Chapter VIII: Sea Routes in the Eastern Mediterranean (6)

On the S. side of the quadrangle, in front of the Holy Sepulchre Church, lies the =Mûristân= (Pl. E, F, 5), an open space of 170 by 150 yds., which contained, from the days of Charlemagne onwards, the hostels and hospitals of the European pilgrims and, from 1140, the grand buildings of the Knights of St. John. Saladin (p. 443) granted it as a charitable endowment (wakf) to the Dome of the Rock (p. 477), but allowed the old hostels to remain. The larger W. half, with modern shops, now belongs to the Greek patriarchate; the E. half was presented by the sultan to Prussia. At the N.E. corner, next to the street called Hâret ed-Dabbârîn, is the German Prot. _Church of the Redeemer_ (Pl. E, 5).

The Mûristân is bounded on the E. by the now unimportant _Old Bazaar_, or sûk, the three parallel streets of which form part of the great thoroughfare between the Damascus and Zion gates (p. 473). The middle street, the Sûk el-Attârin (p. 335), is continued to the N. by the Khân ez-Zeit (Pl. F, 4), from which an alley on the left leads to the _Abyssinian_ and _Coptic Monasteries_.

At the Coptic Monastery is the 9th station on the =Via Dolorosa=, the ‘route of suffering’, mentioned for the first time in the 16th cent., on which Christ is said to have borne the Cross from Pilate’s house to Golgotha. The last five stations are within the Holy Sepulchre Church (see above). The other stations lie between the Greek _Monastery of St. Caralombos_ (Pl. 24, E F, 4; 8th station) and the _Barracks_ (Pl. G, 3; 1st station) in the Tarîk Bâb Sitti Maryam (street of the Virgin Mary’s gate).

This street leads to the E. to _St. Stephen’s Gate_ (Pl. H, I, 3; 2405 ft.), the only E. gate of the city, called by the natives _Bâb Sitti Maryam_, or Lady Mary’s Gate, from its proximity to the Virgin’s Tomb (see p. 480).

Within the gate a passage leads to the N. to the fine old =Church of
St. Anne= (Pl. H, 3; Arabic _Es-Salâhiyeh_), on the supposed site of
the house of Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin. It is
mentioned as already existing in the 7th cent., but in its present
form dates chiefly from the 12th. The crypt hewn in the rock is the
traditional birthplace of the Virgin, and the tombs of Joachim and
Anna also are now pointed out.

We now retrace our steps towards the W., and halfway along the Via Dolorosa follow the El-Wâd street (Pl. F, G, 4, 5) to the left, through the hollow of the ancient Tyropœon (p. 472), to the Sûk el-Kattânîn (see below), near the entrance to the Haram esh-Sherîf; or starting from the Old Bazaar, we reach the same point by the TARÎK BÂB ES-SILSELEH (Pl. F, G, 5).

The *=Haram esh-Sherîf= (Pl. G-I, 4–6; ‘noble sanctuary’), the ancient site of the Temple, is the most interesting place in Jerusalem. Adm., see p. 471. The usual entrance is by the _Bâb el-Kattânîn_ (Pl. G, 4, 5), the central W. gate, built by En-Nâsir (p. 448) in 1318, behind the now deserted Sûk el-Kattânîn (cotton-market).

On this site king David erected an altar (2 Sam. xxiv. 25), and Solomon built his palace and Temple. Here stood also the second Temple, erected about 520–516 after the Babylonish captivity, and the third Temple, begun by Herod the Great (p. 472) in 20 B.C. but never completed on the grand scale projected. On the same spot Hadrian erected a temple of Jupiter as the chief sanctuary of Ælia Capitolina (p. 472), and near the S. wall of the great quadrangle Justinian built a basilica in honour of the Virgin, which afterwards became the mosque of El-Aksâ. Beyond these facts little or nothing is known of the history of this memorable site during the early centuries of the Christian era.

Mohammed, who claimed to have visited this spot, evinced great reverence for the ancient Temple, and before he had broken off his relations with the Jews he even enjoined believers to turn towards Jerusalem in prayer. About the year 637 caliph Omar converted the church of St. Mary into a mosque, and the Omaiyade Abd el-Melik (685–705) erected the famous Dome of the Rock on a platform in the centre of the sacred precincts, a building which the Crusaders took to be Solomon’s Temple. Adjoining the mosque of El-Aksâ, then called the Porticus or Palatium Salomonis, probably stood the royal palace of the Franks and the castle of the Knights Templar.

The huge substructions of the Temple plateau, the surface of which was much altered by Saladin, still date from the reign of Herod. The plateau itself forms an immense quadrangle of irregular shape (W. side 536, E. side 518, N. side 351, S. side 310 yds. long). In the N.W. corner, once perhaps the site of Baris, the castle of the Maccabees, and of the Roman castle of Antonia, rises the highest _Minaret_ of the Haram. The buildings by the W. and N. walls, Koran schools, dwellings, etc., with open arcades on the groundfloor, are unimportant. The great quadrangle, now partly planted with trees, is studded with numerous _mastabas_, raised platforms with prayer-niches (mihrâbs), and _sebîls_, or fountains for the religious ablutions. Especially to the S.W. of the Dome the ground is honeycombed with deep _Cisterns_, some of which are very ancient.

Entering the precincts and passing the pretty _Sebîl_ of Kâït Bey (p. 458) we mount one of the flights of steps of the time of Abd el-Melik to the PLATFORM, 10 ft. in height.

The so-called **=Dome of the Rock= (_Kubbet es-Sakhra_; Pl. H, 4, 5), usually but erroneously called Omar’s Mosque, was built, according to the Arabian historians, by Abd el-Melik for political reasons, the Omaiyades being at that period denied access to the Kaaba at Mecca. The year 72 of the Hegira (691–2) is mentioned as the date of its erection. The chief restorations in the middle ages were undertaken by the Fatimite Ez-Zâhir (1021–36), who rebuilt the dome in 1022, and by Saladin, to whom is due the superb stucco decoration of the dome. Most of the later additions were made by the Turkish sultan Suleiman the Great (1520–66). The W. porch alone is quite modern.

The building, in the late-Roman and Byzantine style (comp. p. 548), is
in the form of an octagon, 50 yds. in diameter, with sides 22½ yds. in
length, and with two concentric aisles. Above the inner aisle rises
the boldly designed *Dome (98 ft. high), consisting of two wooden
vaults placed one inside the other and roofed with plates of copper.
The external walls are still incrusted below with their old slabs of
marble, while above the window-sills the ancient glass mosaics were
replaced in the time of Suleiman by superb Persian porcelain-tiles
(kishâni). The keel-arches of the windows are of the same period.

The two aisles are separated by two series of supports. Between the
eight pillars of the outer octagonal aisle, which are incrusted with
marble dating from the time of Suleiman, rise sixteen columns with
late-Roman or early-Byzantine capitals, and the round-arched arcades
are connected, above the Byzantine imposts, by tie-beams overlaid with
copper. The inner row of supports, bearing the dome, consists of four
large pillars and twelve antique monolith columns. The pointed arches
of the vaulting here, dating from Suleiman’s restoration, rest
immediately on the capitals. The wrought-iron screen is of French
workmanship of the Crusaders’ era.

The glass *Mosaics in the spandrels of the outer aisle, executed by
Byzantine artificers, all belong to the earliest building; those in
the drum of the dome are partly of the time of Ez-Zâhir and of
Saladin. The stucco decoration of the dome was restored under Mohammed
en-Nâsir (p. 448) in 1318, and again in 1830. The *Windows, dating
from Suleiman’s restoration, present a marvellous wealth of colouring.

Enclosed by the inner aisle, and best viewed from the high bench
beside the N.W. gate of the screen, is the _Sacred Rock_, measuring
18½ by 14½ yds., and rising 4–6½ ft. above the pavement of the church.
Under it is a cavity, probably once a cistern. The rock is supposed to
have been the site of the great Jewish altar of burnt-offering. The
Jews and the Moslems believe it to have been also the scene of
Abraham’s sacrifice. From this spot Mohammed is said to have been
translated to heaven on his miraculous steed Burâk, while an angel
restrained the rock in its attempt to follow him; here too, they
believe, will be erected the throne of God on the Day of Judgment.

Outside the E. gate of the Dome of the Rock, and probably as old, is the so-called DOME OF THE CHAIN (_Kubbet es-Silseleh_, or _Mehkemet Dâûd_, ‘David’s Place of Judgment’). This structure consists of two concentric rows of columns, the outer forming a hexagon, the inner an endecagon. The large prayer-recess on the S. side, facing Mecca, is of the 13th century. The arcades, connected by tie-beams, and the drum of the dome are richly adorned with fayence tiles of Suleiman’s period. Across the dome, it is said, will be stretched a chain (silseleh) on the Day of Judgment, from which the awful scales will be suspended.

We now descend from the platform by the steps near the ‘_Summer Pulpit_’ (15th cent.), at the S.E. angle, and walk past the round basin of _El-Kâs_ to the—

*=Mesjid el-Aksâ= (Pl. H, 5, 6), the sanctuary ‘farthest’ from Mecca and one of the holy places of Proto-Islam, to which God is said to have brought Mohammed from Mecca in one night (Sureh xvii. 1). The mosque without its additions is now 88 yds. long and 60 yds. wide. Of the church of Justinian nothing apparently has survived except the columns of the nave and two inner aisles. The capitals perhaps date from caliph Omar’s period (637). The broad transept was probably constructed by the Abbaside El-Mehdi (775–95); the wooden dome is now covered with lead outside. The transept gave the edifice the form of a =⟙=, which was converted later into a rectangle by the two rows of aisles added on the E. and W. These, in their present shape, and the pointed arcades of the nave and inner aisles, connected by tie-beams, belong to a late period of restoration. The so-called White Mosque, now set apart for women, a long double corridor to the W. of the transept, probably once belonged to the castle of the Knights Templar. The latest addition is the porch built by Melik el-Muazzam Isâ (d. 1227) and restored at a later period. Its middle arcades imitate Frank Gothic.

The interior was once almost as sumptuously decorated as the Dome of
the Rock. The *Pulpit (mimbar), carved in wood and inlaid with ivory
and mother-of-pearl, executed by order of Nûreddîn (p. 485) in 1169
for the great mosque of Aleppo, was presented by Saladin. To him also
the mosque owes the prayer-recess, with its graceful little marble
columns, the superb mosaics of the mihrâb-wall, and the drum of the
dome. The author or at least restorer of the decorations of the dome
is said to have been Mohammed en-Nâsir (p. 448). The windows date only
from the time of Suleiman.

In the S.E. corner of the Haram area a staircase descends to a small _Moslem Oratory_ with the ‘Cradle of Christ’ and to 13 vaulted galleries, part of the old substructure of the Haram, known as _Solomon’s Stables_. In the sixth gallery, counting from the E., there is a small door in the S. wall called the ‘_Single Gate_‘, an old entrance to the Haram.

The roof of the ‘_Golden Gate_’ (Pl. H, I, 4; Bâb ed-Dâhirîyeh), the only E. gate of the Haram, dating from the reign of Justinian (?) but now built up, affords a survey of the whole great quadrangle. At our feet lies the Kidron valley (p. 480), with its rock-tombs, and opposite rises the Mt. of Olives (see below).

Time permitting, we may now visit the _Wailing Place of the Jews_ (Kautal Maarbei; Pl. G, 5), to the W. of the Haram, reached by descending (to the S.) the eastmost side-street of the Tarîk Bâb es-Silseleh. It is probable that the Jews, who never enter the Haram precincts for fear of desecrating the holy of holies, were in the habit of repairing hither as early as the middle ages to bewail the downfall of Jerusalem. The scene is most touching on Friday afternoons (after 4 p.m.), when crowds of mourners flock to the place and litanies are chanted.

The =Mount of Olives= (_Mons Oliveti_, _Jebel et-Tûr_), running parallel to the Temple hill, is closely associated with the last days of Christ on earth. It is visited (best in the forenoon) either by carriage from the Jaffa or the Damascus Gate (10–12 fr.; ascent ½ hr.), or on horseback (p. 471) or on foot from St. Stephen’s Gate (p. 475). Those who return by the valley of the Kidron should order their carriage to meet them at the Garden of Gethsemane.

From the Damascus Gate (p. 473) the road leads past the _Dominican Monastery of St. Stephen_ (on the right; Pl. E, 1) and then, beyond the Anglican _Bishop’s House_, past the so-called _Tombs of the Kings_ (on the right). This large subterranean burial-ground, with its tomb-chambers and shaft-tombs, probably belonged to queen Helena of Adiabene and her family (1st cent. A.D.). The road to Nâbulus soon diverges to the left; ours ascends in a wide curve northwards to the top of the _Scopus_ and to the Mt. of Olives.

On the N. height of the Mt. of Olives, to the left of the road, is the new German _Augusta Victoria Institute_ (sanatorium and church).

On the E. summit (2665 ft.) are the Russian Buildings, a pilgrims’ hospice, the _Russian Church of the Ascension_, and a six-storied _Belvedere Tower_ (214 steps). The *Panorama embraces the city and the hills around Jerusalem and Bethlehem (the latter itself not visible). Towards the E. lie the Dead Sea (1293 ft. below sea-level) and the Jordan valley (Arabic El-Ghôr), and among the bluish Mts. of Moab rises Mt. Nebo (2644 ft.), whence Moses beheld the promised land before his death (Deut. xxxiv. 1–4).

A little to the W. of the Russian Buildings lies the poor village =Kafr et-Tûr=. Near it is the _Chapel of the Ascension_, built in 1834–5, to mark the scene of the Ascension (in contradiction to Luke xxiv. 50, ‘He led them out as far as Bethany’). Of the earlier churches here, one a round building of Emp. Constantine, the other built by the Crusaders, few traces are left.

To the S. of the village are the LATIN BUILDINGS, including the _Credo_ and _Paternoster Churches_ (1898).

A steep path descends hence, to the W., to the GARDEN OF GETHSEMANE (Pl. K, 4), now the property of the Franciscans. Near the entrance (E. side) a rock marks the spot where Peter, James, and John are said to have slept (Mark xiv. 32 _et seq._), and the fragment of a column close by indicates the traditional scene of the Betrayal. (A monk acts as guide; fee 3–6 pias.) A little higher up the Greeks have their own Garden of Gethsemane, containing the many-domed _Church of Mary Magdalen_ (Pl. K, 4).

A few paces to the N.W., on the road to the upper bridge over the Kidron (Pl. I, 3) and to St. Stephen’s Gate, rises _St. Mary’s Church_ (Pl. K, 3; Arabic Kenîset Sitti Maryam), built by queen Milicent or Melisendis (d. 1161) on the site of an ancient church mentioned as early as the 5th cent.; it contains the ‘coffin of the Virgin’, in which she lay until her Assumption.

The =Valley of the Kidron=, identified from a very early age with the
_Valley of Jehoshaphat_, has been supposed, ever since pre-Christian
times, owing to a misinterpretation of Joel iii. 2, to be the future
scene of the Last Judgment. The Moslems bury their dead on the E.
slope of the Haram esh-Sherîf, and the Jews on the W. slope of the Mt.
of Olives.

From the Jericho road, to the S. of the Garden of Gethsemane, a path
diverges to the right to the lower bridge over the Kidron (Pl. I, 5).
To the left of the path are the so-called _Tomb of Absalom_, a cube of
rock, with a curious conical roof expanding at the top; _St. James’s
Cavern_, a rock-tomb; and the _Pyramid of Zacharias_. All these date
from the Græco-Roman period.

Farther on, to the S.E., passing below the hill-village of _Siloah_
(Pl. H, I, 7–9; Arabic Kafr Silwân), we come to _St. Mary’s Fountain_
(Pl. H, 7; Aïn Sitti Maryam), an intermittent spring, probably the
_Gihon_ of the Old Testament. Since the time of Hezekiah (about 700
B.C.) its water has flowed through the underground _Siloah Conduit_ to
the _Pool of Siloam_ (Pl. G, H, 9), within the Jewish town-wall.

Farther down the valley we reach in a few minutes ‘_Job’s Well_’
(about 2035 ft.; Bîr Eiyûb).

We return thence to the town by the =Valley of Hinnom= (p. 472). The
‘_Zion Suburb_’ (p. 473) rises steeply on the N.W.; to the left is the
slope of _Jebel Abû Tôr_, covered with rock-tombs. Near (12 min.) the
_Sultan’s Pond_ (see below) we join the Bethlehem road.

The EXCURSION TO BETHLEHEM, by a good road (half-a-day; carr. about 12 fr.; horse, see p. 471), will even repay walkers.

The road descends to the S. from the Jaffa Gate (p. 473) into the _Valley of Hinnom_ (see above). Beyond the _Birket es-Sultân_ (Pl. C, D, 8), an old Jewish reservoir restored by Suleiman the Great (16th cent.), the station-road diverges to the right.

Our road leads to the S.W. across the tableland of _El-Bukeia_ (p. 470), past the traditional _Well of the Magi_ (Matth. ii. 9), to the (3 M.) Greek convent of _Mâr Elyâs_ (left). Bethlehem appears in the foreground. Fine view of the Dead Sea (p. 479) to the left.

At (4 M.) ‘_Rachel’s Tomb_’ (Kubbet Râhîl), built like the welis or tombs of Moslem saints, the Hebron road diverges to the right.

5 M. =Bethlehem= (2550 ft.; pop. about 11,000, almost all Christians), the home of David and the birthplace of our Saviour, has a situation resembling that of Jerusalem. It consists of eight different quarters, containing many monasteries, hospitals, and schools. Fine view from the German Prot. _Weihnachtskirche_ (‘Christmas Church’, 1893), on the W. outskirts.

Over the traditional birthplace of Christ rises *ST. MARY’S CHURCH, now occupied by the Greeks, Latins, and Armenians jointly. The original columnar basilica of the time of Constantine, with its double aisles, is still the nucleus of the present church. It was thoroughly renovated by the Crusaders, and the superb wallmosaics were restored by the Byzantine Emp. Manuel Comnenos (1143–80). The Greeks, who were in sole possession from 1672 to 1852, unfortunately added the transept wall.

INTERIOR. The entrance is by the old central portal, approached from
an open space once occupied by an atrium. Three passages lead through
the transept, with semicircular apses at either end, to the
semicircular choir. Among the almost obliterated mosaics is a quaint
representation of the Entry into Jerusalem in the S. apse.

Adjoining the choir are two flights of steps descending into the
Crypt, or Chapel of the Nativity, and to the ‘Chapel of the Manger’,
the ‘dwelling of St. Jerome’ (b. about 340 in Dalmatia, d. in 420 at
Bethlehem), and his tomb, which also are highly revered.

The stairs on the N. side ascend to the Latin Church of St. Catharine,
through which we return to the principal church.

For full details, see _Baedeker’s Palestine and Syria_.

74. Beirut. Excursion to Damascus.

ARRIVAL. The steamers anchor in the harbour (Pl. F, G, 1). The landing
is better managed than at Jaffa. Boat for 1 pers. 2 fr.; less for a
party, as may be arranged. The hotels and tourist-agents send their
men on board. The _Douane_ (Pl. F, 1; passport and custom-house
formalities; comp. p. 537) is close to the landing-place.—To the E. of
the Douane lies the RAILWAY STATION (_Gare_; Pl. F, G, 1).

HOTELS. *_Hôt. d’Allemagne_ (Pl. a; E, 1), well spoken of, _Hôt.
d’Orient_ (Pl. b; E, 1), both near the sea; _Gassmann’s Hotel_ (Pl. c;
F, 1), in the Sûk ed-Jemîl; pens. at these 12–15 fr. (less for a
prolonged stay); _Hôt. Victoria_ (Pl. d; E, 1), plainer,
etc.—RESTAURANTS. _Blaich_, _Jean Schröter_, both near the Hôt.
d’Allemagne.

ELECTRIC TRAMWAYS. Four different lines traverse the town (comp.
Plan); of these the _Blue Line_ runs from the Place des Canons to the
Lighthouse (Phare; Pl. A, 2), near the Râs Beirût (p. 483).

CARRIAGES. Drive 1 fr.; per hr. in town 2, in country 2–3 fr. (more on
Sun.). Longer drives as may be arranged.—HORSES. Half-day 1, whole day
1½ mejidieh.

POST OFFICES. Turkish (_Poste Turque_; Pl. F, 1); British, French,
German, and others, Khân Antûn Beg (Pl. F, 1).—TELEGRAPH OFFICE
(Internat.; Pl. F, 2), Derb el-Kebîreh (p. 483).

BANKS. _Banque Ottomane_ (Pl. F, 1), _Anglo-Palestine Co._, _German
Palaestina-Bank_, all at the harbour.—For the Turkish money, see p.
536.

CONSULATES. British (Pl. 2; G, 2): consul-general, _H. A.
Cumberbatch_; vice-consul, _H. E. W. Young_.—United States (Pl. 6; C,
2): consul-general, _G. B. Ravndal_; vice-consul, _L. Memminger_.

STEAMBOAT AGENCIES. _Khedivial Mail_, opposite the custom-house;
_Austrian Lloyd_, _Messag. Maritimes_, and _Russian Steam Navigation &
Trading Co._, all in Khân Antûn Beg (Pl. F, 1); _Società Nazionale_,
opposite the German Bank.—TOURIST AGENTS. _Thos. Cook & Son_, in the
Hôtel d’Orient; _Agence Lubin_, Khân Antûn Beg (Pl. F, 1).

CHURCHES. _American Presbyterian Mission_ (Pl. F, 2); services on Sun.
at 11 a.m. in English and at 9 a.m. in Arabic. Among the many other
missions and schools are the _British Syrian_, the _Ch. of Scotland
Jewish_, the _Syrian Prot._, and a number of German, French, etc.

_Beirut_ (Fr. _Beyrout_, Arab. _Beirût_; pop. 190,000), the chief commercial place in Syria (_Esh-Shâm_), and the capital of the Turkish vilayet (province of a _vali_ or governor) of that name, is beautifully situated, in 33° 50′ N. lat. and 35° 30′ E. long., on the S. shore of _St. George’s Bay_, between _Râs Beirût_ (p. 483) and _Mt. St. Dimitri_. To the E. rises _Lebanon_ (p. xxxiv), with _Jebel Keneiseh_ and _Jebel Sannîn_ (p. 483). The climate is mild and pleasant (mean temperature of Jan. 56° Fahr., of Aug. 81°), and the rainfall is considerable (34 in.). The sea-breezes render the summer bearable, but they are apt to fail in August and September. Many of the citizens then seek refuge in the summer quarters of Lebanon, to which Egyptians and Cypriotes also resort.

_Berytus_ (‘fountain’) is mentioned in the tablets of Tell el-Amarna
(p. 456) as the seat of the Egyptian vassal Ammunira. It lay in the
territory of the _Giblites_, a northern branch of the Phœnicians. In
140 B.C., during the wars of the Diadochi, the town was entirely
destroyed. The Romans rebuilt it and named it _Colonia Julia Augusta
Felix Berytus_, after the daughter of Emp. Augustus. In the 3rd cent.
its school of Roman law became renowned. From that time down to the
present day it has been noted also for its silk-industry, which was
transplanted to Greece and to Sicily. In 529 the prosperity of the
town was destroyed by an earthquake. Since its conquest by the Arabs
in 635 it has been in the possession of the Moslems, except during the
brief Crusaders’ occupation. Like Saida (p. 469) it was a favourite
residence of the able Druse prince _Fakhreddîn_ (1595–1634), who in
league with the Venetians wrested Central Syria from the Turks. They,
however, later recaptured Beirut. During the 19th cent. Beirut
gradually attained a new lease of prosperity. Under the Egyptian rule
its sea-borne commerce increased, while Saida and Tripoli declined. In
1840 the town was bombarded by the British fleet and recaptured for
the Turks. After the massacre of Christians in 1860 (see p. 485) many
Christians from central Syria settled at Beirut.

The Moslem inhabitants (about 65,000) are in a considerable minority. Among the Christians there are 64,000 Greeks, 40,000 Maronites, and 2100 Protestants. The Jews number about 5500. An unusually large percentage of the natives can read and write. The chief language is Arabic.

Beirut offers few sights. The poor and closely built _Old Town_ contains the _Great Mosque_ (Pl. F, 2), once a Crusader’s church, the _Greek Churches_, and the _Maronite Cathedral_ (Pl. F, 2).

The _Sûks_ or markets have lost much of their Oriental character. Most of the genuine native products come from Lebanon (keffîyehs or head-cloths, embroidery, woven stuffs, slippers, bridal chests, etc.). The filigree-work has long been noted (sold by weight).

The native population may be studied also in the large _Place des Canons_ or _Place de l’Union_ (Pl. F, 2), on the S. side of the _Serâi_ or government-buildings. The numerous Arabian cafés are for men only.

The broad streets of the NEW TOWN skirt the picturesque hill-sides. Palm, orange, and lemon trees abound in the beautiful gardens. The _Damascus Road_ (tramway; Pl. G, 4, 5) leads to the S. in ½ hr. to the _Bois de Pins_ (Pl. G, F, 6), a pine-wood planted by Fakhreddîn for protection against the sand of the dunes.

The finest point of view is *_Mt. St. Dimitri_ (Pl. H, 3–5; best by evening light), ½ hr. to the S.E. of the old town. From the Place des Canons we follow the Derb en-Nahr (Pl. G, 2) and the Tripoli road, turn to the right beyond the Greek Orthodox Hospital (Pl. H, 2), and then ascend to the left.

From the Place des Canons (tramway, see p. 481) the Derb el-Kebîreh (Pl. F, E, 2) and Derb el-Prusiani lead to the W., below the dunes, to the _Râs Beirût_. After ½ hr. we reach the _Lighthouse_ (Phare or Fanâr; Pl. A, 2). Thence the road descends in windings to the sea and farther on to the ‘_Pigeons’ Grottoes_’ (reached by boat from the harbour in ½ hr.; 1½ mej.). The light is best near sunset.

* * * * *

FROM BEIRUT TO DAMASCUS, 91½ M., narrow-gauge railway (20 M. being on Abt’s rack-and-pinion system). Two trains daily in 9¼–11 hrs. (fare 110 pias. 10 or 75 pias.). The passenger should have the exact fare ready before booking. _Reyâk_ is the diningstation for the day-train.

This Railway Company (French) has its own rate of exchange: 1 napoleon
= 87 pias.; 1 sovereign = 110 pias.; 1 mejidieh = 18½ pias.

The train runs from the harbour to the E., close to the sea, to the (1½ M.) _Chief Station_, and through the valley of the _Nahr Beirût_ at the E. base of _Mt. St. Dimitri_, soon turning to the S. to (4½ M.) _El-Hadet_. It then rapidly ascends the slopes of _Lebanon_.

10½ M. _Areiya_, 13 M. _Aleih_ (2460 ft.), two summer resorts in the Lebanon. The train threads a tunnel to the highest point of the line (4879 ft.). We then descend, enjoying fine views, to the right and left, of _Jebel el-Barûk_ (6749 ft.) and _Jebel Keneiseh_ (6660 ft.), to (35 M.) _El-Muallaka_, a large village, and station for the Christian town of _Zahleh_ (3101 ft.) on the S. spurs of _Jebel Sannîn_ (8556 ft.; snow-capped in early summer).

We next traverse the lofty valley of _El-Bikâ_, the ancient _Bucca Vallis_, watered by the _Nahr el-Lîtânî_ (_Leontes_), once the most fertile part of _Coelesyria_ (‘hollow Syria’).

41 M. =Reyâk= or _Rayak_ (Buffet; halt of ½ hr.), junction for Baalbek (Heliopolis) and Aleppo (Haleb).

Passing through the narrow _Wâdi Yahfûfeh_ we next ascend the _Anti-Lebanon Mts._; 54½ M. _Sarrâyâ_ or _Zerghaya_ (4610 ft.) lies between their two main ranges, on the watershed between the Bikâ and the plain of Damascus.

Beyond (61 M.) _Ez-Zebedâni_ (3888 ft.) the train enters the valley of that name, famed for its fruit and watered by the _Nahr Baradâ_ (Gr. _Chrysorrhoas_, ‘gold stream’). 71½ M. _Sûk Wâdi Baradâ_ (‘market of Baradâ vale’), at the end of a defile.

76½ M. _Aïn Fîjeh_, the chief source of the Baradâ, has remains of a Roman Nymphæum (see p. 241). 85 M. _Dummar_, a villa-suburb of Damascus. The city with its minarets soon comes in sight.

The floor of the Baradâ valley, between (left and right) _Jebel Kâsyûn_ (p. 489) and the hills of _Kalabât el-Mezzeh_, is well planted with trees. At the mouth of the valley the river divides into seven branches which water the great plain of Damascus.

Skirting large meadows (_merj_), then orchards, and a _Roman Aqueduct_, the train reaches (89½ M.) _Damascus-Beramkeh_ (see below), where it is usual to alight, and lastly runs past the W. side of _El-Meidân_ (p. 487) to (91½ M.) _Damascus-Meidân_.

* * * * *

=Damascus.=—RAILWAY STATIONS. =1.= _Beramkeh_ or _Baramki_, near the
hotels and the Serâi.—=2.= _Meidân_, near the Bauwâbet Allah, chief
station of the Beirut line.—=3.= _Kadem_, for the Hejâz line (p. 469;
no cabs).—Cabs and tramway, see below.

HOTELS. _Hôt. Victoria_, _Hôt. d’Orient_, _Palace Hotel_, all near the
Beramkeh Station and the Serâi; _Hôt. d’Angleterre_, to the E. of the
Serâi Square; pens. 10–15 fr. (or more when crowded), in the quiet
season 6–10 fr.; good wine of the country (from Shtôra) 1½–5 fr.

ARABIAN CAFÉS, the largest and most interesting in the East, mostly on
an arm of the Baradâ, in the Serâi Square, on the Beirut road, the
Aleppo road, etc.—Visitors should beware of the cold night-air from
the river after a hot day.

CABS in the Serâi Square, 6–7 pias, per drive, or 10–12 pias. per hr.
(always to be agreed upon beforehand); but more on holidays and in the
height of the season.—ELECTRIC TRAMWAY (3¼ M.) from the El-Meidân
quarter viâ the Serâi Square to the suburb of Es-Sâlehîyeh (p. 489).

POST OFFICE and INTERNATIONAL TELEGRAPH OFFICE, Serâi Square.

CONSULS. British, _G. P. Devey_, near the Beramkeh Station.—United
States Consular Agent, _N. Meshâka_, in the Christian quarter.

DRAGOMANS (Arabic _terjumân_), about 10 fr. a day during the season,
desirable for new-comers (comp. p. xxvi), and essential in visiting
the Omaiyade Mosque. Travellers should beware of trusting them with
money or purchases.

BANKS. _Banque Ottomane_, _German Palaestina-Bank_, both in the Sûk
el-Asrunîyeh (p. 486).—PHOTOGRAPHS sold by _Suleimân Hakîm_, at the E.
end of the Straight Street (p. 487).—BATHS. The _Hammâm el-Khaiyâtin_
and the _Hammâm ed-Derwîshîyeh_ or _el-Malikeh_, among others, are
worth seeing.

CHURCHES. _English Church_ (_St. John’s_), of the London Jews Society,
in the Hammâm el-Kari Quarter; _Rev. J. E. Hanauer_; Sun. service at
10.30. Also Edinburgh Medical, British Syrian Mission, Irish
Presbyterian, and other missions, with excellent schools, hospitals,
etc.—The Latins, the Greeks, and the Jews also have their own schools.

SIGHTS (when time is limited). 1st Day, in the forenoon, _Serâi
Square_, the _Bazaars_, and _Meidân_ (pp. 486, 487); afternoon,
_Es-Sâlehîyeh_ and _Jebel Kâsyûn_ (p. 489).—2nd Day. _Mosque of the
Omaiyades_ (p. 488).

_Damascus_ (2268 ft.), formerly called _Dimishk_, a name still sometimes used, but commonly called by the natives _Esh-Shâm_ (a term applied also to the whole of Syria; p. 482), lies on the borders of the _Syrian Desert_ (p. xxxiii) in the _Rûta_, a beautiful oasis between Anti-Lebanon and the ‘_Meadow Lakes_‘, into which fall all the branches and canals of the Baradâ. As the Koran pictures paradise as a garden, where luscious fruits drop into the mouth, the Arabs have ever regarded Damascus, with its luxuriant orchards, as the prototype of that blissful abode. The Rûta does not, however, and least of all in winter, impress Europeans quite so favourably. Yet in May, when the walnut-tree is in full leaf and the vine climbs exuberantly from tree to tree, or still later, when the apricot-trees in the midst of their rich carpet of green herbage bear their countless golden fruits and the pomegranates are in the perfection of their blossom, the gardens are truly beautiful.

HISTORY. With regard to the foundation of Damascus, which like the
whole of Syria belonged from about 1500 B. C. onwards to Egypt and to
the Hittite empire (p. 547) alternately, countless traditions are
current among the Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans. After David had
temporarily extended his sway to Damascus, there arose here, in
Solomon’s time, an independent Aramæan kingdom under Rezon (1 Kings,
xi. 23–25). In the protracted struggles between the neighbouring
kingdoms of Israel and Judah the Syrian kings generally succeeded, by
means of judicious alliances, in maintaining their independence. In
the annals of the Assyrians, who destroyed Damascus in 732, the town
is called _Dimaski_ and the kingdom _Imîrisu_. From that time onwards
Damascus lost its political importance; but it continued, especially
under the sway of the Seleucides of Antioch during the period of the
Diadochi, to prosper as a trading and industrial city and as the
starting-point of the caravan traffic with Mesopotamia and Persia.
When it became a Roman provincial city it formed a political bulwark
against the Arabs (Nabatæans) and Parthians. In 611 A. D., under the
Byzantine emperor Heraclius, many of its inhabitants were carried into
captivity by the Sassanide _Chosroes II._

With its conquest by the Arabs in 635 begins the most brilliant period
in the history of the city. Under _Mûawiya_ (661–79), founder of the
dynasty of the _Omaiyades_, the greatest of Arabian princes, it became
the seat of the caliphate. But when the _Abbasides_ removed their
residence to Mesopotamia in 750 Damascus again sank to the position of
a provincial town. It fell successively into the hands of the Egyptian
Tulunides and Fatimites (p. 443), and at length in 1075 succumbed to
the Seljuks (p. 542). In 1148 it was unsuccessfully besieged by Conrad
III. Under _Nûreddîn_ and _Saladin_ (p. 443) Damascus was the chief
base of all the wars against the Crusaders. During the conflicts
between the Mongols, who under _Hûlagû_ had captured the city in 1260,
and the Egyptian Mameluke sultans, Damascus was specially favoured by
_Beybars_ (1260–77). During the great predatory expedition of the
Mongols under _Timur_ (1399–1400) many scholars and artists, including
the city’s famous armourers, were exiled to Samarkand. In 1516 the
Turkish sultan _Selim I._ (p. 542) entered the city as its final
conqueror. In 1860 there took place a great massacre of Christians in
which the Christian quarter was utterly destroyed and about 6000
Christians killed.

Damascus consists of several different quarters. The _Jews’ Quarter_, as in the time of the Apostles, adjoins the ‘Straight Street’ (p. 487), on the S.E. side of the city; to the N.E. of it is the poor _Christian Quarter_. The other parts of the town are Moslem. Far towards the S. stretches the suburb of _Meidân_, inhabited by peasants. The Arabian houses in the old town are noted for their splendour. They usually contain a spacious court, adorned with fountains, flower-beds, orange-trees, etc., and flanked on the S. side by a lofty open arcade (_lîwân_) with pointed arches.

The population is roughly estimated at 300,000, of whom four-fifths are Moslems, and there is a garrison of 12,000 men. The Damascenes are notorious for their ignorance and fanaticism. The city was once a great centre of learning, but of about a hundred old _medresehs_ or colleges five only now remain. The famous old weaving industry of the place (still employing about 10,000 primitive looms for silk, woollen, and cotton stuffs) is being steadily ousted by European competition. The busy bazaar traffic here is hardly less picturesque than at Cairo.

We begin our visit at the SERÂI SQUARE, the centre of business, built over the main branch of the Baradâ (p. 484). A _Monument_ here commemorates the opening of telegraphic communication with Mecca.

To the E. of the square are the *=Bazaars=. Through the covered _Sûk Ali Pasha_ (fruit and tobacco) we reach the _Sûk el-Hamîr_ (donkey-market), beyond which is an open street where corn is sold.

At a large plane-tree here we turn to the right to visit the interesting _Sûk es-Surûjîyeh_ (saddlers’ market), which ends near the citadel at the _Sûk en-Nahhâsîn_. This is the bazaar of the coppersmiths, who make the handsome _kursi_, or trays placed on wooden stands (p. 487) to serve as tables.

The =Citadel= (no admittance), a huge castle in the style introduced by the Crusaders, was built in 1219 and was afterwards restored by Beybars (p. 485). The thick walls stand on ancient substructures of massive blocks. At the corners rise square towers with bartisans. The chief gate is on the W. side.

From the W. side of the Citadel the chief thoroughfare of the city (tramway, see p. 484) leads past the _Military Serâi_ and the _Hammâm el-Malikeh_ (or _ed-Derwîshîyeh_) to the Meidân suburb (p. 487). On the left is the _Sûk el-Kharrâtin_, or Turners’ Market.

Opposite the Military Serâi is the entrance to the ‘_Greek Bazaar_‘, a covered market restored in 1893, one of the largest in the city. Among the wares, for which buyers can hardly offer too little, are weapons, antiquities, clothing, pipe-stems, and ‘damascened’ daggers (made in Germany).

Straight through the Greek Bazaar we come to the _Sûk elHamîdîyeh_, also renovated, with its attractive Arabian sweetmeatshops. A side-street leads thence (l.) to the bazaar for _Water Pipes_ (a kind of hookah smoked by the peasants) and the _Sûk el-Asrunîyeh_, for utensils, glass, henna (p. 108), and attar of roses (p. 335).

Beyond the _Sûk Bâb el-Berîd_ (on the left) we pass the almost deserted bazaar-street of the _Booksellers_ (leading to the Omaiyade mosque, p. 488), with an old _Triumphal Arch_; whence a double row of columns once led to the ancient temple (see p. 488). We then turn out of the Hamîdîyeh, to the right, into the _Cloth Bazaar_ (chiefly imported goods). On the right is the _Tomb of Nûreddîn_ (p. 485; unbelievers not admitted).

Adjoining the S. side of the mosque are the bazaar of the _Joiners_, where we note the kabkâbs, a kind of patten, the kursistands, and the bridal chests, and that of the _Goldsmiths_.

To the S. of the great mosque is the region of the KHÂNS (p. 445). We come first to the _Khân el-Harîr_, or silk-bazaar, now that of the furriers. Near it is the _House of Asad Pasha_, one of the finest in the city (admittance with the aid of a dragoman). The *_Khân Asad Pasha_, with its superb stalactite portal, is the largest of all.

Near this point runs the ancient ‘STRAIGHT STREET’ (Acts ix. 11; now Sûk et-Tawîleh, or ‘long market’), connecting the Meidân road with the Bâb esh-Sherki (see below). A few paces to the W., towards the Meidân road, on the left, is the _Khân Suleimân Pasha_, for Persian carpets and silks. On the right, where the cloth-bazaar (see above) diverges, is the _Silk Bazaar_ proper, for the sale of keffîyehs (head-cloths, ‘kerchiefs’), table-covers, embroidery, woollen cloaks (abâyehs) for peasants and Bedouins, etc.—We next come to the _Sûk el-Attârîn_, or spice-market, and to the _Meidân Road_.

At the point where we join this road rises the =Jâmi es-Sinânîyeh=,
one of the most sumptuous mosques in Damascus. The chief portal (E.
side), with its rich stalactites, and the minaret enriched with
fayencetiles (kishâni, p. 477) are interesting.

The road forks farther on. We follow the Meidân Road (at first called
_Sûk es-Sinânîyeh_) to the S. Close to the _Jâmi el-Idein_, where the
Meidân Road trends somewhat to the right, we pass, on the left, the
Moslem cemetery _Makbaret Bâb es-Sarîr_, where women weep at the tombs
on Thursdays.

The poor suburb of =Meidân= is modern. Its numerous mosques, including
the fine _Kâat el-Ûla_, are in a ruinous state. The sûk is frequented
by corn-dealers, whose grain is heaped up in open barns, and by
smiths. The arrival of caravans here presents a picturesque scene. The
long strings of camels are attended by ragged Bedouins. Among them are
seen Haurânians, bringing their corn to market, and here and there a
Kurd shepherd with his square felt-mantle driving his sheep to the
shambles. The Bedouins, armed with guns or with long lances, sometimes
ride beautiful horses. The wealthy Druses from Lebanon have a most
imposing appearance. Twice a year almost all these types may be seen
together: on the departure, and again, better still, on the return of
the Mecca pilgrims.

If time permit we may now retrace our steps to the cemetery Makbâret
Bâb es-Sarîr (see above) whence we take a short walk along the =City
Wall=, on the S.E. side of the old town, beyond the Jewish and
Christian quarters (p. 485). Its foundations are Roman, the central
part dates from the days of Nûreddîn and the Egyptian sultan El-Ashraf
Khalîl (1291), and the upper part from the Turkish period. Passing the
camping-ground of the caravans from Bagdad and the _Bâb esh-Sherki_
(E. Gate, originally Roman), we come to the well-preserved _Bâb Tûmâ_
(St. Thomas’s Gate). [About ¾ M. to the S. of the Bâb esh-Sherki are
Christian burial-grounds; in one of which _Henry Thomas Buckle_, the
eminent English historian (d. 1862), is interred.]

Near the Bâb Tûmâ on the Aleppo road, beyond the Baradâ, are public
gardens and pleasant cafés patronized by Christians. We return thence
to the _Citadel_ (p. 486), passing between the Baradâ and the N. side
of the town-wall, here probably Byzantine.

The great *=Omaiyade Mosque= (_Jâmi el-Umawî_), the finest monument of that dynasty in Syria next to the Dome of the Rock (p. 477), deserves close inspection. Entrance by the W. gate (_Bâb el-Berîd_), at the end of the booksellers’ sûk (p. 486). Gratuity to the sheikh who acts as guide ca. 1 mejidieh each person; addit. charge for slippers 1–2 pias. each person.

On the site of the mosque there once stood a Roman temple within a
large quadrangle. This was succeeded by the church of St. John, a
three-aisled basilica built by Emp. Theodosius I. (379–95), and so
named from the ‘head of John the Baptist’ (Arabic Yahyâ) preserved in
the Confessio, by which the Damascenes still swear. After the conquest
of the city by the Arabs (p. 485) the E. half of the church was
assigned to the Moslems. Caliph Welîd (705–15) deprived the Christians
of the W. half also; and in 708, with the help, it is said, of 1200
Byzantine artificers, he transformed the church into the present
mosque, which was so magnificent that Arabian authors extolled it as
one of the wonders of the world. Adjacent to it the earliest school of
learning was built by caliph Omar II. (717–20). The mosque was
carefully restored after fires in 1069, 1400, and 1893, but its
ancient glory has departed for ever.

We enter the great COURT, which with the mosque itself forms an immense rectangle of 143 by 104 yds., and is flanked by two-storied arcades in the Byzantine style. Behind these are the sleeping-apartments and studies of the teachers and students. The old marble pavement of the court, the mosaic incrustation of the walls, and the crown of pinnacles have disappeared. The fountain of ablution (_Kubbet en-Naufara_) and the two smaller domed buildings are modern.

Of the three TOWERS the ‘bride’s minaret’ (_Mâdinet el-Arûs_; now being rebuilt) on the N. side of the court is said to date from the time of Welîd. The ‘minaret of Jesus’ (_Mâdinet Isâ_), at the S.E. angle of the mosque, recalls the Crusaders’ edifices. The _Mâdinet el-Rarbîyeh_, at the S.W. angle, in the Egypto-Arabian style and famed for its view, was added by Kâït Bey (p. 458).

The INTERIOR (143 by 41 yds.), with its three span-roofs, still has the form of an early-Christian basilica. Above each of the two rows of columns, 23 ft. high, which separate the aisles, rises a row of ‘colonnettes’ with round-arch openings, to which similar round-arched windows in the outer walls correspond. In the centre a threefold transept, with four huge pillars supporting the dome (Kubbet en-Nisr, eagle’s dome), indicates the direction of Mecca. The Byzantine glass-mosaics of the time of Welîd, the superb timber ceiling, and the mihrâb and mimbar (15th cent.) were all sadly damaged by the fire of 1893. In the central aisle on the E., over the ‘head of John the Baptist’, rises a modern dome in wood.

On the N. side of the mosque, near the _Bâb el-Amâra_, are the
handsome _Tomb of Saladin_ (Kabr Salâheddîn; adm. 6 pias.) and the
_Medreseh_ and _Tomb Mosque of Sultan Beybars_ (p. 485), the latter,
according to the inscription, built by his son in 1279.

The suburb of =Es-Sâlehîyeh= (tramway, see p. 484), l–1/4 M. to the N.W. of the Serâi Square, has about 25,000 inhab., mostly descended from Seljuks, reinforced later by Kurds and by Moslem refugees from Crete. The finest of the ruinous mosques, but not readily shown, is the tomb-mosque of _Muhieddîn ibn el-Arâbi_ (d. 1240), adjoined by the tomb of Abd el-Kâder (p. 221).

From the Cretan quarter at the W. end of the suburb we may ascend, past a platform affording a good view, to the (1¼ hr.) top of the _Jebel Kâsyûn_ (3718 ft.). The *View at the small _Kubbet en-Nasr_ (‘dome of victory’) embraces the city, encircled by the broad green belt of the oasis of the Rûta, the barren heights of Anti-Lebanon, with the long chain of _Mt. Hermon_ (9052 ft.; generally snow-capped) to the S.W.; and to the S.E., beyond _Jebel Mâni_, the distant hill-country of the _Haurân_.

Fuller details in _Baedeker’s Palestine and Syria_.

75. From Beirut to Smyrna (_and Constantinople_).

713 M. STEAMERS (agents at Beirut, see p. 481; at Smyrna, p. 531; at
Constantinople, pp. 538, 539). =1.= _Messageries Maritimes_ (N.
Mediterranean Marseilles and Beirut line), from Beirut every alternate
Sat. (from Constantinople on Thurs.) viâ Rhodes, Vathy, and Smyrna to
Constantinople in 4 days (fare 205 or 140 fr.).—=2.= _Russian Steam
Navigation & Trading Co._ (see also R. 72; Syria-Egypt circular line,
coming from Alexandria) from Beirut on Thurs. night (in the reverse
direction Thurs. aft.) viâ Tripoli, Alexandretta, Mersina, Chios, and
Smyrna to Constantinople in 8½ days (fare 284 or 212 fr.; to Smyrna
198 or 148 fr.).—=3.= _Khedivial Mail Steamship Co._ (comp. also R.
72; from Alexandria and calling at Port Said) leaves Beirut every
alternate Wed. foren. (returning Sat. aft.) for Constantinople (in 7
days) viâ Tripoli, Alexandretta, Mersina, Rhodes, Chios, Smyrna,
Mytilini, the Dardanelles, and Gallipoli (fare £E 9¼ or £E 6½; see p.
431).

_Beirut_, see p. 481. The French steamers make straight out to sea in a W. direction. Astern Lebanon remains long in sight.

About half-a-day’s steaming brings us in view of the mountains of =Cyprus= (Turk. _Kibris_; pop. ca. 243,000), culminating in the bare _Troodos_ (6408 ft.). Under the Phœnicians and Greeks _Kypros_, the third-largest island in the Mediterranean (3613 sq. M.), was the seat of the cult of Aphrodite and the scene of a peculiar civilization, the product of Egyptian, Phœnician, and Greek influences in succession. In the middle ages the island was governed by kings of the house of Lusignan and was for a time the seat of the Knights of St. John (1292–1308; see pp. 475, 469, 490). Since 1878 it has been under British protectorate and only nominally Turkish.

Far away to the right we see the table-shaped _Capo Greco_ and the bays of _Larnaka_ and _Limassol_. We then pass, on the S. coast of Cyprus, the prominent peninsula of _Akrotiri_, with _Cape Gata_ (lighthouse) and _Cape Zevgari_. Beyond _Port Paphos_ (lighthouse) we skirt the rocky W. coast of the island.

On the coast of =Asia Minor= (Anatolia), on a clear day, we sight the beautiful ranges of the _Lycian Taurus_ (10,500 ft.; p. xxxiii); at night the lighthouse on the island of _Kasteloryzo_ (ancient _Megiste_), with the seaport of _Mandraki_, is sometimes visible.

To the S.E. of Rhodes we cross one of the deepest parts of the Mediterranean (12,683 ft.).

Nearing =Rhodes= (562 sq. M.; ca. 30,000 inhab.), the eastmost island of the _Greek Archipelago_, we sight its S.E. coast as far as _Attáiros_ (4068 ft.; formerly _Atabyrion_) and _Cape Lartos_. The latter rises beyond the small bay of _Lindos_, which together with Ialysos and Kamiros, ancient Greek towns on the N. coast, and with Cnidus, Cos, and Halicarnassus, once formed the league of the Doric Hexapolis.

The French steamers call at _Rhodes_ (Hôt. Karayannis, good; Brit. vice-cons.), the capital of the island, picturesquely situated at its N.E. point. Founded in 408 B. C. by the three older towns (see above) it became famous in later Greek times for its navy and for the Colossus of Rhodes, a bronze statue of Helios 112 ft. high, which was accounted one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The ruinous mediæval *Fortifications and the Strada dei Cavalieri, with the old ‘Houses’ (places of assembly) of the different nations, recall the mediæval glory of Rhodes under the sway of the Knights of St. John (1308–1522) after their expulsion from Cyprus (p. 489).

We next steer through the _Ægean Sea_, where the scenery and the historic associations are alike most attractive. We pass the _S. Sporades_, Greek islands off the coast of ancient _Caria_ and _Lydia_, once ruled by the Knights of St. John, and now called _Dodekanesos_ (‘twelve islands’), which enjoy autonomy under Turkish suzerainty.

Steaming to the W.N.W. we cross the inland sea of the ancient _Doris_, between Rhodes and Cos, noted for its sponge-fishery. On our right lies the Anatolian peninsula of the ancient _Chersonesus Rhodia_, with _Cape Alupo_ (_Cynossema_) and the island of _Symi_ (_Syme_); to the W. rise the precipitous and fissured island of _Telos_ (_Tilos_; 2008 ft.) and the volcanic island of _Nisyros_ (2268 ft.), with its huge, still smoking crater and its hot springs. To the N.W. stretch the long outlines of _Chersonesus Cnidia_, with the ruins of _Cnidos_ and _Cape Krio_ (_Triopium Promontorium_).

The steamer rounds the E. coast of Cos (2871 ft.; Turk. _Istankiöi_; not one of the Dodekanesos group), once the seat of the most ancient shrine of Æsculapius and of a famous medical school (Hippocrates), and passes the peninsula of _Budrum_ (_Halicarnassus_). To the W. appear in succession the islands of _Kalymnos_ (2248 ft.), _Leros_ (1086 ft.), _Lipso_ (902 ft.; _Lepsia_), and _Arki_ (_Acrite_).

To the E. of the island of _Gaïdaronisi_ (696 ft.; _Tragia_), where Cæsar was captured by pirates in 76 B. C., opens the _Latmian Bay_, belonging to the ancient _Ionia_, now silted up by the deposits of the Mæander. A little inland are the ruins of _Miletus_ and _Priene_.

The French steamers now pass through the _Straits of Samos_, between the _Samsun Dagh_ (4150 ft.; _Mykale_) and the island of =Samos=, whose old capital, _Samos_, now _Tigani_, with its walls of the age of Polycrates and its new harbour (1908), is seen in the distance.

=Vathy= (Xenodochion Hegemonia tēs Samu, a good inn; pop. 9500), the new capital of Samos, lies in the bay of Scalanova (set below), on the N. coast. Above the narrow bay rises the distant Samsun Dagh. On the shore stands the plain palace of the Samian princes. Since 1832 the island has formed a Christian-Greek state under Turkey. The _Museum_, in the court of the high school, contains antiquities from the famous shrine of Hera and from Tigani.

The French vessels, soon after starting, offer a retrospect of _Mt. Kerki_ (4725 ft.; _Cerceteus Mons_), the highest in Samos, and then cross the _Bay of Scalanova_ (_Sinus Caystrius_). In the hill-country on the mainland, to the E. of this bay, near the mouth of the _Cayster_ or _Kaystros_, once lay the rich Ionian towns of _Ephesus_ and _Colophon_ and, to the N. of these, _Lebedus_ and _Teos_.

Passing the _Bay of Sighajik_ and _Cape Koraca_ (_Carycium Promontorium_) we soon reach the _Straits of Chios_ (comp. p. 492).

_Smyrna_, see p. 530; voyage thence to _Constantinople_, see p. 533.

76. From Alexandria to Athens and Smyrna (_and Constantinople_).

FROM ALEXANDRIA TO THE PIRÆUS (Athens: 590 M.): =1.= _Khedivial Mail
Steamship Co._ (Alexandria and Constantinople line), from Alexandria
on Wed. (returning from the Piræus Thurs.) aft., in 42 hrs. (fare £ E
5 or £ 3 E 25 pias.).—=2.= _Rumanian Mail Line_ (Alexandria and
Constantza line), from Alexandria on Frid. aft. (returning from the
Piræus Sat. aft.), in 2 days.—=3.= _Russian Steam Navigation & Trading
Co._ (Odessa, Constantinople, and Alexandria line), from Alexandria on
Frid. aft. (from the Piræus Tues.), in 2 days (130 or 90 fr.).

FROM ALEXANDRIA TO SMYRNA (623 M.), steamers of the Belgian company
_La Phocéenne_ (between Alexandria and Constantinople), every Sat.
aft. viâ Rhodes, Leros, and Chios.

Agents in Alexandria, see p. 432; at the Piræus, p. 494; at Smyrna, p.
531. Passports for Turkey should be _visés_ before starting, or a
Turkish passport (_teskeré_) may be obtained at the government
buildings (p. 434).

_Alexandria_, see p. 431. The ATHENS STEAMERS steer to the N.W. to the _Strait of Kasos_, 28 M. broad, lying between _Kasos_ (1706 ft.; one of the Dodekanesos group, p. 490) and _Crete_ (p. 415). Behind Kasos rises the lofty island of _Kárpathos_ (4003 ft.; Ital. _Scarpanto_, Turk. _Kerpe_), like the former one of the southmost of the Sporades. Fine view of the _Sitía Mts._ (4852 ft.), continued by the _Lasithi Mts._, together called _Dikte_ in ancient times. Off the E. coast of Crete we see the flat islet of _Elasa_.

We steer close by _Cape Sídero_ (lighthouse), the N.E. point of Crete, and past the _Gianitsades_ (_Insulae Dionysiades_). As we steam across the _Cretan Sea_ (_Mare Creticum_) the high mountains of Crete long remain visible.