nearly one half of the words in the vernacular language, have their corresponding term in the _Bása Kráma_ or polite language, without a knowledge of which no one dare address a superior; and although the general construction of the language, and its grammatical principles are not altered, so effectually is the language of inferiority contrasted with that of superiority, that it is possible to suppose a case in which a person might be well acquainted with one dialect, without being able to understand one sentence of the other.

It is not, however, to be inferred, that the one is studied and attained exclusively of the other, for while the one is the language of address, the other must be that of reply, and the knowledge of both is indispensable to those who have to communicate with persons of a different rank with themselves. Children are accustomed from their infancy to employ the polite language in addressing their parents and relations, and this added to the mode of instruction by the _Dása Náma_ above described, early impresses upon their memory the corresponding terms to be used according to the occasion. The _Bása Kráma_, as has been before noticed, consists of a more extensive class of foreign words, and where different words from the common language have not been introduced, a variation in the orthography and termination is adopted; and the more effectually to render it distinct, not only are the affirmatives and negatives, as well as the pronouns and prepositions varied, but the auxiliary verbs and particles are different.

I have already mentioned, that besides the ordinary and the polite languages of the country, the inhabitants of these Islands possess a poetic or classic language, called _Káwi_. In this are written all the historical and poetical compositions of note, as well as most of the ancient inscriptions on stone and copper, which are found in different parts of the Island. In a short vocabulary already referred to[127], the relation of the _Káwi_ to the Sánscrit and _Páli_ is shewn; and in order to enable the Sánscrit scholar to extend the comparison, I have annexed a further vocabulary of _Káwi_ words, with the meaning which the Javans at present attach to them[128].

At what period this language was introduced into Java, whence it came, and whether it was ever the sacred or vernacular language of any foreign people, remains to be decided. Of the words of which it is composed, as far as we may judge from the annexed vocabulary, and the compositions which have come down to us, nine out of ten are of Sánscrit origin, and less corrupted than the present _Páli_ of _Siam_ and _Ava_ appears to be: if, therefore, it was ever the same language with the _Páli_, it must have been before the _Páli_ was corrupted, and therefore probably at a very remote period.

In _Báli_ the _Káwi_ is still the language of religion and law; in Java it is only that of poetry and ancient fable. In the former, the knowledge of it is almost exclusively confined to the _Bramána_ (Bramins); in the latter, a slight knowledge of it is deemed essential for every man of condition. In _Báli_, the ancient, mythological, and historical poems, are however preserved in more correct _Káwi_ than on Java: and it is to the copies obtained from thence, that reference will be principally made in the observations which follow on Javan literature.

In noticing "the accessary tongues from whence the _Maláyan_ acquired such a degree of improvement, as removed it from the general level of the other cognate dialects, and gave it a decided predominance in that part of the east," Mr. Marsden observes, "that the earliest, as well as most important of these, appears to have been, either directly or mediately, that great parent of Indian languages, the _Sanscrit_, whose influence is found to have pervaded the whole of the eastern (and perhaps also of the western) world, modifying and regenerating even where it did not create. That the intercourse, whatever its circumstances may have been, which produced this advantageous effect, must have taken place at an early period, is to be inferred, not only from the deep obscurity in which it is involved, but also from the nature of the terms borrowed, being such as the progress of civilization must soon have rendered necessary, expressing the feelings of the mind, the most obvious moral ideas, the simplest objects of the understanding, and those ordinary modes of thought which result from the social habits of mankind; whilst, at the same time, it is not to be understood, as some have presumed to be the case, that the affinity between these languages is radical, or that the latter is indebted to any Hindu dialect for its names for the common objects of sense[129]."

The same observations apply still more extensively to the Javan; and in the _Káwi_ or classic language, we may presume to have discovered the channel by which the Javan received its principal store of Sanscrit words, for it is the practice, even at present, among the better educated of the Javans, for the party to display his reading, by the introduction, particularly into epistolary correspondence and literary compositions, of _Káwi_ words, by which means the colloquial, but more particularly the written language of the country, is daily receiving fresh accessions of Sanscrit terms. From the vocabularies now presented to the public, and the account which will be given of their literary compositions, it will appear, that few languages, even on the continent of India, have been more indebted to the Sanscrit than the Javan. One original language seems, in a very remote period, to have pervaded the whole Archipelago, and to have spread (perhaps with the population) towards Madagascar on one side, and to the islands in the South Sea on the other; but in the proportion that we find any of these tribes more highly advanced in the arts of civilized life than others, in nearly the same proportion do we find the language enriched by a corresponding accession of Sanscrit terms, directing us at once to the source whence civilization flowed towards these regions. At what period, however, the light first broke in upon them, or at what period the intercourse first took place between the enlightened inhabitants of Western Asia and the islanders of this extensive Archipelago, is a question which, perhaps, may be more properly discussed, when treating of the antiquities and history of the country, and at best is involved in so much obscurity and fable, that much must be left to conjecture.

The letters of the Javan alphabet, as well as the orthographical signs, are decidedly on the principle of the _Devanágari_; but it is remarkable, that the letters of the alphabet do not follow the same order, notwithstanding that order is preserved in all the alphabets of Sumatra as well as in that of Celebes. This deviation has been considered presumptive of the alphabet having been introduced into the island anterior to the period when this order might have been established for the _Devanágari_ itself, or before the refinement supposed to have been effected in that alphabet by the Bramins; but the deviation may, perhaps, be sufficiently accounted for, by the circumstance of a meaning being attached to the words formed by the order of the Javan alphabet as the letters are at present arranged, thus: _hána charáka dáta sawála páda jayánia mága batáng'a_; means, "there were two messengers disputing with each other, equally courageous, till they both died[130]." That this is not accidental may be inferred, not only from the common laws of chance, but from the probability of such an arrangement being preferred, both on account of its convenience, and in conformity with the spirit which in the _Chándra Sangkála_ seeks to select such expressions for the particular numerals that are required, as may make a sentence.

Near the ruins of _Brambánan_ and _Sínga-sári_, are still found inscriptions in the pure _Devánágari_ character of a very ancient form. A specimen of these, together with one of the square _Káwi_, is exhibited in the accompanying plate, corresponding in size with the original. Annexed to each letter in the _Devanágari_ character found on Java, is the modern character, and in the same manner the modern Javan letters are placed under the _Káwi_; and, in order to enable the reader to compare the forms of the consonants used in the alphabets of Ava, Siam, and Java, with the _Devanágari_, they have been placed against each other in another plate. It will be seen that many of the letters of the _Káwi_ correspond so exactly with the square _Páli_ of the Birmans, as to leave no doubt of their having originally been the same. It is probable, also, that were our acquaintance with the _Páli_ more extensive, a similar coincidence would be found between the languages.

Upon the overthrow of the Hindu empire on Java, the natives may be considered to have lost most of their knowledge of the _Káwi_ language; for although numerous compositions in it are still to be found among them, and these compositions are recited in their national entertainments, they would not be generally understood, but for the versions which have long since been rendered of them into the modern Javan. The _Panambakán_ of _Sumenap_ is perhaps, at present, alone entitled to be considered as a _Káwi_ scholar, and he knows so little of the language as to acknowledge, while assisting in translating from it, that he was often under the necessity of guessing at the meaning.

The knowledge of the ancient characters seems, on Java, to have been for many years almost exclusively confined to the family of this chief, and it is stated, that they owe their knowledge of it, and of the _Káwi_ language itself, to the circumstance of one of them having visited _Báli_, to which island it is that we must now look as the chief depositary of what remains of the literature and science which once existed on Java.

It is not unusual for the Javans, in carrying on any secret or political correspondence, to adopt a mystical language, known only to the parties themselves; and on occasions where attempts have been made to stir up the common people to commotion, scrolls have been distributed in various unintelligible characters, which, for the most part, appear to have had no other object but to impose on the credulity of those who were too willing to believe them sacred and mysterious. Were the characters intelligible, the mystery would cease, and the charm be dispelled. Of the manner in which the letters of the alphabet are applied in forming this mystical language, an instance is given at the conclusion of the vocabulary of _Káwi_ words[131].

Unlike the Malayan, the Javan language owes little or nothing to the Arabic, except a few terms connected with government, religion, and science, which have been admitted with the religion and laws of Mahomet. The language, as well as the ancient institutions of the country, have been but little affected by the conversion. The Javan language was abundantly copious before the introduction of Arabic literature, and had few or no deficiencies to be supplied.

The general character of the language is strongly indicative of a former advanced state of civilization, and illustrates, in some degree, the present character of the people. It is rich and refined; it abounds in synonymes and nice distinctions; it is mixed and easily made to bend, and suit itself to every occasion; it is, in a high degree, expressive of power and servility[132].

As the languages of the whole Archipelago are so intimately connected with each other, and that of Celebes in particular is so little known, I have subjoined in an Appendix some further comparative vocabularies of the languages of Java, with some observations on the _Búgis_ and _Mangkásar_ nations[133].

For ordinary purposes, the Javans, as already described, use a modification of some of the letters of their alphabet as numerals, and a representation of these numerals has been given in the table of the Javan alphabet, page 404; but on occasions of importance, it is usual to employ certain signs or symbols in lieu of these ordinary numerals, and this practice appears to be of great antiquity among them. These symbols are termed _chándra sangkála_, "reflections of royal times," or "the light of royal dates," and consist in a certain number of objects, &c. either represented in design or named, each of which is significant of one of the ten numerals. Of the former class are said to be those found in most of the ancient buildings and coins, which in that case usually bear no inscription. The latter is found in most of the ancient inscriptions, and in such of the written compositions as possess any date at all, and is adopted in all proclamations and public writings by the sovereign of the present day.

The Appendix G. contains an account of these peculiar numerals, as far as they are at present understood by the Javans. In the use of them, they endeavour to select such objects from the list, as when read in succession, may afford some meaning illustrative of the fact the date of which is recorded; but this is not always attended to, or at least is not always to be traced. The date of the destruction of _Majapàhit_ (1400), the most important in the history of Java, is stated as follows, the numbers being always reversed.

_Sírna_ _ílang_ _kertáning_ _Búmi_
Lost and gone is the work (pride) of the land.
0 0 4 1

In like manner, the date of the long graves at _Grésik_, near the tomb of the Princess of _Chermai_ (1313), is thus stated:

_Káya_ _wúlan_ _pútri_ _íku_
Like unto the moon was that Princess.
3 1 3 1

Other examples will be given, in detailing some of the principal events of Javan history.

However imperfect the foregoing general account of the languages of Java may be, it will have served to convey to the reader some notion of the extent to which it has been indebted to a foreign source for its copiousness and refinement, and to prepare him for that extensive influence of Hindu literature, which is still to be found in the compositions of the country. Of these the most important, and indeed all that have any claim to literary distinction, are found either in the _Káwi_ or in Javan versions from that classic language. On Java the establishment of a Mahomedan government for nearly four centuries, has tended in a great measure to obliterate that general knowledge among the better educated, which, there is reason to believe, once existed; but in _Báli_, the Hindu faith, however blended with the local customs of the island, and however perverted and distorted in its application by a semi barbarous people, is still the established religion of the country. Mahomedanism has gained but little ground there, and no part of the island has yet submitted to European authority. It was in this conveniently situated island that the adherents to that faith took refuge, when the sword of Mahomed prevailed on Java, carrying with them such remnants of the sciences and literature as they were able to rescue from the general wreck.

An account of the present state of the island of _Báli_, of the religious and political institutions, and of some of the peculiar customs and usages which subsist there, is essential to the illustration of Javan history; and although the limits of the present volume will not admit of our enlarging so much on this interesting subject as we could wish, it is hoped that a general notion may be formed, from the particulars which will be inserted in the chapter on the religion and antiquities of Java. In the following account of the literary compositions of Java, I shall avail myself of the more correct copies, which I was fortunate enough to obtain from _Báli_, confining myself in the explanation of them to the existing notions of the best informed of the Javans, it being the present state of their literature, rather than that of _Báli_, that I am now to describe.

The literature of Java may be considered under the general heads of ancient and modern, the former and more important division consisting of compositions in the _Káwi_ language, which appear connected with the mythology and fabulous history of continental India.

It is to be regretted, that the work which treats most extensively of the ancient mythology of the country, and of the earliest periods of fabulous history to which the Javans of the present day refer, is not to be found in the _Káwi_. The Javan work, termed _Kánda_, is probably a translation from the _Káwi_, and, in the absence of the original, claims our first attention. It is to this work, and the _Mánek Móyo_, of which an abstract will be given in the chapter on religion, that the modern Javans constantly refer for an explanation of their ancient mythology.

This composition is frequently called _Pepákam_. It contains the notions of mythology which appear to have been general throughout the Eastern Islands, with imperfect portions of their astronomical divisions, and of ancient history. It is to be regretted, however, that the Javan copy from which the following account is taken, though otherwise written in a very correct style, abounds in passages unfit for a chaste ear, and that it has been almost impossible entirely to purify it.

It opens with an account, first of _Sáng yáng Wénang_ (the most powerful), who was sixth in descent from _Purwáning Jan_ (the first of men, or Adam), and who had a son named _Sáng yáng Túng'gal_ (the great and only one), the first, who (as is inferred from the meaning of his name) conceived that he was above all, and who setting aside the ways of his father, established the heavens, with all that they contain, under the name of _Suréndra Buána_, or _Suraláya_.

Plucking a leaf from the _kastúba_ tree, and paying adoration to it, the leaf assumed the form of a beautiful woman, by whom he had four sons:--1, _Sáng yáng Púgu_; 2, _Sáng yáng Púng'gung_; 3, _Sáng yáng Sámba_; 4, _Sáng yáng Pang'at_. When these children attained maturity, _Púgu_ quarrelled with _Púng'gung_, on account of the splendour and riches of the dwelling of _Sáng yáng Túng'gal_, which each of them desired to possess. _Sáng yáng Túng'gal_ became enraged at this: not being able to reconcile them, the heavens became disturbed; he, in consequence, seized hold of both of them, _Púgu_ by the right and _Púng'gung_ by the left hand, and cast them aside. To the former, who fell on _Sábrang_ (the opposite coast), he gave the name of _Sécha Túng'gára_; to the latter, who fell on Java, he gave that of _Náyan-taka_ (the same with _Sémar_, the attendant on _Arjúna_). He converted them into monstrous figures, ridiculous in appearance and speech, exciting laughter by their actions, and with an inclination to follow in attendance on warriors.

_Sáng yáng Tung'gal_, who is said to have been invisible, and who in the _Wáyangs_ of the present day is designated by a sun or glory of light, transferred the government of heaven to his son, _Sáng yáng Sámba_, directing him not to separate from his remaining brother, whose assistance he would require, and conferring upon him the title of _Níla Kánta_ (blue necked), on account of his being of bright appearance, but having a tinge of blue on the front of his throat. To _Pang'at_, his brother, he gave the name of _Kaníka pútra_.

_Srí Níla Kánta_ subsequently assumed various names and titles; the most pre-eminent of which was _Pramésti Gúru_, by which name and title he is acknowledged as supreme throughout the Eastern Islands. This title was first conferred upon him when the deities in _Saraláya_ were numerous, and when all looked up to him as an instructor or _Gúru_. _Kaníka Pútra_ took the name of _Rési Naráda_.

The thoughts of _Sáng yáng Gúru_ turning one day upon women, he took a leaf of the _kastúba_ tree, and paying adoration to it, it was immediately converted into a most beautiful female, who took the name of _Uma_. While she was young he looked upon her as a daughter, but when she arrived at maturity, he felt a stronger passion. _Uma_ disliking this fled, and _Sáng yáng Gúru_ being unable to catch her, it occurred to him that he might be more successful if he employed four hands and arms; whereupon, at his desire, two additional arms sprang from his shoulders, and _Uma_ was immediately within his embrace. But she still resisted his desires, and during the struggle _Káma Sála_ and _Máha Praláya_, both _Rasáksas_, but the latter in the form of a man, were produced, by an event similar to that which gave birth to some of the children of Jupiter[134]. _Sáng yáng Gúru_ still observing the repulsive conduct of _Uma_, said to her, "your appearance is like that of a _Rasáksa_," whereupon she immediately assumed the form of one; and grieving sorely at this transformation, beseeched that she might again become what she had been, but _Sáng yáng Gúru_ was deaf to her entreaties, and he conferred upon her the name of _Káli Dúrga_.

_Káma Sála_ and _Máha Praláya_, when they arrived at maturity, mutually sought from each other to discover their descent, but not succeeding, they agreed to proceed in company to Suraláya, to demand information from _Sáng yáng Gúru_, resolving that, if they were not satisfied with his reply, they would make war against him. Arrived at _Suraláya_, they overcome the opposition of _Rési Naráda_, and reach the presence of _Sáng yáng Gúru_, who informs them that they are not his children, though they sprang from his body, and that it was the fault of the woman only that they had their present form. He tells them that he cannot allow them to remain in _Suraláya_, but will provide for them a place in which with their mother they may reside. He then appoints the mother to be sovereign of _Naráka (Tambráka múka_), under the title of _Yáma Dipáti_. To _Káma Sála_ he gives the title of _Batára Kála_; the other retained the name of _Máha Praláya_. To _Kála_ he assigns the charge of the bridge between earth and heaven, called _Wot ágal ágil_ (the tremulous or swinging bridge, over which a good man may pass in safety, but from which, on account of its being shaken by his sins, a bad man falls into the gulph below), and to _Máha Praláya_ that of the souls of men when they die, in order that he may direct to the bridge such as, from good conduct on earth, have a chance of passing it, and cast the others into _Naráka_, to his mother _Yáma Dipáti_.

_Sáng yáng Gúru_ was again inclined to take another leaf of the _kastúba_ tree, but apprehending that it might turn out as before, he restrained his inclination. Then purifying himself, there appeared before him, at his desire, a beautiful boy, to whom he gave the name of _Sámbu_, and after five more purifications, there successively appeared, secondly, a boy of a high colour, beautiful and very powerful, to whom he gave the name of _Bráma_; thirdly, a boy, appearing extremely powerful and enraged, to whom he gave the name of _Máha déwa_; fourthly, a boy beautifully white, bright, and fierce looking, and having sharp and sparkling eyes, to whom he gave the name of _Basúki_; fifthly, a boy of a deep black colour, but extremely beautiful, to whom he gave the name of _Wísnu_ (Vishnu); sixthly, a girl of a bright yellow colour, beautiful and slender, to whom he gave the name of _Warsíki_.

_Rési Naráda_[135] following the example of his superior, there appeared before him after several purifications, five boys. The first was brilliant and bright as a pure flame; on him _Sáng yáng Gúru_ conferred the name of _Súria_. The second was very weak and delicate, but well formed and beautiful; he received the name of _In dra_. The third was short and strong, and was named _Sákra_ (or _Chákra_). The fourth was of a blue colour, and looking as if he would grow to a great height, with curled hair like a _Papúa_[136]; on him, was conferred the name of _Báyu_. The fifth was most beautiful, but appeared sad and sorrowful; to him _Sáng yáng Gúru_ gave the name of _Chándra_.

This effected, _Sáng yáng Gúru_ considered that a sufficient number of deities had been created for the charge of _Suraláya_.

_Sáng yáng Gúru_ then turned his amorous thoughts towards _Warsíki_, but all the deities opposing it, _Rési Naráda_ advises him to take a woman from the earth, and offers himself to go in search of one. This being agreed to, _Naráda_ descends upon the earth, and discovers a most beautiful virgin, not yet arrived at maturity, at a place called _Mádang_; _Sáng yáng Gúru_ no sooner beheld her than he became enamoured of her, and giving the name of _Sri_, he places her under the charge of _Batára Sákra_, with especial injunctions to take care of her. When she arrived at maturity she became most beautiful, and it so happens that _Batára Wísnu_ beholds her by accident: they immediately feel a mutual passion, and _Wísnu_ obtains his desire. When _Sáng yáng Gúru_ hears of it, he becomes highly enraged; _Batára Wísnu_ is cast out from _Suraláya_ and thrown upon the earth, at a place called _Waríngen pítu_, or seven banyan trees.

[Here the narrative breaks off, and the story of _Wátu Gúnung_ commences as follows.]

There was a woman of the name of _Sínta_, who resided on the earth, and who had a younger sister named _Lándap_. _Sínta_ dreamt one night that she was sleeping with a _Pandíta_, named _Rési Gána_: after a few months she felt herself pregnant, and at the expiration of nine she was delivered of a most beautiful boy. This child, however, soon became unruly; and it happened that one day, when he had enraged his mother excessively, she struck him on the head with the wooden spoon which was in the rice vessel, on which he fled into the woods, and afterwards becoming a devotee, his mother long searched for him in vain.

At length having concluded his penance, he wandered about in quest of subsistence, until he came to the country of _Gíling Wési_, where he sought alms at a feast; but not being satisfied with the provision afforded to him, the parties became enraged, and hostilities ensuing, the Raja of the country was slain, and this boy succeeded him, under the title of _Rája Séla Perwáta_, which in the common language is the same as _Wátu Gúnung_, a name conferred upon him from his having rested on a mountain like a stone, and obtained his strength and power thereby, without other aid or assistance.

Becoming a great and powerful sovereign, he was still unmarried when his mother and sister arrived in the country. Ignorant who they were, and admiring their beauty, he espoused them both, and by his mother _Sínta_ had twenty-seven children, when being one day restless and anxious to sleep, he requested her to comb and scratch his head, in doing which she discovered the wound and recognized her son. Her grief became excessive, and explaining the circumstance to him, she urged him to obtain another wife from among the _Widadári_ of _Suraláya_, and recommended _Sri_ as a proper object of his choice.

_Wátu Gúnung_ thereupon sent an embassy to _Suraláya_, but the gods opposing his desires, because _Sri_ had been delivered of a child by _Wísnu_, he assembled his forces and nearly defeated those of _Suraláya_, when _Naráda_ pointing out the danger to _Sáng yáng Gúru_, urged the advantage that would arise from the recal of _Wisnu_. _Naráda_ was accordingly authorized to call him back, with a promise that if he should be victorious on the present occasion, he should be pardoned, and permitted to return to his former abode in _Suraláya_. _Wísnu_ was no sooner engaged in the cause, than he formed a stratagem with _Wilúwuh_, a demon _Rasáksa_, with whom he had become intimate at _Waríngen pítu_, and directed him to proceed to the sleeping place of _Wítu Gúnung_, in order to ascertain his secret. This spy had no sooner concealed himself in a place where he could overhear the conversation that was going on, than he heard the following discourse between _Wátu Gúnung_ and _Sínta_.

_Sínta._ "What think you; shall we be successful or not in this enterprise?"

_Wátu Gúnung._ "If the gods are so nearly destroyed by those who are subordinate to me, what must they not suffer when I go myself? for I shall not then have occasion to use force. I need only say a few words, and if they don't understand the meaning of them, they will forthwith be destroyed, and I shall myself become sovereign of _Suraláya_. Should they, however, comprehend the meaning of what I say, then I shall know that my power is gone; but still there will be trouble in putting me to death."

_Sínta._ "Tell me what are the words you mean to use, and why they have not the power to put you to death?"

_Wátu Gúnung._ "I shall enclose in my hand the _Sástra_ or description of my country, and holding it out, demand of them to tell me what it is. Then I shall repeat these words: _dáka wói díki_, and also _díki wói dáka_. The meaning of these words is easy enough, but the gods don't understand it: a great tree has small fruit; great fruit has a small tree. The great tree with small fruit means the _waríngin_ tree; the great fruit and small tree means the gourd. I am invulnerable by all weapons, but if they pull my two arms asunder, then will they find it easy to put me to death; but this the gods know not."

With this intelligence the spy immediately hastened to _Wísnu_, who arrived at _Suraláya_ when the gods were nearly beaten by the twenty-seven sons of _Wátu Gúnung_. After this success, _Wátu Gúnung_ approaching _Sáng yáng Gúru_, put the intended questions to him. The latter referring to _Wísnu_, they were immediately recognized by him, on which _Wátu Gúnung_ attempted to escape, but was soon overtaken by _Wísnu_, who laying hold of one of his arms, while his son, _Sri Gáti_, held the other, they soon succeeded in putting him to death. As he expired a voice was heard by _Wísnu_, saying, "think not that it will end here: hereafter trouble will again arise in _Suraláya_, in the time of _Rája Sumáli_, of the country of _Séla gríng'ging_, who will have a brother named _Mang'liáwan_. Forget it not."