Chapter I (2)

To this general result may be added the comparative casualties in his Majesty's 78th regiment, during the period of its being stationed in India and Java. This regiment has occasionally been cantoned at each of the principal stations, and has remained on the island from the first conquest of Java. By the table will be seen the number of rank and file of which this regiment consisted at different periods, since 1797 to 1815, and the number of casualties in the same periods. It might not be proper to select the years in which it landed on the continent of India or on Java; but those in which it was stationed in either country may be brought together, as fit subjects for comparison. By calculation, upon the data of the table, it will appear, that from December 1800 to December 1801, the deaths were to the number of troops as 1 to about 20½; in 1801-2, as 1 to 12; in 1803-4, as 1 to 5¼; in 1804-5, as 1 to 8½; in 1805, as 1 to about 20; in 1806-7, as 1 to 28 nearly; in 1807-8, as 1 to 24½; in 1809-10, as 1 to about 23; in 1811-12, as 1 to 3¾; in 1813-14, as 1 to 6; and in 1814-15, as 1 to about 20 nearly. The places at which the regiment was stationed at these different periods will be seen by the table; and the cause of the unusual mortality that prevailed in 1811-12, and which exceeds any of the years on the continent, will be found in an extract from the letter of Dr. Currie, the surgeon, inclosing the return. The mortality in the last year was as 1 to 20 in the regiment, and among the whole troops, according to the data above, as 1 to about 30; a low estimate for climates, whose characters stand higher for salubrity than that of Java.

That the climate of Java, in general, is congenial to the human frame, at least to that of an Asiatic, is corroborated by the great extent of its native population, compared with that of the surrounding islands, notwithstanding the checks which it experienced both from the native princes and the European government; and the convincing proof which the records of the British army now afford, are perhaps sufficient to remove the unfavourable impression which existed against the climate of the island, as affecting Europeans.

At the same time, however, that Java has to boast this general character of high salubrity, comparatively with other tropical climates, it is not to be denied that there are some spots upon it which are decidedly unhealthy. These are to be found along the low swampy marshes of the northern coast, which are mostly recent encroachments upon the sea: the principal of these is Batavia, the long established capital of the Dutch eastern empire.

The climate of this city has ever been considered as one of the most baneful in the world. It has even been designated the storehouse of disease; with how much justice, is too woefully demonstrated by the writings of those visitors who have survived its perils, and the records of the Dutch East-India Company itself. If we may credit Raynal,[29] there perished between the years 1714 and 1776, in the hospitals of Batavia, above eighty-seven thousand sailors and soldiers. From the table, No. 1, imperfect as it is, on account of the loss of many of the registers at the period of the British conquest, it will be seen what a large proportion the deaths bore to the whole population; and from the table, No. 2, of the same Appendix, discovered among the Dutch records, it appears further, that the total amount of deaths in this city, from the year 1730 to the year 1752, was in twenty-two years more than a million of souls.

To those who are acquainted with the manner in which the affairs of the Dutch East-India Company were managed abroad, there will perhaps be no difficulty in laying rather at the door of the colonists, than of the nation, the crime of maintaining a commercial monopoly, at such a dreadful expence of lives as resulted from confining the European population within the narrow walls of this unhealthy city. That the sacrifice was made for that object, or to speak more correctly, under that pretext, for the private interests of the colonists who were entrusted with its details, can scarcely be doubted. From the moment the walls of the city were demolished, the draw-bridges let down, and free egress and ingress to and from the country was permitted, the population began to migrate to a more healthy spot, and they had not to go above one or two miles beyond the precincts before they found themselves in a different climate. But this indulgence, as it gave the inhabitants a purer air, so it gave them a clearer insight into the resources of the country, and notions of a freer commerce, which, of all things, it was the object of the local government and its officers to limit or suppress.

Necessity might have first determined the choice of the spot for the European capital; but a perseverance in the policy of confining the European population within its walls, after so many direful warnings of its insalubrity, cannot but lead to the inference, that either the monopoly of the trade was considered a greater object to the nation than the lives of the inhabitants, or that the more liberal views of the government were defeated by the weakness or corruption of its agents.

Of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, as of the mineral, we shall content ourselves with such an account as may be necessary to convey to the reader a general notion of the nature of the country and its resources, referring the man of science to the intended publication of Dr. Thomas Horsfield, a gentleman whose sole attention has, for the last seven years, been directed to the natural history of Java.

Java is distinguished not only by the abundance of its vegetation, but by its extraordinary variety. Upwards of a thousand plants are already contained in the herb-area of Dr. Horsfield, of which a large proportion are new to the naturalist. Between the tops of the mountains and the sea-shore, Java may be considered as possessing at least six distinct climates, each furnishing a copious indigenous botany, while the productions of every region in the world may find a congenial spot somewhere in the island.

Vegetable productions, which contribute to the food and sustenance of man, are found in great variety. Of these the most important is rice, which forms the staple grain of the country, and of which there are upwards of a hundred varieties. Maize, or Indian corn, ranks next, and is principally cultivated in the higher regions, or in those tracts where the soil is unfavourable to the rice cultivation. The bean, or _káchang_, of which there are many varieties, is an important article of food. Of the sugar-cane, which is used by the natives only in its raw state, they distinguish eight varieties, an account of which, as well as of the cultivation of coffee, pepper, indigo, tobacco, &c. will be found in the chapter on agriculture. Aniseed, _múngsi_, cummin-seed, _márícha_ (black pepper), _chábi jáwa_ (long pepper), _kumúkus_ (cubebs), socha dolichos, and _mendéking_, plants of considerable importance, may be considered as indigenous to the island, and are collected for various uses in diet and medicine.

Besides the cocoa-nut and other productions more generally known, there are many trees growing spontaneously, of which the seeds and kernels are used as food; the principal of these are the _peté_, _jéngkol_, and _kómlandíngan_, several species of the mimosa, and the _púchang_ and _kamíri_. The bread-fruit tree grows on Java, and is of the same species (although inferior in quality) with that of the South Sea Islands: but the fruit is comparatively very little esteemed or employed as an article of food.

Of tuberous roots, besides those furnished from the principal genera, convolvulus, dioscorea, and arum, are those from the _bangkwang_ (dolichos bulbosus), the roots of which are much esteemed by the natives, and the _kéntang jáwa_ (ocymum tuberosum) or Java potatoe. Most of the numerous varieties of the convolvulus and dioscorea, which furnish food for the natives, have been enumerated in one of the first volumes of the Batavian Transactions. The jatropha manihot, called _úwi blanda_, or _wúdo_, has been propagated through all parts of Java, and is found growing in the hedges.

The true sago of Amboina and the Eastern Islands, is found only solitary in a few low and marshy situations, and the preparation of it from the pith of the tree is not known to the inhabitants of Java: the leaves only are employed for covering houses; but from the _áren_, or sagurus rumphii, which grows abundantly in every part of the island, and on account of its variously extensive uses, ranks next in importance to the cocoa-nut, a substance is prepared, similar in all respects to the true sago of the Eastern Islands. The tops of various trees of the palm kind, which are sought after in other parts of the East as food, are, on account of the abundance of rice and other esculent vegetables, but little regarded in Java; but the young shoots of many varieties of the _bambu_ are used in the diet of the natives. Wheat and potatoes, with almost every species of European vegetables, are cultivated with success. Of the oil-giving plants a particular account will be given when describing the agriculture of the country.

Java, in common with the Malayan islands in general, abounds in indigenous fruits. "No region of the earth," observes Mr. Marsden, "can boast an equal abundance and variety of indigenous fruits." The _mangústin_, which on account of its acknowledged pre-eminence amongst Indian fruits, has been termed the pride of these countries; the _durian_, or _dúren_, to which the natives of these islands are so passionately attached; the _rámbutan_, the _lánseh_ or _lánseb_, with an extensive variety of the jack, the mango, the plantain, the guava, the pine-apple, the papaw, the custard-apple, the pomegranate, and almost every species of fruit which grows within the tropics, are here found in the greatest variety. The tamarind tree is general. The island also produces many kinds of oranges, citrons, lemons, and in particular the pumplemous (known in Bengal under the name of the Batavian lembu, or lime, and in the West Indies as the shaddock), besides the _sáwu_, _klédung_, _pachítan_, and a variety of others, not generally known to Europeans, but well calculated for the table. Of the mango, at least forty varieties are enumerated; the wild raspberry, which is found in the higher regions, is not destitute of flavour; one kind, in particular, with dark violet-coloured fruit, approaches in taste to the European species. In some of the mountainous tracts are to be found peaches, Chinese pears, and some other fruits imported from Japan, the Cape of Good Hope, and China.

Among innumerable flowers which bloom in perpetual succession throughout the year, and impregnate the air of these countries with their fragrance, those of the _champáka_, _tán-jong_, _meláti_, _kanáng'a_ and _nágasári_, hold the first rank; they are used by the natives in the ornament of their persons, and are remarkable for their fragrance. The myrtle and rose are found in the gardens of Europeans. A great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs, many of them overlooked in the catalogues of Rhumphius and Van Rheede, have been noticed, as deserving cultivation for their utility as well as beauty.

The medicinal plants of Java have been described in an account published in the Batavian Transactions: among these are many which are employed in the daily practice of the natives, of which a large proportion have not been subjects of investigation or experiment by Europeans, and others which had not previously been botanically described or classed. In a country hitherto imperfectly explored, and abounding in profuse vegetation, it was natural to calculate on the discovery of many useful medicinal plants; and among upwards of sixty, described, for the first time, by Dr. Horsfield, he particularly notices several, as likely to become most valuable articles in general medicinal practice.

Besides abundance of coir, termed _sepét_ by the natives, prepared from the fibres which surround the cocoa-nut, and gamuti (called _duk_), prepared from those of the _áren_ tree, both of which are well known, another species of palm, the _gebáng_, also yields valuable ropes, the fibre of which is obtained from the large petioles or stalks of the leaves by pounding and beating. Intelligent natives assert, that ropes prepared from these are particularly valuable, exceeding in strength all other kinds of equal size. The fibres and ropes are called _bas_. The cotton shrub (gossypium herbaceum) is universal; and hemp, though its uses are unknown to the Javans, is found in the gardens of foreign settlers. Besides these, the island affords various kinds of vegetables, the fibrous bark of which is made into thread, rope, cloth, &c.; but they are never cultivated, and when required for use are collected in their wild state. The general denomination, in the Javan language, of the internal bark of all vegetables which can be manufactured into cords, thread, &c. is _lúlub_. This being freed, by beating or maceration, from the adhering particles of the exterior bark, yields the fibrous substance, which is twisted by the most simple process, commonly by the hands alone. The trees which afford the _lúlub_ are the _wáru_, which is very abundant, and is manufactured into ropes for all common domestic purposes; the _melínju_, the bark of which is called _bágu_; and the _béndo_, which affords ropes of superior strength and durability.

Of the bambusa, the _pring-ápus_, the stem of which may be considered arborescent, furnishes the cheapest ropes. These are made with great expedition, being split into thin strips, which are twisted on the spot into cords fit for all common purposes, although they are serviceable only for a few days. They are uniformly used, in travelling, for securing baggage, &c. Among shrubs principally employed for these purposes are the _werúng_, _urís-urísan_, _dalúmpang_, _che-plákan_ and _glúgo_; among plants, the _widúri_ and _rámi_; the fibres of the latter afford very strong and durable cords, which are chiefly employed for nets or lines, and used in fishing: they greatly resemble the sunn of western India, and would probably be found to answer the same purpose, as well in furnishing the bags called in India gunny-bags, for the transportation of goods, as for the manufacture of paper in Europe. This remark applies also to the _lúlub_ of several of the other shrubs mentioned. Several species of _písang_ or plantain yield the materials for ropes and cords of various fineness, according to the methods employed in preparing them. In the Manilla Islands, cables are made from these fibres; and in the first volume of the Batavian Transactions a mode is described of preparing from them a substance resembling cotton. The leaves of the '_nanas_, or pine-apple, contain also abundance of useful fibres, which are easily separated in a bundle, after scraping off the coriaceous substance. It is very fine, and the separate fibres are employed by the natives in sewing without any preparation; but it may also be spun, and is made into a kind of stuff resembling silk, gauze, &c.

Mats are made from several species of pandanus, from a kind of grass called _méndong_, and from the leaves of various palms, particularly the _gebáng_. The latter affords the most common kinds, coarser and less durable than the others, as well as bags (straw sacks) resembling very coarse mats.

The paper in common use with the Javans is manufactured from the _glúgo_, (morus papyrifera.)

A variety of vegetable substances are used in dyeing: the principal of which, however, are the _tom_, or indigo, which is extensively cultivated throughout the island; and the _wong-kúdu_, which affords a lasting scarlet. A black dye is obtained from the bark of several exotic trees, united with the rind of the _mangústin_ fruit. A yellow dye is also obtained from an exotic wood, heightened by the addition of the bark of the _nángka_ tree, and a variety of the mango.

Extensive forests of the _játi_, or teak of India[30], are found in almost all the eastern provinces; but the most valuable and important are in the central districts, situated inland, between _Semárang_ and _Sidáyu_, and particularly in the districts of _Blóra_, _Jípang_, and _Padáng'an_.

Of the teak tree there is but one species known, the tectona grandis of Linnæus, the tekka of Van Rheede, and the jatus of Rhumphius. Its natural history has been already fully detailed, and all the kinds generally enumerated are merely varieties. These are usually distinguished among the natives of Java by names derived from the quality and colour of the wood. The principal are the _játi kápur_, the chalky teak, and a kind varying in colour, and on account of its excellence termed _játi súng'gu_, or the true teak. The former is the most common: its wood is of a whitish hue, and it sometimes contains calcareous concretions in nodules or streaks. This sort is chiefly employed for common domestic purposes, and though inferior in quality to many others, from its abundance and comparative cheapness, is perhaps the most generally useful. The _játi súng'gu_ is harder, closer, and more ponderous, and particularly selected for ship-building. The colour of the wood is of different shades, from light to intense brown, with a cast of violet verging sometimes to red or black. If the stem is covered with spines, or rather pointed scales, it is called _játi dúri_, but in its texture and quality it agrees with the _játi súnge'gu_. Besides these the natives distinguish, as _játi gémbol_, those excrescences or protuberances which are produced from a variety of the _játi_, furnishing materials for handsome cabinet-work.

The teak tree on Java grows at a moderate elevation above the level of the ocean. It is generally conceived, that the timber afforded by forests growing on a soil of which the basis is limestone, and the surface uneven, gravelly, or rocky, is the hardest, the freest from chalky concretions, and in all respects the best; but in laying out a teak plantation, a soil consisting in a great proportion of black vegetable mould, is always selected for the purpose of obtaining a rapid growth. The teak tree is slender and erect. It shoots up with considerable vigour and rapidity, but its expansion is slow. Like all other trees affording useful timber of a close grain, it is many years in arriving at maturity. Under favourable circumstances, a growth of from twenty to twenty-five years affords a tree having about twelve inches diameter at the base. It requires at least a century to attain its perfection, but for common purposes, it is usually felled when between thirty and fifty years old[31].

Notwithstanding the extent to which cultivation has been carried in many districts of the island, large portions of its surface are still covered with primeval forests, affording excellent timber of various descriptions. Besides the teak, there are several kinds of wood or timber employed for various domestic purposes, as the _súren_ (the tuna of Bengal), of which the wood is very light, stronger and more durable than all other kinds of similar weight produced on the island: as the grain is not fine, it is not employed in making furniture, but it is useful for chests, trunks, carriages, &c.; its colour is red, and its odour somewhat resembling that of the cedar. Its weight is probably inferior to that of the larch.--The _wúngú_ or _ketángi_ is often used instead of teak: the grain is somewhat finer: when in full blossom it is perhaps the most beautiful tree existing.--The _wádang_ or _báyur_, a light and tolerably durable wood, is employed for masts and spars of small vessels; but the surface must be well covered with resinous substances to prevent its splitting.--The _gintúngan_ is employed in the same manner, but grows to a larger size; the colour of the wood and bark is red.--The _lampéan_ or _lában_ is light but durable, and affords materials for the handles of the spears or pikes borne by the natives.--The _nángka_ abounds in several districts where teak is not found, and is almost exclusively used in the construction of houses, and other domestic purposes: the wood is more close and ponderous than the _súren_, which it otherwise resembles; it takes a tolerable polish, and is sometimes employed for furniture. The colour is yellow; but it is made to receive a brownish hue, by the application of the young teak-leaves in polishing: its bark is used as a yellow dye.--The _lúren_ resembles the _nángka_, but is generally of rare occurrence, though in some tracts it furnishes the only timber: its use in the neighbouring islands, particularly on Sumatra, is well known.--The _kusámbi_ is uncommonly heavy, hard, and close: it supplies anchors for small vessels, blocks, pestles, and numerous similar utensils.--The _sáwur_ is a very beautiful and useful wood; the colour resembles that of mahogany, but the grain is closer, and it is more ponderous: its chief use is for handles of tools for carpenters and other artificers, for machinery, especially for the teeth of the wheels of mills, and other purposes where a hard and durable wood is required. On account of its scarcity, it is uniformly cut down on Java before it arrives at the necessary size for cabinet-work. Forests of it grow on the hills of _Báli_, opposite the Javan shore, whence it is brought over by boat-loads for sale.

The _pílang_ is a very hard wood, and employed in the eastern districts, instead of lignum-vitæ, for the construction of ships'-blocks, &c.--The _pung_ is equally hard, and uniformly employed by the natives for pegs in constructing their _prahus_.--The _wáli kúkun_ is equal to the _kusámbi_ in weight, and exceeds it in hardness: it is employed for anchors, naves of wheels, machinery, &c.--The _tang'gulun_ is a hard wood of a close grain, and employed by turners for various small works.--The _kelúmpit_ is a very large tree: sections are employed by the natives for cart wheels.--The _járan_ is a white wood taking the tool easily: the natives prefer it to all others for the construction of their saddles, which consist principally of wood.--The _demólo_ affords a light wood, which is made into planks, and employed where durability is not much required.--The wood of the _kedáwung_ is whitish and moderately hard.--The _lában_ is a yellowish and hard wood: it is employed for the handles of axes and various utensils.--The _jánglot_ is considered by the natives as the toughest wood produced in the island, and is always employed for bows when procurable: the tree is of a moderate size.--The _béndo_ is a light wood, useful for canoes.--The _séntul_ is a light close-grained wood, and easily worked: it resembles the _súren_.

For household furniture, cabinet-ware, &c. are employed--the _sóno kling_ of the _Maláyus_, the colour of which is a deep brown, inclining to black:--the _sóno kómbang_, which has some resemblance to the _lingua_ wood of the Moluccas:--the _war'm-lot_, dark brown; and _próno-sodo_, resembling the walnut, both scarce:--the _wer'n_, of a brown colour, of a close substance and light, abundant in some districts:--the _mentáus_ and _júmberit_, the wood of which is white and fine-grained, uniformly used for inlaying:--the _randu kúning_, yellowish and close-grained:--and the _íng'as_, of a brownish red colour, and very brittle.

For the hilts and sheaths of krîses, the natives make use of the _timóko_, of which the black and white variegated fragments are called _pélet_. These are of various kinds.--The _arúman_, variegated white and black, is also employed for canes, handles, and spears, &c. and is very heavy.--The _tiké_, yellowish, closed and marble,--the _mángu_,--the _áti áti_,--the _kráminan_,--the _púrwo-kúning_ and several others, are employed for the same purposes.--The _kamúning_ is of a brownish colour and very fine grain:--the _tayúman_ resembles the last and is very much esteemed:--the _wúni stelágo_ affords a reddish wood.

Among the most extensively useful productions ought not to be forgotten the _bámbu_, or _príng_, which abounds on Java, and seems, from the greater luxuriance and variety by which it is here distinguished, to find the soil and climate more congenial to its growth than those of any other country. It blossoms in different parts of the island. The rattans (_rótan_) of Java are on the whole inferior to those of Sumatra and Borneo: the improved state of cultivation is unfavourable to their growth and propagation.

Many woods afford excellent fuel. The charcoal prepared from the _kusámbi_ is equal perhaps to that of any other wood with which we are acquainted, and is universally preferred in cooking, and in the other branches of domestic economy. Charcoal, for gunpowder, is uniformly prepared from the celtis orientalis, called _áng'grung_.

Among the useful trees must be noticed: the soap-tree, of which the fruit is used to a very great extent in washing linen:--the _kasémak_, from the bark of which is made a varnish for umbrellas:--the _sámpang_, from the resin of which the natives prepare a shining varnish for the wooden sheaths of krîses:--the cotton-tree, from which a silky wool is obtained for stuffing pillows and beds:--the wax-tree, which, though scarce on Java, grows abundantly on some parts of Madúra: (the kernel, by expression, produces an oil, which some time after becomes hard and bears a resemblance to wax; it may be burnt in lamps or converted into candles, and affords an agreeable odour): the _bendúd_, a shrub producing the substance of which the elastic gum, commonly called Indian-rubber, is prepared. The art of preparing it in this form is however unknown in Java. Torches are made of it, for the use of those who search for birds' nests in the rocks, and it serves for winding round the stick employed to strike musical instruments, as the _gong_, &c. to soften the sound. The _mínyak káwon_ or _niátu_ is a very useful tree, which grows solitary in all, and abundantly in some parts of the island, and produces a kind of tallow.

_Dámar_, or resin, is distinguished by the inhabitants of these countries into two kinds: _dámar-bátu_ or _séla_, and _dámar-puti_, comprising numerous varieties obtained from different trees. None of these are, however, produced on Java. Besides the _rásamála_, which is very limited as to its place of growth, the _Canáram_, and a peculiar resin employed by the natives for varnishing the wooden sheaths of their krîses, called _sámpang_, few odoriferous resins are found. The camphor-tree, which abounds on Sumatra and Borneo, is unknown on Java. The wood oil, distinguished among the Malays by the name of _krúwing_ (which in Java is applied to all resinous or oily substances employed in the construction of vessels), is not a native of Java, but it grows abundantly on Banka and Sumatra.

None of what are called the finer kinds of spices, namely, the nutmeg, clove, and cinnamon, are indigenous to Java; but the few trees which have been planted in the gardens of Europeans have thriven well: and, from the nature of the soil and climate, there seems little doubt that the nutmeg and clove, in particular, might be extensively cultivated throughout the island, did it suit the policy of the European government to admit of their general introduction.

The vine was once extensively cultivated in some of the eastern provinces of the island, in which the soil and climate appear well calculated for its growth; but an apprehension, on the part of the Dutch East-India Company, that its cultivation on Java might interfere with the wine trade of the Cape of Good Hope, induced them to discourage it, and the preparation of wine from the grape was strictly prohibited. Lieutenant-Colonel Mackenzie, when noticing the vast quantities of ashes thrown up from the different volcanos, makes the following observation on the eastern part of Java. "The soil of the country is evidently enriched by the ashes and earth emitted by these eruptions, and there is reason to conclude, what persons well acquainted with the south of Europe assert, that the vines of Italy and the Cape would thrive in perfection, in a soil and climate so well adapted to them."

Among the vegetable productions of Java, none has excited more interest than the celebrated _úpas_, or poison-tree. Mr. Marsden, in his history of Sumatra[32], has referred to various concurring authorities, in refutation of the very extraordinary tales told of this tree; and, in this general account of the productions of Java, it may perhaps be sufficient to refer the reader to the particulars contained in the subjoined note[33].

Of the useful or domestic quadrupeds it may be observed, that neither the elephant nor the camel is a native of Java: the former is rarely imported, the latter unknown. Neither the ass nor mule is found; but the island has a fine breed of small horses (_járan_), strong, fleet, and well made. A still finer breed is imported from _Bíma_, on the neighbouring island of _Sumbáwa_, which by competent judges has been said to resemble the Arab in every respect except size. They seldom exceed thirteen hands, and in general are below this standard.

The bull and cow (_sápi_ or _lémbu_) are general, but much more so in the central and eastern districts than in the western. The breed has been greatly improved by the species introduced from continental India. But the animal of most essential and general use in the agriculture of the country is the buffalo (_kábu_, _maísa_, or _múnding_), a particular account of which will appear in the chapter on Agriculture. Goats (_wedús_) are numerous and of a small size: sheep (called here European goats) are scarce and small. As in other sultry climates, the latter have a coarse woollen coat, which is employed for stuffing saddles, pillows, &c. but it is in so little request that the inhabitants are rarely at the trouble of shearing for it. The hog (_chéleng_) is reared principally among the Chinese.

Of beasts of prey may be enumerated several species of the tiger, as the _máchan lóreng_ (felis tigris), _máchan gogor_ (a variety), _máchan tútul_ (probably the small leopard of Pennant), _máchan kombang_ and _kúwuk_, the smallest kind, called tiger-cats. The jackal, and several varieties of the wild-dog; as the _ásu wáwar_, _ásu ájag_, or _ásu kíki_; and among other wild quadrupeds, the rhinoceros, and _bánteng_, or wild Javan ox, the wild-hog and the stag: the last, as well as the rib-faced and axis deer, is tamed and fattened for food. The aggregate number of mammalia on Java have been estimated at about fifty. The habits and manners of the larger animals, the tiger, leopard, black tiger, rhinoceros and stag, and two species of deer, the varieties of the wild-hog, &c. are sufficiently known; but the _bánteng_, or Javan ox, the Javan buffalo, the varieties of the wild-dog, those of the weasel and squirrel, and most of the other smaller quadrupeds, still present curious subjects for the study of the naturalist. Next to the rhinoceros, which sometimes (though rarely at present) injures plantations, the wild-hogs are the most destructive animals. They are often poisoned (or intoxicated, according to the quantity they consume) by the _kálák kámbing_, or by the remains from the preparation of _brom_. The practice of suspending rags impregnated with urine, at small distances around the plantations, is universal over the whole island. These animals are said to have so violent an aversion to this odour, that even this "feeble barrier" is useful in preserving the plantations.

Musk, called _dedes_, is procured from the _rasé_.

Although the same qualities are ascribed to them here as in other countries, bezoars are comparatively scarce in Java; and those occasionally found in the maritime capitals are uniformly brought from other countries. The hog-deer and Nicobar pigeon are not natives; and although wild-hogs, in which bezoars are said to be found, are very abundant, they are never examined or approached by the natives. Every extraordinary concretion, calculus, ossification, &c. found in any part of an animal, is called _mustíka_, which corresponds to the bezoar of the Arabs, Persians, &c. A concretion of feathers found in the stomach of a fowl is called _mustíka áyam_, and is carefully preserved. A stony concretion, discovered accidentally by the rattling of a human skull exposed for many years to the action of the sun, has been denominated _mustíka órang_, and the most salutary virtues ascribed to it. Analogous to the bezoars, must be considered the horns of the rhinoceros, whose virtues are highly prized.

Among the domestic fowls, or poultry, are the turkey, which is comparatively scarce, and chiefly raised for the tables of Europeans; the goose, which is very common near all the establishments of Europeans; the _bébek_, or duck, abundant in every part of the island; the common fowl and pigeons. Among the birds of prey, the eagle is not found; but there are several varieties of the falcon, of which the _jóko wuru_ is the largest; also the carrion crow and the owl. Of the parrot kind, two only, the _bétet_ and _selíndit_, are found on Java. The peacock (_merák_), is very common in large forests. The number of distinct species of birds has been estimated not greatly to exceed two hundred, of which upwards of one hundred and seventy have been described, and are already contained in the collections made on account of the English East India Company.

The dorsal feathers of the white heron, and the vent feathers of the _sándang láwé_, are employed, as substitutes for ostrich feathers, by the natives, for plumes, &c. It is very rarely that the feathers of geese, &c. are employed for beds or pillows, the silky cotton of the _kápok_ being preferred on account of its coolness. For ornamenting the arrows of the natives, the feathers of some of the falcon tribe are chiefly employed.

Among the interesting subjects which still remain open for search, are the habits and constitution of the hirundo esculenta, the small swallow which forms the edible nests, annually exported in large quantities from Java and the Eastern Islands for the Chinese market. These birds not only abound among the cliffs and caverns of the south coast of the island, but inhabit the fissures and caverns of several of the mountains and hills in the interior of the country. From every observation which has been made on Java, it has been inferred, that the mucilaginous substance, of which the nests are formed, is not, as has been generally supposed, obtained from the ocean. The birds, it is true, generally inhabit the caverns in the vicinity of the sea, as agreeing best with their habits, and affording them the most convenient retreats for attaching their nests to; but several caverns are found inland, at a distance of forty or fifty miles from the sea, containing nests similar to those on the shore. From many of their retreats along the southern coast, they have been observed to take their flight in an inland direction, towards the pools, lakes, and extensive marshes covered with stagnant water, as affording them abundance of their food, which consists of flies, mosquitoes, gnats, and small insects of every description. The sea that washes the foot of the cliffs, where they most abound, is almost always in a state of the most violent agitation, and affords none of those substances which have been supposed to constitute the food of the esculent swallow. Another species of swallow on this island forms a nest, in which grass or moss, &c. are merely agglutinated by a substance, exactly similar to that of which exclusively the edible nests consist. This substance, from whatever part of these regions the nests be derived, is essentially uniform, differing only in the colour, according to the relative age of the nests. It exhibits none of those diversities which might be expected, if it were collected casually (like the mud employed by the martin, and the materials commonly employed in nest-making), and applied to the rocks. If it consisted of the substances usually supposed, it would be putrescent and diversified.

Dr. Horsfield thinks that it is an animal elaboration, perhaps a kind of secretion; but to determine its nature accurately, it should be carefully analyzed, the anatomy of the bird should be investigated, and its character and habits watched.

The kayman of the Dutch, the _boáya_ of the Malays, and the _bóyo_ or _bájul_ of the Javans, which abounds along the shores and in the principal rivers of the island, resembles more the crocodile of Egypt than that of the Ganges, or the American alligator. The character of the lacerta crocodiles, as given in the Systema Naturæ, applies to the Javan crocodile, with this difference, that in the latter the two crests of the tail coalesce towards the extremity, in which respect it agrees with that of the Ganges; but its head and jaws are broad, and rounded. In its manners, habits, and destructive qualities, it resembles the largest animals of this genus. Next to the crocodile in size is the _béwak_ of the Malays, or _menyáwak_ or _selíra_ of the Javans. It sometimes attains the length of six or seven feet, and lives near the banks of rivers and marshes. Its character agrees with those of the lacerta monitor. It is erroneously denominated the guana by Europeans. The eggs of this animal, as well as of the crocodile, are eaten by the natives, and the fat is collected for medical purposes. A small lizard, the _búnglon_ of the Javans, is erroneously called the chameleon, in consequence of the property of changing its colour. It has the specific characters of the guana, but is much smaller, seldom exceeding eighteen or twenty inches in length. There are various other lizards.

Two varieties of the turtle, _pényu_ and _pényu kombang_, are found in the seas surrounding Java. Both yield the substance called tortoise-shell, but they are seldom taken of sufficient size to render it valuable: the flesh is excellent. Another kind, of which the species is unknown, renders a thicker shell. _Kúro_ is the name of the common land-tortoise, which is found very abundantly in particular districts.

Besides the rana esculenta, green frog (_kódok íjù_ of the Javans) which is frequently eaten, and the _kódok benju_, there is the common toad, _kódok_, and the _bánkong_ and _kíntel_. The frog-fish (rana paradosa), or a variety of it, is also found on the island, and has been exhibited in the same supposed metamorphosis as in other countries. No noxious quality of any of these animals is here known.

It is uncertain whether the boa constrictor be found on Java. The serpent usually called the _úlar sáwa_ is a species of coluber, and has been described in one of the volumes of the Batavian Transactions; but several other species are found which arrive at a very large size. One of them, the _úlar lánang_, is very much dreaded by the natives, and said to be poisonous. Of the _úlar sáwa_ there are several varieties, one of which, _úlar sáwa máchan_, is most beautifully variegated. Upwards of twenty serpents are enumerated as poisonous. The _úlar lámpe_ is found at or near the discharge of large rivers into the ocean, and is more abundant in some districts than in others. This is greatly dreaded by the natives; its bite however is rarely mortal, and the effects are comparatively slow, death seldom occurring within twenty-four hours from the time of its infliction. No remedies which deserve notice are known by the natives: charms and superstitious applications are generally resorted to. The most remarkable serpent is the _úlar kádut_, or _kárang_. The úlar lánang, and some of the varieties _úlar sáwa_ are slender, and possess considerable agility. According to the account of the natives, they frequently ascend trees, and suspending themselves by the extremity of their tail, seize upon small animals passing below; but the true _úlar sáwa_ of the Eastern Javans is slow, thick, and unwieldy. Nothing which could illustrate its supposed power of fascination has been noticed.

Of the fish most commonly used for food by the natives, many of which are excellent and abundant, thirty-four species of river fish, seven found chiefly in pools or stagnant waters, and sixteen sea fish, are already enumerated by Dr. Horsfield. The classes of amphibia and pisces, doubtless, afford many new subjects for investigation. Valentyn enumerates five hundred and twenty-eight uncommon kinds of fish found in the waters of the Eastern Islands.

Honey and wax are produced by three species of bees, inhabiting the largest forests, but they are both collected in very inconsiderable quantities. Bees are occasionally domesticated by the Arabs and Indians near the large settlements, but never by the natives. Silk-worms were once introduced by the Dutch near Batavia, but attention to them did not extend among the natives. The chrysalis of the large atlas affords a coarse silk, which is however not collected for use. To the fruit, several insects, and to the corn while in the ear, a peculiar species, generally known by the name of _wálang-sángít_, are most destructive. The latter has in some years destroyed the growth of whole districts, and occasioned partial scarcity. The natives attempt, in some instances, to extirpate it by burning chaff and brimstone in the fields. There are scorpions and centipedes, but their bite is considered of little consequence: the natives generally apply a cataplasm of onions to the wound. The class of insects affords many new objects; specimens of most of the genus papilio, and many of other genera have already been collected.

Java does not afford the same opportunities for beautiful collections of shells as the Moluccas, Papua, and other Islands. Along the northern coast, few shells are found of beauty or variety, and the corallines have mostly lost their integrity by attrition; but the extensive bays in the southern shore contain many of these objects in a state of beauty and perfection.

FOOTNOTES:

[12] The primitive Athenians were called Iones or Iaones (Herodotus, lib. i. &c.) This name is thought to have been given to them from Javan, which bears a great resemblance to Ιάων. This Javan was the fourth son of Japheth, and is said to have come into Greece after the confusion of Babel, and seated himself in Attica; and this report receives no small confirmation from the divine writings, where the name of Javan is in several places put for Greece. See Daniel x. 20. xi. 2. where the vulgar translations render it not Javan, as in the original, but Græcia. The Athenians afterwards named Asia the less _Ionia_.--Potter's Archæologia Græca.

[13] Panicum Italicum.

[14] The term _Zapagé_ or _Zabaja_ seems also to have been a corruption from _Jawa_, and to have been used with the same latitude, according to the following notices by Major Wilford. "There was a constant intercourse, both by sea and land, between the kingdom of _Magad'hi_ and China, on the authority of Chinese history; and they traded to an island and kingdom, called Founan, to the eastward of Siam, during the third and fourth centuries. This was probably a Malay kingdom; but we cannot ascertain its situation. It seems that the Malay emperors and kings, as those of _Zapagi_ and _Founan_, did what they could to introduce trade and learning into their dominions, but their exertions proved ineffectual; at least they were not attended with much success; and their subjects soon relapsed into their former mode of life." ... "There are two countries called Maharaja, which are often confounded together; the first, at the bottom of the Green Sea, including Bengal and all the countries on the banks of the Ganges; the second comprehended the peninsula of Malacca, and some of the adjacent islands in the seas of China. In these countries the emperor, or king, always assumed the title of Maharaja, even until this day. Their country, in general, was called _Zapagé_ or _Zabaja_, which is a corruption from _Java_ or _Jaba_, as it was called in the west, and was also the name of Sumatra, according to Ptolemy, who calls it _Jaba-diu_, and to Marco Polo. In the peninsula of Malacca was the famous emporium of _Zaba_: Zubaja, in Sanscrit, would signify then _Zaba_. The empire of _Zabajé_ was thus called, probably, from its metropolis, _Zaba_, as well as the principal islands near it. _Zaba_ was a principal emporium even as early as the time of Ptolemy. It remained so till the time of the two Mussulman travellers of Renaudot, and probably much longer. It is now called _Batu Sabor_, upon the river Jehor, which is as large as the Euphrates, according to these travellers; who add, that the town of Calabar, on the coast of Coromandel, and ten days to the south of Madras, belonged to the Maharaja of Zabaje. The wars of this Maharaja with the king of _Alkoner_ or countries near Cape Comorin, are mentioned by the two Mussulman travellers in the ninth century, and it seems that, at that time, the Malayan empire was in its greatest splendor."--_Asiatic Researches_, vol. ix.

[15] Others again have derived the term _Jawa_ from _Yava_, which in Sanscrit means barley, whence Java has occasionally been termed the land of barley.

[16] Beschryving van _Groot Djawa_ of te _Java Major_ door F. Valentyn.--Amsterdam, 1726.

[17] The breadth is a few miles less between Cheribon and the south coast, occasioned by the deep bay of _Cheláchap_, and also in the eastern termination of the island beyond Surabáya, where it only averages forty-five geographical miles.

[18] The term _regencies_ is adopted from the title of Regent, given by the Dutch to the chief native authority in each district.

[19] _Súra-kérta_ or _Sura-kérta di ning'rat_, is the name given to the seat of empire; but as the capital was only removed to its present site about the middle of the last century, it is still frequently called _Solo_, the name of the village in or near which this capital was established.

[20] This capital is indifferently turned _Yokya_, _Jokya_, _Juju_, _'Ng'yug'ya_, or _Yug'ya-kerta_, and is the _Djojo-Carta_, according to the Dutch orthography. The turn _Yug'ya_ has been selected, on account of its nearer approximation to the supposed derivation of the word from the _Na-yud-ya_ of the Ramayan.

[21] The height of the mountain _Arjúna_, in the eastern part of the island, has been determined at 10,614 feet above the level of the sea; and this mountain is by no means so lofty as those of _Semíru_ and _Tegál_, the exact height of which has not yet been ascertained.

[22] The height of this mountain has been ascertained to be 5,263 English feet above the level of the sea.

[23] To the above general observations, which are made on the authority of Dr. Horsfield, it may not be uninteresting to subjoin a more particular account of two or three of the volcanos which have been examined by that gentleman; those of _Tánkuban-Prahu_, _Papandáyang_, and _Gúntur_ are, therefore, extracted from a paper published by Dr. Horsfield in the Batavian Transactions.

"TANKUBAN-PRAHU.--This mountain (which has derived its name from
its appearance at a distance, resembling a _prahu_, or boat, turned
upside down) forms a vast truncated cone. Its base extends to a
very great distance, and it belongs to the largest mountains of
the island, forming one of its most interesting volcanos. Although
it has had no violent eruption for many ages, as is evident from
the progress of vegetation, and from the depth of black mould
which covers its sides, its interior has continued in a state of
uninterrupted activity.

"The crater is one of the largest, perhaps the largest, of the
island. It has, in general, the shape of a funnel; but its sides
are very irregular. The brim, or margin, which bounds it at the
top, has also different degrees of elevation, rising and descending
along the whole course of its circumference. The perpendicular
depth at the side, where I descended (in the south), is at
least two hundred and fifty feet: in the west the margin rises
considerably higher. The regular circumference of the crater I
estimate one English mile and nearly an half. The south side of the
interior crater, near the top, is very steep. I found it impossible
to descend, without the assistance of ropes tied to the shrubs at
the margin. It consists here of small fragments of lava. About
one-third of its depth it becomes more oblique or inclining, and
the lower part consists of large piles of rocks, through which the
descending streams of water have excavated a winding channel. The
east side descends gradually about one-half of the depth, where
it is terminated abruptly by a perpendicular pile of large rocks,
which continues to the bottom. The north side is more gradually
shelving than the others, and is partly covered with vegetation.
The west side is one perpendicular pile of rocks. The nucleus of
the mountain consists of large masses of basaltes, in which the
volcanic opening is situated; and the sides exhibit piles and
strata of this stone in every possible variety of configuration. In
some places the rocks have the appearance of a regular wall, which
is suddenly diversified by large fragments suspended apparently
by a small base, and threatening to fall down every instant.
Sometimes they rise in an oblique manner, and appear to have been
disposed by art. But I shall not attempt a minute description of
the disposition of the rocks and the strata which form the internal
walls of the crater, which, without an accurate drawing, would be
tedious and scarcely intelligible. The surface of the rocks which
line the interior of the crater is completely calcined, generally
of a white colour, sometimes inclining to grey or yellow. In many
places small fragments of lava adhere to and cover the rocks of
basalt: these are of different sizes, and of great variety of form
and colour; but the most are calcined or burnt, or the surface like
the rocks themselves. The different sides of the internal crater
are excavated in many places, by furrows made by the descending
water, which penetrate to a considerable depth, and expose more
completely the interior basaltic composition. The bottom of the
crater has a diameter of three hundred yards, but is not completely
regular; its form depends on the gradual meeting of the sides
below. Its surface is much diversified: it is strewed, like the
sides, with immense blocks of basalt, the interstices between
which are excavated, in a similar manner, by the streams of the
descending water.

"Near the centre, somewhat inclining to the west side, it contains
an irregular oval lake, or collection of water, whose greatest
diameter is nearly one hundred yards: it dilates into several
branches. The water is white, and exhibits truly the appearance
of a lake of milk, boiling with a perpetual discharge of large
bubbles, which rise with greatest force from the eastern side.
The heat is 112° of Fahrenheit's scale: the apparent boiling
arises from a constant development of fixed air. The water has a
sulphureous odour; its taste is astringent, somewhat saline. Shaken
in a bottle it explodes its fixed air with great violence. The
sides of the lake, to some distance, are lined by a white aluminous
earth, most impalpably fine, and very loose, on which account it is
very difficult to approach the water. In attempting to examine its
temperature, and to collect for analysis, I sunk into the earth to
a considerable distance, and found it necessary to dispose large
fragments of basaltes before I was able to pass over it. This
earth consists of the clay (alumine) of the lavas dissolved by the
sulphureous steams on the bottom of the crater; it is of the purest
kind, and divided to a degree minute almost beyond conception.
Large quantities have been several times thrown out of the ancient
craters of the island. One eruption of this substance occurred
in the year 1761 from the mountain Gedé: it was considered as an
eruption of ashes.

"I was witness to a similar eruption, which occurred from the
mountain of _Klut_, in the month of June last year. The earth very
much resembled ashes, and was so impalpably fine and light, that
the common breeze of the monsoon carried it from this mountain,
situated in the longitude of Surabáya, to Batavia and farther
westward. It possessed the properties of the purest clay, and being
mixed with water became viscid and ductile. It can easily be formed
into vessels, and if procurable in large quantities, might usefully
be employed in the arts. All its properties indicated sufficiently
that it was the alumine of the lavas, divided in an extreme
degree by the causes above-mentioned. The Javanese are not wholly
unacquainted with the properties of this earth. It is a custom
amongst silversmiths to collect the ashes thrown out by similar
eruptions, for the purpose of making _moulds_ for the finest works.