Chapter IX (3)

The base of the principal building is much larger than any of the temples we visited in the eastern part of the island, and there appeared to have been originally two or three terraces rising one above the other to the height of thirty feet. The form of the entrance still appears, but the roof, sides, and back part of the building, have entirely given way. Behind the ruin, and apparently in the same spot on which it originally fell, lies a dilapidated image of a Hindu deity. The pedestal of this image is perfect, and lies near it. The head had been carried to _Mélang_ some years ago by a Dutchman. On the back stone we observed an inscription, evidently in the _Devanágari_ character, and which the Sepoy who accompanied us declared to be Sanscrit. The characters on each side were extremely distinct, but those at the back of the head of the figure were defaced.

This building is most richly ornamented with carved work, and various devices in relief are cut in the first, second, and third stories. One of these relievos represents a battle between an army of apparently polished people and an army of _Rasáksa_. The figures are very rudely carved and disproportioned, but in general richness of effect may be compared to the style of the ornaments at _Bóro Bódo_. There are a variety of processions and achievements represented in different parts, but no where could we observe any image or particular object of devotion. Along the cornices, which are most splendidly rich, we noticed birds and beasts of various descriptions interwoven. In one part a palm tree between two lambs approaching each other, in another a perfect boar, apparently led to the sacrifice.

At a short distance from this principal building, say fifty yards, stands the remains of what would appear to have been an elevated terrace of about twelve feet high. The ascent is on one side, by regular stone steps, still perfect.

Previously to leaving _Málang_ we took sketches of two images brought in from the fort, and also of the image of a man, peculiar from the manner in which the hair was tied. At _Málang_, also, I received from the _Tumúng'gung_ a small square stone-box, containing a golden _lingam_; this had been discovered three months before, about a cubit under ground, by a peasant, while digging for stones to build his cooking place. The _lingam_ had originally two very small red stones within it, something like rubies; one of them was lost before it was delivered to me, the other by the party examining it.

TEMPLES AT SÚKU.

The remains of antiquity still existing at _Súku_, though not to be compared with those at _Brambánan_ and _Bóro Bódo_ in extent and magnificence, seem to claim a peculiar interest, on account of the indication they afford of a different form of worship. These ruins were not known to Europeans until a short time previous to my visit to the central districts, in May 1815. When I visited them, the native inhabitants of _Súra-kérta_ were also ignorant of their existence, and we are indebted for the discovery to the British Resident at that court, Major Martin Johnson.

They lie in an eastern direction from _Séra-kerta_, and are distant from that capital about twenty-six English miles, being situated on the summit of one of the smaller hills to be found on the base of the mountain _Láwu_. From _Súra-kérta_ our road was a continued ascent, which increased as we approached the hills: the country most highly cultivated, and in the immediate vicinity of the hills, where the dry cultivation predominated, beautiful beyond description.

_Súku_ is the name of the village to which the lands in the neighbourhood of these ruins are annexed; and we were not able to ascertain that they were designated by any other name, or that the term _Súku_ had any immediate reference or application to the buildings.

The principal structure is a truncated pyramid, situated on the most elevated of three successive terraces. The ruins of two obelisks, having the form of the section of a pyramid, are also observable in the vicinity of the principal building, and on each side of the western front appear several piles of ruinous buildings and sculpture. The length of the terraces is about one hundred and fifty-seven feet; the depth of the first, eighty feet; of the second, thirty; and of the highest, one hundred and thirty feet.

The approach is from the west, through three porches or gateways, of which the outermost alone is now standing; but enough remains of the second and third to indicate a similarity of construction. This porch is a building of about sixteen feet high, in tolerable preservation, of a pyramidal form. The entrance is seven feet and a half high, and about three feet wide; a gorgon head forms the key-stone of the arch. The ascent is first by seven, and shortly after by three steps; and in relief, on the centre of the flooring under the porch, is a representation of the male and female pudenda.

On the outer face of the porch several figures are sculptured in relief. On the right side, the principal figure is that of a man of monstrous appearance devouring a child: to his right a dog sitting, the head wanting, and a bird of the stork kind near the root of a tree, on one of the branches of which a bird not unlike a dove or pigeon is perched; over the figure is a bird on the wing, either the hawk or eagle. Above the figure of a man with the tail of a writhing snake in his mouth, is another which appeared to us to be that of a sphynx; it is however represented as floating in the air, with the legs, arms, and tail extended. The tail is similar to that of the lizard species, and the hands appear to be webbed claws, but the body, limbs, and face, are human: the breasts distinguish it as female. Over this again is a small curling reptile, like a worm or small snake, reminding us of the asp.

On the north and on the south face of the gateway there is a colossal eagle with extended wings, holding in its talons an immense serpent, plaited in three folds, its head turned towards the eagle and ornamented with a coronet.

It was impossible to reflect on the design of these sculptures, without being forcibly struck with their reference to the ancient worship of Egypt. The form of the gateway itself, and of all the ruins within our view, was pyramidal. In the monster devouring the child we were reminded of _Typhon_; in the dog, of _Anoubis_; in the stork, of the _Ibis_: the tree, too, seemed to be the palm, by which the Egyptians designated the year; the pigeon, the hawk, the immense serpents, were all symbols of Egyptian worship.

Lying on the first terrace we observed several scattered stones, having various devices sculptured on them, some of human figures, one of a tiger wanting the head, which had been broken off, and several of elephants and oxen. On one we noticed the representation of a man on horseback, followed by five spearmen and a _páyong_ bearer. We then ascended by five steps to the second terrace, on which were also some scattered ruins of buildings and sculpture. Ascending again three steps we came to the third terrace, when the principal building appeared in front, at the distance of about ninety feet. The ruins of several other temples and buildings also appeared in irregular heaps on each side of its front.

This building is on the centre of the terrace. Its base is a perfect square, of forty-three feet and a half to the side, decreasing in size at each successive layer of stones, so as to form steps to the height of nineteen feet; above this is a sort of cornice, four feet nine inches high. The roof is twenty-one feet two inches from north to south, and nineteen feet nine inches from east to west. In the centre of it we observed a part raised, of about a foot square, pierced by a small round hole. It had the appearance of being intended as a pedestal, or step, to some object which had been removed.

The sides of the pyramid face the cardinal points. The western side contains a flight of narrow steps. At the top, in the front of the building, we noticed two serpents, which appear to have been used for water-pipes; with this exception, the whole building was plain and unornamented by sacred emblems. The sides of the staircase are faced with flat stones. The upper story or cornice is constructed with greater delicacy than the building generally. We were not able to ascertain whether there was any chamber within, and the point cannot be decided without material injury to the edifice. The eastern side seems to have suffered most from the effects of time.

Upon the ground on each side of the ascent is a large stone, in the shape of a tortoise, measuring not less than eight feet in length; the back flat, but the head well executed. A little advanced in front there is a third of the same description.

Near these, on the south side of the entrance, stand the remains of two temples, in one of which we discovered the ashes of fire recently kindled. The natives who attended informed us that the peasantry of the neighbouring villages were still in the habit of burning incense and kindling fire in this temple, and that when they suffered under or dreaded any misfortune, they made an offering of this nature in the hope of averting it. The building is about seven feet square, and on all sides various images are sculptured on it.

The other building, which is still further south, has a terrace in the centre, the steps ascending to which are still perfect. The building appears to retain nothing of its original pyramidal form, except at the south-east corner.

On different sides of this pile of building we noticed two inscriptions, each consisting of four characters. As they both agreed with various other inscriptions in this neighbourhood, except in the last character, which was different in all, we concluded that they were dates. To the north of the principal building, and almost contiguous to it, is an oblong structure, running east and west. On this there has evidently been a low terrace with a raised wall at the back. On the upper part of this terrace, and near the principal building, is a raised platform, from which rises an obelisk, somewhat similar to that noticed in the south, but of a much larger base, and ornamented with various devices on all sides. The spiral top is incomplete. Resting inclined upon the west front of the obelisk, is a statue, about four feet high and three feet broad[214].

On each side of the terrace, which is narrow and long, we observed, both above and below, various devices cut in relief; also a stone vase for containing water, respecting which a tradition runs, that it could never be empty. We also raised from the ground and took sketches of several slabs and stones in the vicinity, which had been thrown down on their faces. Of these, one represents a horned boar[215]. On another is an elephant, tolerably well executed. In another the chief figure is represented striking off human heads[216]. On another there is a dog standing erect, and dressed like a man, with some buildings remarkable for the correctness of the perspective. On another is a representation of the monkey flag[217], the standard of _Arjúna_, and even used at the present day by the _Gládak_[218] established at _Súra-kérta_.

We discovered, nearly buried in the ground, two gigantic statues with human bodies and limbs, but winged from the arms like bats, and with spurs above the heel like those of a cock. This figure occurs frequently in relief with some variation: sometimes with a fan-tail, and its wings extended, so as almost to form a circle[219]; in another the face appears devoid of flesh, and the figure is standing with one foot on an elephant and the other on a tortoise[220].

On the lappet of the waistband of one of these colossal statues we noticed an inscription of several lines; but the most interesting and perfect was discovered on the back of the other, after we had with much difficulty raised it to an erect posture. This last inscription is in excellent preservation, and consists of lines, in each of which there are characters. The perfect state of this part of the stone must be attributed to its having been protected from the weather by its position along the ground. This inscription, as well as all the others which we discovered, are raised from the stone in relief, in the same character as that first noticed, which differs from most which had previously been discovered on the island[221].

We noticed particularly, as forming an exception to the sculptures in general, another figure with four hands. It has a coronet on the head, and ear-rings, and from the back of the ear on each side appear to spring wings, which are half expanded over the back of each shoulder. The arms and hands were too mutilated to enable us to distinguish the attributes.

A little nearer to the north of the tortoises, in front of the principal building, stands a large erect statue[222], apparently in its original position; at the back of which, on a scroll hanging from the waistband, is an inscription of several lines; a figure holding a double-headed trident in each hand and having three spikes on each elbow, rudely executed, and elsewhere a _phallus_, upwards of six feet long and not less than five in circumference. It had been broken in halves, but the two parts were easily brought together: round the upper part are four large balls of equal dimensions: along the urethra is an inscription in two lines, the letters being one above the other, and on the upper part of one of these lines is the representation of a _kris_ blade, and two squares crossing each other just above the point, with a circle and other ornaments in the centre, so as to represent the sun; to the right of this is a representation of the moon in the first quarter; and further again to the right a small circle, representing a star: the whole in relief, very correctly executed, and in good preservation.

On one of the temples adjacent there are representations of a similar symbol cut in relief.

We observed several monstrous figures with clubs of different sizes. One in particular fronting the principal building, grinning most horribly, and two near the steps leading to the upper terrace from the south.

Below the upper terrace, on the south side, we noticed the foundation of a building of an oblong shape, with three large slabs, on which were sculptured several objects which appeared much to interest the Javans. On one we observed a manufacturer of _kris_ blades in the act of striking the steel. Above him are placed, as in his workshop, among several blades of different forms, a trident, a water-pot, a pair of shares, and something not very unlike Mercury's wand. On another stone is seen a man with the proboscis of an elephant, and in his hand a dog; on the third is a man blowing a Javan bellows.

The natives informed us, that the country people were in the habit of making offerings to these sculptures, which they highly esteemed, from a tradition that they represented the original Javan _túkang bési_, or workman in iron and steel.

The workmanship is ruder than that in the temples at _Brambánan_, _Bóro Bódo_, or _Málang_, and the worship must have been different.

Most of the images which are not in relief have been decapitated, and the heads are not to be found; but there still remains enough to enable a person well acquainted with heathen mythology, to decide on the classes to which they may generally be referred.

I could find no traditions regarding these temples; but subsequent examination has enabled us to decide that the character found in the inscriptions is an ancient form of the Javan, and that the dates are, on one of the stones, 1361, and on the larger phallus, 1362.

Besides the ruins of temples in brick noticed by Dr. Horsfield in the eastern provinces of the native princes, numerous buildings constructed of similar materials, are found extending from the site of _Majapáhit_ eastward as far as _Probolíngo_, near which, a few yards off the high road, are situated two temples in brick. The larger temple may be about sixty feet high.

All the temples of this class (that is to say, constructed in brick, for they all vary in their style) were probably built during the latter years of the Hindu religion. Those constructed of stone must be referred to a much earlier period.

Near Buitenzorg, and also at _Récha Dómas_, a few miles further inland, both places adjacent to the site of the ancient capital of _Pajajáran_, are found several rude images in stone, and among them a figure with three faces (_trimúrti_). Images of the same kind, as well as casts in metal, are also found in _Chéribon_. The latter are particularly prized by the chiefs of _Telága_, who are descended from the princes of _Pajajáran_, and consider these relics as representations of their forefathers. In the possession of the present _Tumúng'gung_ of _Telága_ is an ancient manuscript written on Javan paper, and folded up in the manner of the manuscripts of Ava. The characters appear to be ancient Javan or _Káwi_, but ill written. This manuscript contains drawings of deities, of the signs of the Zodiac, and numerous other astronomical, or perhaps rather astrological devices[223]. Of the history of the manuscript nothing is known, further than that the _Tumúng'gung_ and his family believe it to have come with the relics before-mentioned from _Pajajáran_. A copy of it has been brought to England.

Besides the extensive remains of temples and other edifices already mentioned in the districts east of _Chéribon_, where alone the antiquities deserve attention as works of art, there are to be found on the mountains of _Ung'árang_ the ruins of several very beautifully executed temples in stone, with numerous dilapidated figures, and among them several chariots of _Súría_, or the sun. Most of them are sadly mutilated, but enough was left to authorize a sketch of their original design[224].

The _Chándi Banyukúning_ (yellow water), which are so called from their vicinity to the village of that name, are situated within a few yards of a small volcanic crater, which at the time I visited them was in many parts too hot to be trodden with safety. They appear to have been built on extensive terraces cut out of the mountain, and rising one above another at intervals of some hundred yards. The natives assert, that the temples were formerly far more extensive, and that near the summit of several of the adjoining peaks other temples are to be found. But here, as in most parts of Java, the mountains for a considerable way below the summit have been covered for ages, with an almost impenetrable forest: and where this is not the case, the mountains have either been rent near their summit, or are covered with lava or ashes from volcanic eruptions, so that whatever may have formerly been the extent and grandeur of the edifices which once crowned these towering heights, they are at present either concealed or more frequently destroyed. Notwithstanding the diligent search made by the British during the short period of their stay on Java, there are doubtless many very interesting discoveries to be made.

In _Banyuwángi_, the most eastern province of the island, besides figures of Hindu deities, several others are to be found of extraordinary and grotesque appearance, which appear to represent the local deities of the island, and corresponding with those which are still worshipped on _Báli_. But whether they are to be considered as the deities of the Javans or Bálians is doubtful, as the Bálians long had possession of this province; and it is remarkable, that no such figures are to be found in the provinces further westward.

The traditions of the country concerning the former seats of government, enable us to trace at this day the site of _Médang Kamûlan_, _Jang'gála_, _Gegélang_ or _Sínga Sári_, _Dahá_ or _Kedíri_, _Pajajâran_, and _Majapáhit_, existing in remains of immense tanks, heaps of building materials, and other unequivocal vestiges of former cities.

_Médang Kamúlan_[225] was situated in the district of _Wirasába_, where in the centre of an extensive forest is pointed out the site of the _Setíngel_, distinguished by heaps of stones and bricks; and at no great distance from it are the walls and excavations of an extensive tank, several hundred feet in length and breadth. These ruins, of which little more can be said than that they are clearly discernible, are situated between _Penwadádos_ and the most eastern of the volcanic wells alluded to in a former part of this work. The natives have a superstition, that the site of this ancient capital cannot be visited without some misfortune attaching to the party who undertake the visit. Those whom I had, with some difficulty, induced to accompany me to the spot, did not fail to assure me that I should lose my government within the year. As the event justified the prediction, it is probable that the superstition has rather gained ground than otherwise. Many Javans maintain, that _Brambánan_ was the original of _Médang Kamúlan_; it is at least highly probable that it was once the seat of empire.

The site of _Jang'gála_ is still pointed out in the district of that name in the division of _Surabáya_, and the country around is strewed with antiquities. The same may be said of _Síng'a Sári_ and _Kedíri_. At _Pajajáran_, a heap of stones is pointed out as the ruin of the _Setíngel_, and numerous lines crossing the country between rivers, attest the care with which this position was entrenched. They may be seen close by the road side, at a few hundred yards from the governor-general's country residence, and in many places they have been cut through to make a passage for the high road.

At _Majapáhit_, in the district of _Wirasába_, the marks of former grandeur are more manifest. Here the walls of the tank, upwards of a thousand feet in length, and not less than six hundred in breadth, are quite perfect. They are of burnt brick, and about twelve feet high. The whole area of the tank, when I visited it, was one sheet of beautiful rice cultivation, and almost surrounded by a noble forest of teak.

A village adjacent is called _Tra Wúlan_, or _Tráng Wúlan_ (the light of the moon): here we found the tomb of _Pútri Chámpa_. Proceeding through three regular squares, each enclosed with a wall, and in each of which were erected several _pendápas_ or sheds, we came to the interior on ascending a few steps. On the right side of this enclosure, and elevated a few feet, was the tomb of the princess and her nurse; the tomb being in the Mahomedan style, and having upon it, in ancient Javan characters, the date 1320, perfectly distinct and in relief. On the other side are the tombs of _Kiái Tumúng'gung Jáya Báya_, _Den Mas_, and nine other chiefs whose names are mentioned. The tomb is religiously guarded by several priests.

The ruins of the palace and several gateways of burnt brick are to be seen; but the whole country, for many miles, is thickly covered with a stately teak forest, which appears to have been the growth of ages, so that it is difficult to trace the outline of this former capital. Ruins of temples, mostly executed in brick, are scattered about the country for many miles, and attest the extent and grandeur of this "pride of Java."

I observed near the former site of _Majapáhit_ two images of _Ganésa_, and some other mutilated deities of the Hindu mythology. Near the tank was the figure represented in one of the plates[226], partly human and partly of the form of a bird, and a distorted figure, which the Javans called _Ménak Jing'ga_; but in general the vicinity of _Majapáhit_ is remarkable for the absence of any representations of the Hindu deities. The temples are beautifully decorated with representations of flowers, and other peculiar ornaments, which it would be difficult to describe.

The only collection which appears to have been made by Europeans of these interesting remains of antiquity, previously to the establishment of the British government in 1811, was by Mr. Engelhard, formerly governor of _Semárang_. In the garden of the residency of that station, several very beautiful subjects in stone were arranged, brought in from different parts of the country. Of them, and of several others, which appear to have been brought into some of the native villages from the vicinity of the different temples, drawings have been taken, and the representations of _Ganésa_[227] and _Dúrga_ (called _Lora Jóngran_), both from subjects as large as life, wrought in close-grained stone, will serve to convey some notion of the beauty and delicacy with which they are executed.

I shall conclude this very general and imperfect account of sculpture on Java, by referring the reader to the plate, containing representations of several subjects in stone[228], collected and arranged in the Chinese temple of worship in the neighbourhood of Batavia. The period at which they were collected is not known, and the subjects in general are not so well executed as those found in the eastern parts of the island; but it is remarkable, that the Chinese, whose form of worship is at present so different from that of the Hindus (however similar it may have been formerly) should in a foreign land thus prize and appreciate the idols of the people whom they affect to hold in contempt[229].

Another plate exhibits several subjects in stone, collected from the vicinity of _Bóro Bódo_ in _Kedú_. The originals are as large as life, and the sculpture and ornaments are executed with great skill. No. 2 is an image with three heads (or _trimúrti_,) similar to one on _Gúnung Dieng_. No. 3 is a mutilated image of _Bráhma_, having four faces; this was found in a field within a few hundred yards of the great temple of _Bóro Bódo_. The image No. 4 also occurs on _Gúnung Práhu_.

The casts in metal which have been discovered in the central districts of Java are numerous. The subjects represented in the plates annexed were selected from a collection of about a hundred brought by me to this country. They had most of them been found at different times near the ruins of the temples, and preserved in the families of the petty chiefs. I am indebted to Mr. Lawrence, the Resident of _Kédú_, for many of them, which were brought in to him by the natives, on its being generally known that subjects of the kind were interesting to the British authorities.

These casts are generally of copper, sometimes of brass, and rarely of silver. The majority and best executed were found in the vicinity of _Gúnung Dieng_; and it is asserted that formerly many gold casts of a similar description were discovered, which have been melted down. The village of _Káli Béber_, situated at the foot of the mountain, is said from time immemorial to have paid its annual rent, amounting to upwards of a thousand dollars, in gold, procured by melting down the relics of antiquity discovered in the vicinity; but for some years past, no more golden images being found, the rents are paid in the coin of the country.

Among the casts which are now exhibited will be observed two images of _Bráhma_; one with eight arms, standing upon a male and female figure; the other with four, on a pedestal surmounted by the lotus, having a fragment of the goose in front. The former, in particular, is most beautifully executed.

The casts vary from three to six inches in height, and abound in a variety of delicate ornaments, which it has not been attempted to represent in the plates.

Several copper cups, varying from three to five inches in diameter, and having the signs of the zodiac and other designs represented upon them in relief, have likewise been discovered in different parts of the island. A fac simile (reduced) of them is given in the annexed plate.

As the Javans of the present day attach no particular designation to the different deities, except that of _Gána_ and other terms to _Ganésa_, and that of _Lóro Jóngran_ to _Dúrga_, I have not thought it necessary to attach to all the representations the names which some of them may bear in the Hindu mythology of continental India. Many of them do not occur in Moor's Pantheon: some are decidedly Braminical, others Budh, and some it is difficult to class under either head.

A variety of bells, tripods, and ornaments of various descriptions, occur in casts of metal, and form part of the collection brought to England. These are of a small size, seldom exceeding a few inches in length, although bells sometimes occur much larger; several of them are represented in one of the plates.

The inscriptions engraved on stone, and in characters no longer understood by the people of the country, are innumerable: similar inscriptions engraved on copper have also been found in particular districts. The whole may be classed under the following heads:

1. Inscriptions in the ancient _Davanágari_ character of continental India.

2. Inscriptions in characters which appear to have some connection with the modern Javan, and were probably the characters used by the people of _Súnda_.

3. Inscriptions in various characters, not appearing to have any immediate connection with either the _Davanágari_ or the Javan characters, and which it has not been practicable to decypher.

4. Inscriptions in the _Káwi_ or ancient Javan character.

Of these the first seem to lay claim to the highest antiquity. The principal inscription of this kind, and indeed the only one of any length, is that found at _Brambánan_, and noticed by Colonel Mackenzie in his interesting account of the ruins of _Brambánan_, as a real Hindu _Sassanum_. The stone, which is now broken into six parts, was originally six feet nine inches long and three feet six wide, in the shape of a tomb-stone, and the whole of one face is covered with characters, which appear to have been very well executed.

Fac-similes of this inscription having been brought to Europe, the characters were immediately recognized by Mr. Wilkins as an ancient form of the _Devanágari_, in use upon the continent of India, probably about eight or nine centuries since. It is to be regretted, that from the constant exposure of the stone, and the fractures which it has received, the characters are in many parts effaced, so as to render it almost impossible to connect the sentences. No date can be discovered, nor any name which might afford a clue to the object or origin of the inscription. From such detached parts as are legible, it appears to be a record of some grant of honour or riches to the party whose praises it records. A specimen of a sentence from this inscription, of the same size as the original, with the corresponding characters in the modern _Devanágari_[230], appears in the chapter on Language and Literature.

Similar characters, though apparently somewhat more modern, are found on several images at _Sínga Sári_, transcripts of some of which will be seen in the plates to this work.

Of the second class are the inscriptions on the _Bátu túlis_, or engraved stone, standing near the ruins of the ancient capital of _Pajajárán_, and those found at _Kwáli_, in the province of _Chéribon_, to which place it is related that some of the princes of _Pajajárán_ fled on the overthrow of that capital by the Mahomedans. The characters on these inscriptions appear very nearly to resemble each other. The stone at _Pajajárán_, as far as I could decypher it, with the assistance of the _Panambáhan_ of _Súmenap_, appears to be a record in praise of a certain _Maharája_, whose name is not mentioned. One of these at _Kwáli_, a fac-simile of which is exhibited in the plate, we were enabled to translate as follows:

"The _Pandíta_ is able to check the evil course of men, by washing away their evil inclinations, and he can shew them the right way, and prevent covetousness and slander by his good advice. 1363."

At _Kwáli_ there are several other inscriptions in the same character, but in common with the whole of this class very rudely executed. Several of the characters and signs were found, on strict examination, to be on the same principle as the Javan.

Of the third class the reader will find a fac-simile on a reduced scale[231].

But the inscriptions of the last of these classes are the most numerous, the best executed, in the highest state of preservation, and as they admit of translation, are of perhaps higher interest than the others. Of these some have been already noticed in Dr. Horsfield's account of the remains of antiquity in the vicinity of _Kedíri_ (formerly called _Dahá_); many have been found in the vicinity of the supposed site of the ancient capital of _Jang'gála_, in the division of the modern _Surabáya_, and some at _Bátu_, near _Sínga Sári_. These are invariably engraved on large flat stones, in the shape of tomb-stones, resting upon a kind of throne of lotus leaves[232]. Fac-similes of the whole of these have been brought to England, and several have been translated into English.

In the collection of inscriptions at _Surabáya_, the following dates appear:

On a stone found near _Jang'gála_ 863
On another found near the same place 845
On another from the _Kendang_ hills 865

Several prior dates, as 116, 363, 647, 773, are mentioned in the body of these inscriptions, which seem to refer to historical events of preceding centuries; but the dates above mentioned, with some others, appear in the usual place to shew the actual date of the inscription itself.

The date of a similar inscription found in _Kedú_ is 505, and of another stone found in the central districts, 506; but it has not yet been ascertained what particular events these inscriptions record. The annexed translations from three of the stones collected at _Surabáya_, were made by Captain Davey at my request, with the assistance of the _Panambáhan_ of _Súmenap_[233].

Inscriptions in the same character have likewise been found on copper, very beautifully executed, and in a high state of preservation. The date on one of these has been ascertained to be 735, and on another, 865. I found several collected in the Museum of the Society of Arts and Sciences at Batavia[234].

The _Panambáhan_ of _Sumenap_ was able to read the latter without difficulty; but finding them to be filled with terms of praise and devotion which he could not comprehend, it was not attempted to render a literal translation. One of the plates (No. 3), to which at my request he devoted particular attention, contains an invocation to _Sang yang Bráma_, to favour and prosper the country of _Gegélang_ (_Sínga Sári_), and to give assistance, by means of _Jáya Kátsang_, in repelling all evils and attacks, so that the country may become celebrated and flourishing.

The country of _Gegélang_ (_Sínga Sári_) flourished in the time of _Pánji_.

Another of these plates (No. 9) contains an invocation of a similar nature, in favour of the country of _Dahá_ (_Kediri_), which flourished at the same time.

In some of the eastern districts of the Native Provinces and at _Súku_, near the mountain _Láwu_, inscriptions on stone occur in relief. Some of them occupy stones several feet high, and are written in well executed letters, above an inch square. The date of one of these is 1363. A fac-simile of another of the same kind reduced, is given in the plate[235].

The following is a translation of this inscription, as far as it could be rendered into modern Javan by the _Panambáhan_ of _Súmenap_.

"This is an advice to mankind, whose ignorance arises out of a covetous desire to obtain more than they possess. If mankind were not by their disposition inclined to be covetous of what others possess, and to scandalize each other, where would be the use of advice; when they are receiving advice, they have a confidence in doing what is right, but afterwards they follow their natural inclinations. Therefore, oh ye men of the city, be advised by this, not to follow such dispositions, but to do what is required of you by the times and the customs of the country, and be not singular."

In the present burial place at _Grésik_ are the tombs of several of the early Mahomedan missionaries, most of them of stone, bearing inscriptions with dates. That of _Sheik Mulána Ibrahim_ is in marble, and in good preservation, having the date 1334 (409 years since). Here is also the tomb of _Mulána Mach'ríbi_, who was antecedent to _Ibrahim_. This has, however, fallen to decay, and has no legible inscription.

The entrance to the cemetery is through several squares enclosed by walls and gateways, some of them very ancient, and in the same style of architecture as distinguishes those of _Majapáhit_. On the side of the gateway leading to the division in which are the most ancient tombs, is a small stone pillar, with the date 1340 upon it in relief. Passing on to the division in which the family of the regents is interred, are also to be noticed many relics in stone, brought from some of the Hindu ruins. Among these is a gigantic toad or frog, and an oblong vessel of three feet long, having in relief the date 1246. On the side of the tomb of the great grandfather of the present regent, is a _Yóni_, said to have been brought from _Majapáhit_, and in this Mahomedan sanctuary serving as a kneeling or resting place to the tomb. Similar relics are to be found in other burial places in the eastern part of the island, most of the chiefs priding themselves upon having some remnant of _Majapáhit_. At the residence of the regent of _Surabáya_ are also collected several curious remains; and in particular a large bath, excavated from a solid stone about six feet long.

In the central and eastern districts of Java, in the vicinity of the dilapidated temples, are found numerous ancient coins in brass and copper, exhibiting various subjects in relief, and invariably with a hole in the middle for the convenience of stringing them. Those which are represented in the plate[236] are taken indiscriminately from a collection of upwards of a hundred brought to England, the dates annexed to each being determined by the _Chándra Sangkála_, as explained for each particular coin by the _Kiái Adipáti_ of _Demák_. Thus the last, which has the date 1568, is explained as follows:

_Naga_ _hoba_ _wisaya_ _jalma_
Snakes move work men
8 6 5 1

That is to say, "snakes are moving while men are working:" alluding to the two snakes which appear entwining together between and above the two men who are mastering an animal. The coin with the date 1489, bears a Javan inscription of _Pangéran Rátu_, the title by which a prince of Bantam, who reigned in that year, is recognized by the Javans.

The mode of determining these dates by the _Chándra Sangkála_, appears however so uncertain and ill understood, that perhaps but little reliance is to be placed on it. I have, nevertheless, given them, in order to show the notion of the Javans on the subject, and as it is not improbable they may be found useful in illustrating the early history of the country. Many of the coins not European or Indian, found in the Archipelago, as well as in China and Japan, have a hole in the centre. These coins seem to have been of home manufacture: the execution is rude; but the figures, such as they are, in general well defined and clearly expressed. In the vicinity of the principal temples have been found small silver coins, about the size of a Madras pagoda, bearing the impression of a small cross, and of some rude and unintelligible characters.

But perhaps the most striking and interesting vestige of antiquity which is to be found in the Eastern Seas, is the actual state of society in the island of _Báli_, whither the persecuted Hindus took refuge on the destruction of _Majapáhit_, and where the Hindu religion is still the established worship of the country. This interesting island has hitherto been but little explored by Europeans, and what we know of it is only sufficient to make us anxious to know more. I visited the island in 1815, and such particulars concerning it as the limits of the present work admit of will be found in Appendix K.

In the course of the present work it has been my object to convey to the public, in as compressed a form as my time permitted, and without bias from previously conceived opinions or new theories, the information which I possessed. The antiquities of Java, however, afford such an ample and interesting subject for speculation, that I shall presume on the reader's desire for some opinion concerning their origin and purpose.

With respect to the remains of architectural grandeur and sculptural beauty which have been noticed, I shall simply observe, that it seems to be the general opinion of those most versed in Indian antiquities, that the large temple of _Bóro Bódo_ (a corruption perhaps of the _Bára Búdha_, or the Great Budh,) and several others, were sacred to the worship of _Budh_. The style and ornament of this temple are found much to resemble those of the great _Budh_ temple at _Gai-ya_, on the continent of India, and it is probable that it may have been constructed by the same people, perhaps even by the same artists. The _Devanágari_ characters on the inscription found at _Brambánan_ are recognized by Mr. Wilkins to be such as were in use on continental India eight or nine hundred years ago. The date of several inscriptions in the ancient Javan characters, found in the central part of Java, is in the sixth century, supposed to be of the present Javan era, and the traditions of the Javans concerning the arrival of enlightened strangers, and an intimate connexion between Java and continental India, for the most part refer this intercourse to the sixth and three following centuries, that is to say, to the period of the empires of _Medang Kamúlan_ and _Jáng'gala_.

Mahomedanism having become the established religion in the year 1400 (A.D. 1475,) all the great works of a Pagan character must, of course, be referred to an earlier period.

The ruins at _Majapáhit_ and its vicinity are distinguished by being principally, if not entirely, of burnt bricks, a circumstance which justifies us in assigning an anterior date to most of the edifices constructed of a different material. The date found on the ruins at _Súku_, and some few other places, may be an exception to this rule; but the sculpture of these is coarse and rude compared to the magnificent remains in stone found elsewhere. On this account it is reasonable to conclude, that the arts at that period had considerably declined. The edifices and sculptures at _Sínga Sári_ were probably executed in the eighth or ninth century, that being the period of the greatest splendour of this state; and as the style and decorations of the buildings, as well as the execution of the sculpture, appear very nearly to resemble those of _Brambánan_, _Bóro Bódo_, &c. it is probable that the whole were constructed about the same period, or within the same century, or at any rate between the sixth and ninth century of the Christian era.

From the extensive variety of temples and sculpture, as well as from that of the characters found in the ancient inscriptions, it is probable that Java has been colonized from different parts of the continent of Asia.

The Budhist religion is by many deemed of higher antiquity than what is now called the Braminical; and it seems generally admitted, that the followers of _Budh_ were driven by the Bramins to the extremes of Asia and the islands adjacent. The Jains and Budhists had probably the same worship originally, from which the Bramins or priests may have separated, after the manner in which it has been said the Jesuits of Europe once aimed at universal empire; and when we consider that the religion of _Budh_, or some modification of it, is still the prevailing worship of Ceylon, Ava, Siam, China, and Japan, we are not surprized to find indications of its former establishment on Java.

To trace the coincidences of the arts, sciences, and letters of ancient Java, and those of Egypt, Greece, and Persia, would require more time and more learning than I can command. Such investigations I must leave to the reader, deeming myself fortunate, if in recording their vestiges in the traces of a high state of civilization, to be found in the ruins, languages, poetry, history, and institutions of Java, I have succeeded in obtaining any share of his interest and respect for a people whom I shall myself ever consider with peculiar esteem and affection.

In the archives of the princes of Java are deposited histories of their country, extending from a remote antiquity to the latest date. It is principally from abstracts of these, made at my request, in three different parts of the country, by the _Panambáhan_ of _Súmenap_, the late _Kiái Adipáti_ of _Demak_, and the secretary of the _Pangéran Adipáti_ of _Súra-kérta_, all distinguished among their countrymen for literary attainments, that the two following chapters have been compiled. The abstract presented by the _Kiái Adipáti_ of _Demák_ being the most continuous, forms the main stream of the narrative.

Copies, versions, and detached fragments of history, are found in the possession of every family of distinction. Of these I have occasionally availed myself.

So much of the native accounts as relates to the period anterior to the establishment of the empire of _Jang'gala_, in the ninth century, is confused, obscure, contradictory, and interpolated with the fabulous and heroical histories of continental India; but from that epoch they correspond essentially, and from the subversion of Paganism (A.D. 1475) they are circumstantial, and claim attention, not only as illustrative of the character of the people, but as historical records of the transactions of the times. Much abridgment has been requisite: the passages between inverted commas are however literal translations from the native writings; and those so distinguished, subsequent to the arrival of the Dutch, are from the original histories. In the course of the narrative, a Dutch abstract of the native history, by Mr. Middlecoop, has occasionally been consulted.

Besides these historical relations, called _Bábat_, as _Bábat Jang'gála_, _Bábat Matárem_, &c. the native princes and chiefs have been in the habit of keeping a register of the principal events, in the form of a chronological table. These are not very consistent in what regards events anterior to the Mahomedan conversion. From these tables is formed that which is annexed to the following history. All that is subsequent to the establishment of _Matárem_ is translated from the records of the court of _Suru-kérta_.

FOOTNOTES:

[203] See Chapters on History.

[204] "The religion of the Javans is in general Mahomedan, but mingled with many superstitious doctrines derived from the ancient Pagan worship. The Javans, however, are far from bigots to their religion, as other Mahomedans generally are. They are mild and tractable by nature, and although they do not easily forget or forgive an injury, they would be a quiet well disposed people under good laws and a mild government. The murders, and other crimes, which are now committed in some places, are to be attributed more to the present faulty administration than to any bad dispositions in the people. The same may be remarked of the indolence and indifference which now characterize them. Property in the land, with personal and commercial freedom and security, would soon render them industrious."--_Hogendorp's Memoir on Java_, 1800.

[205] The Javans observe of the Mahomedans of continental India, that they would rather drink wine than eat pork; while the Javans, on the contrary, would rather eat pork than drink wine.

[206] In the account which has been given of the literature of the Javans, the most esteemed compositions connected with their ancient faith have been referred to; but as most of these, such as the _Ráma_, _Bráta Yúdha_, _Níti Sástra_, and others, are in many respects similar to corresponding works on the continent of India, it may not be uninteresting, while treating of the religion of the country, to give some account of the _Mánek Máya_, a composition in prose, which in its origin and story appears to be perfectly local, and which contains many of the peculiar notions still entertained by the people of the beginning of the world, &c. It is a work in high estimation among the modern Javans, and continually referred to. The copy in the Javan language from which the annexed translation was extracted, was procured as an especial favour from the present _Susúnan_. It has obviously been compiled since the establishment of Mahomedanism, but neither the time at which it was written, nor its author, is known.

[207] Now Surveyor-General of India.

[208] _Bándar_ is the term given to the Chinese farmer of the toll ports or transit duties; whence _bandáran_, the place or residence of the _bándar_.

[209] _Récha_ is the term given by the Javans to all the remains of antiquity generally, but particularly to the images of their former worship.

[210] So termed by the people of the neighbouring villages. _Bóro_ is the name of the district, _bódo_ means ancient.

[211] These figures measure above three feet in height in a sitting posture, and with the images found in the towers exactly resemble those in the small temples at _Chándi Séwu_.

[212] Drawings of the present and former state of this edifice, and illustrative of the sculptural ornaments by which it is distinguished, have been made, and have been long in the hands of the engraver.

[213] Here, according to the tradition of the Javans, are to be found the ruins of _Arjúna_, _Gatut Kácha_, _Bíma_, _Derma Kasúma_, _Sa Déwa_, and other characters who figured in the _Bráta Yúdha_, or war of the _Pándus_.

[214] See No. 7 of the Plate, from the ruins of Subru.

[215] See No. 2, same Plate.

[216] See No. 1, same Plate.

[217] See No. 3, same Plate.

[218] An establishment consisting of a certain number of men and horses always kept in readiness for the public service.

[219] See No. 4, same Plate

[220] See No. 6, same Plate.

[221] See No. 8, same Plate.

[222] See No. 10, same Plate: others of the same kind were subsequently discovered at _Kedíri_ and farther east.

[223] For the signs of the Zodiac and extracts from this manuscript, see Astronomy, vol. i.

[224] See Plate.

[225] See chapter on History.

[226] See Plate from subjects in stone, No. 5.

[227] See Plate.

[228] See Plate from a subject in stone, brought from Brambanay.

[229] See Plate.

[230] See Plate.

[231] See Plate of an inscription in the district of Balongan.

[232] See Plate.

[233] See Appendix I.

[234] See a fac simile of one of them in the Plate.

[235] See Plate of an ancient inscription at Suku.

[236] See Plate, Ancient Coins, with their supposed dates.