Chapter III: BRONZE ROOM (rotunda) contains the other bronzes found in the (1)

strait of Kythera (comp. R. I). To the right of the entrance, 13,399.
Figure of a youth, in the style of the older Argive school, still on
its old pedestal; 13,397 and 13,398. Statuettes of youths; 13,400.
Hellenistic head.

We return to the Sarcophagus Room and pass to the left through the
ROOM OF THE ROMAN TOMB RELIEFS to the—

ROOM OF THE VOTIVE RELIEFS. By the entrance wall and on the left are
votive reliefs from the _Asklepieion_ (p. 511). The most elaborately
executed is No. 1377, near the middle of the left wall (4th cent.);
adjacent is No. 2565, in the form of a stele.—The KARAPANOS ROOM is
chiefly devoted to relics from the Zeus oracle at Dodona.

On the S. side of the museum is the =Collection of Vases=. The finest
are mostly from Attica, the chief seat of the vase-painting of the
6–4th cent., such as the _Black-figured Vases_, with their
silhouette-like figures painted in black (6th cent.; ROOM I, cabinets
13–23); the _Red-figured Vases_, vessels entirely covered with a black
glaze, the figures alone, on their original red ground, remaining free
(after middle of 6th cent.; ROOM II); and the _Lekythi_, slender
vessels for perfumes, with coloured figures on a white ground (after
the Persian wars; ROOM III, cabinets 41–50).

Adjacent are three front-rooms containing the =Terracottas=, including
fine sets of figurines of the best period (5–4th cent.). In the last
room are exhibited also antique trinkets and vessels.

f. Walks.

The ascent of =Lykabettós= (909 ft.), the finely shaped hill to the N.E. of Athens, is specially attractive by early morning or late evening light. We diverge to the N. from the Rue de Képhisia at the end of the palace-garden (Pl. G, 5), cross the Kolonáki Square (Pl. G, H, 5), and in 6 min. reach the reservoir of the _Water Conduit_ of Hadrian, now utilized anew (Pl. H, 4; 445 ft.), where there is a small café commanding a fine view. Hence we proceed to the Lukianos Street, from the N. end of which an easy path ascends through young plantations. After the first zigzags a level path (Pl. H, 3) diverging to the left affords almost finer views than the top of the hill. The path straight on ascends to the _Georgios Chapel_ (Pl. H, 3) on the summit in ½ hr. more.

The view embraces the city of Athens, with the Acropolis and the Attic
plain, the Piræus, the bay of Phaleron, and the Saronic Gulf, with
Ægina and Salamis and the distant mountains of Argolis; to the right
of Salamis are the hills of Corinth and Megara; in the foreground,
concealing the bay of Eleusis, rises Mt. Ægaleos; farther to the N. is
Mt. Parnes. Between the latter and Pentelikon, which rises to the
N.E., extends the upper plain of Attica. To the E. is Mt. Hymettos.

A fine view of Athens and the Acropolis is obtained also from the =Kolōnós= hill, the legendary home of Sophocles. From the Place de la Concorde (Pl. D, 2, 3) we follow the tramway to _Kolokythu_ (comp. Pl. A, 1) and reach the hill in ½ hr.; it rises to the right of the road and is recognized by the conspicuous monuments of the antiquarians Otfried Müller (d. 1840) and Chas. Lenormant (d. 1859). Adjacent lay the AKADEMEIA, the grove where Plato taught.

The most popular resort on fine summer evenings is =New Pháleron= (tramway and Piræus railway, see p. 503), on the bay of Phaleron. A band plays in the evening on the broad coast-terrace, with its cafés and bath-houses (bath 40 l.).—A branch of the tramway runs to the quieter sea-baths of OLD PHALERON (comp. p. 503).—The _Piraeus_, see p. 494.

80. From Athens viâ Smyrna to Constantinople.

545 M. STEAMERS (agents at the Piræus, see pp. 494, 495; at Smyrna, p.
531; at Constantinople, pp. 538, 539). =1.= _North German Lloyd_
(comp. RR. 23, 24, 77), Mediterranean & Levant Service, in either
direction every other Thurs.; from the Piræus to Smyrna in 1, to
Constantinople in 2–2½ days (fare to Smyrna 40 or 28, to
Constantinople 72 or 48 marks).—=2.= _Messageries Maritimes_ (comp.
RR. 23, 77), N. Mediterranean service, from the Piræus every other
Mon. (from Constantinople Thurs.), to Smyrna in 1, to Constantinople
in 2 days (fare 90 or 60 fr.); also the Marseilles, Constantinople,
and Batum line, from the Piræus Thurs. (from Constantinople Tues.), to
Smyrna in 1, to Constantinople in 3 days (fare 80 or 40 fr.).—=3.=
_Khedivial Mail Steamship Co._ (comp. R. 76), from the Piræus Frid.
(from Constantinople Tues.) aft., to Smyrna in 18 hrs., to
Constantinople in 2 days (fare 52 or 39, and 91 or 61 fr.).—=4.=
_Austrian Lloyd_ (comp. R. 78), Greek-Oriental Line, from the Piræus
Frid. even, (from Constantinople Mon.), to Smyrna in 2, to
Constantinople in 5 days (fares 54 or 38, and 132 or 93 fr.).

Line XI of the Società Nazionale (pp. 493, 563) touches at Smyrna on
the outward voyage only (Piræus to Constantinople 3½ days).

TO CONSTANTINOPLE DIRECT. =1.= _Rumanian Mail Line_, from the Piræus
Sun. aft., in 24 hrs. (returning from Constantinople Frid. aft. in 23
hrs.).—=2.= _Società Nazionale_, Line XII, from the Piræus Thurs.
night, in 32 hrs. (returning from Constantinople Wed. foren., in 31
hrs.); fares 101 fr. 30, 70 fr. 70 c.—=3.= _Austrian Lloyd_, fast
steamers between Trieste and Constantinople, from the Piræus Sat.
aft., in 35 hrs. (from Constantinople Sat. foren., in 29 hrs.); fare
90 or 60 fr.

_Athens_ and the _Piraeus_, see pp. 502, 494. We first steer to the S.E. across the _Bay of Ægina_ (p. 494), past the three pinnacles of _Cape Zostēr_, the southmost spur of Hymettos, and near the islets of _Phleva_ (ancient _Phabra_; lighthouse) and _Gaïdaronisi_.

Beyond _Cape Colonna_ or _Kolonnaes_ (ancient _Sunion_), on which the columns of the temple of Poseidon are conspicuous, opens the _Strait of Kea_, between (left and right) the lonely _Makronisi_ (922 ft.; ‘long island’; ancient _Helena_) and the fertile island of _Kea_ (1863 ft.; formerly _Keos_), with its lighthouse on the headland of _Hagios Nikolaos_. On the left are the _Petali Islands_ (_Petaliae Insulae_) in the bay of that name, and _Hagios Elias_ (5264 ft.), the S. point of _Euboea_.

We next steer through the _Straits of Doro_ (7½ M. in width; Ital. _Canal d’Oro_), where a strong N.E. current prevails and storms are frequently encountered. They lie between Eubœa and _Andros_ (3199 ft.; 156 sq. M.), the largest of the Cyclades (p. 492), with the lighthouse on _Cape Fassa_. Beyond them we are in the open sea.

Halfway between Andros and Chios (p. 492) are the _Kalogeros Cliffs_, belonging to Greece. Most of the vessels leave them to the right and steer to the E.N.E. to the passage between the rocky island of _Psara_ (ancient _Psyra_; notable for the revolt of the modern Greeks against the Turks) and _Chios_, with the bold and conspicuous _Mt. Hagios Elias_ (4134 ft.; _Pelinnaeon_) at its N. end. To the N. appears the S. coast of _Mytilini_ (p. 533).

Beyond the N. end of the _Straits of Chios_ (p. 492) the Levant steamers (RR. 75, 76) round the steep limestone rocks of the Anatolian peninsula of _Kara Burun_, with the _Boz Dagh_ (3920 ft.; ancient _Mimas_), and come in sight of the *=Gulf of Smyrna=, the ancient _Sinus Hermaeus_, which runs 34 M. inland. The entrance between (right and left) the headlands _Kinlu Burun_ and _Arslan Burun_ (Greek _Cape Hydra_) is 15 M. broad.

On the left, to the S. of Arslan Burun, near the islets of _Drepanon_ and _Oglak_ (lighthouse), lies the little bay of _Phokia_ (Turk. _Foja_). This was the ancient _Phocaea_, the northmost Ionian town, whose bold mariners first opened up the W. Mediterranean to the Greeks (comp. p. 121). Farther to the S., beyond _Cape Myrminghi_ (lighthouse), is the new estuary of the _Gedis Chai_ (_Hermos_), flanked with swampy alluvial soil and salt-works.

After rounding the island of _Kiösteni_ (Gr. _Makronisi_), which lies in front of the E. slope of the Boz Dagh (see above) and masks the _Bay of Gülbagcheh_, we sight to the S., beyond the _Marathusa Islands_, the houses of _Hagios Joannes_ (quarantine station), on an islet in the _Bay of Vurlá_. Here once lay the Ionian town of _Klazomenae_. The plain of Vurlá is famed for its wine and ‘Smyrna figs’.

Opposite the hills of the ‘_Two Brothers_’ (_Dyo Adelphia_, Turk. _Iki Kardash_; 3252 ft.) we pass the narrow old channel of the Gedis Chai (lighthouse). On a peninsula on the right lies the Turkish _Fort Sanjak Kalesí_; farther on is the suburb of _Göz Tepeh_ (p. 532). To the N.E. the imposing _Yamanlar Dagh_ (p. 533) and the lofty _Manissa Dagh_ (5905 ft.; ancient _Sipylos_) beyond it become more conspicuous. To the S. of the latter is a depression, beyond which rises the _Takhtaly_ or _Nif Dagh_. Beside the sea rises the _Pagos_ (p. 532) with its old walls and many cypresses. On its slopes, far to the S.W. and N.E., extends _Smyrna_.

* * * * *

=Smyrna.=—ARRIVAL. As soon as permission to land is obtained the
hotel-agents, guides, and boatmen come on board. Landing or
embarkation, with baggage 1½ fr., but 2–3 fr. when the steamer anchors
in the outer roads. As to the examination at the Custom House (Pl. B,
3), comp. p. 537. The porter (hamál) expects a few silver piastres.

HOTELS. *_Gr.-Hôt. Kraemer Palace_ (Pl. c; B, 3), Passage Kræmer (p.
532), with American bar, etc., R. 6–20, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5, pens.
12–25 fr.; *_Gr.-Hôt. Huck_ (Pl. a; B, 4), on the quay, nearly
opposite the Douane, pens. 10–25 fr.; _Hôt. de la Ville_ (Pl. b; B, 3;
Ital. host), on the quay, pens. 10–12, D. 3 fr. (in the season,
March-May, rather dearer).

CAFÉS (all on the quay). _Kraemer_, see above (also restaurant, beer,
etc.); _Klonaridis_, in the Hôt. de la Ville; _Café Costi_, _Café High
Life_, both Quai Anglais, etc.

POST OFFICES. _British_ (Pl. 9; C, 4); _French_ (Pl. 8; B, 4);
etc.—TELEGRAPH OFFICES. _Turkish_ and _Eastern Telegraph Co._, on the
quay, adjoining the Douane (1st floor).

CABS at the hotels and railway-stations (bargain necessary). Drivers
often ignorant and exorbitant. Drive 1 fr. to ½ mejidieh, hr. 1 mej.;
½ day about 2 mej.—HORSES in the Place Fassulah (Pl. C, 3), about 2
mej. per day.

TRAMWAY from _Konak_ (Pl. A, 6) along the quay to _Punta Station_
(_Gare de la Pointe_; Pl. E, 2), 7 metalliks; from Konak to _Göz
Tepeh_ (p. 532), 4 metalliks.

LOCAL STEAMERS to Kordelio, Göz Tepeh, etc.

STEAMBOAT AGENTS (offices all on the quay). _North German Lloyd_, Van
der Zee (also for German Levant Line); _Austrian Lloyd_, Pussich;
_Khedivial Mail_, Cohen; _Messageries Maritimes_, D. G. Alevra;
_Società Nazionale_, Fratelli Missir; _German Levant Line_, Milberg;
_Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co._, Bégléry.

BANKS. _Banque Ottomane_ (Pl. B, 4); _Crédit Lyonnais_, Rue Franque
(p. 532); _Banque de Salonique_ and _Banque d’Athènes_.—MONEY CHANGERS
in front of the Hôt. Huck and the Hœnischer Passage (Pl. B, 3, 4); a
charge of 2–5 metalliks is made, according to amount. Perforated coins
should be rejected.

CONSULATES. British: consul-general, _H. D. Barnham_; vice-consul, _C.
E. Heathcote Smith_.—United States (Pl. 3; C, 3): consul-general, _E.
L. Harris_; vice-consul, _E. A. Magnifico_.

ENGLISH CHURCH (Pl. E, 2), near Gare de la Pointe.

_Smyrna_, Turk. _Izmir_, the seat of the vali or governor of the Turkish province of _Aidin_, lies in 38° 26′ N. lat. and 27° 9′ E. long., in a bay between Sanjak Kalesí (p. 530) and the _Punta_ (La Pointe; Pl. D, E, 1). As all the older harbours on the W. coast of Asia Minor have been choked by alluvial deposits, Smyrna has developed into the chief seaport of Anatolia and the largest city in Turkish Asia after Damascus. Population, excl. suburbs, about 200,000, incl. over 100,000 Greeks, 60,000 Turks, 20,000 Jews (p. 542), 12,000 Armenians, and 15,000 Europeans and Levantines. The chief languages are Greek, French, and Italian.

Smyrna was founded in the 11th cent. B.C. on the N. side of the bay of
Burnabad (p. 533), about 2 M. to the N. of the present city. The
Ionians of Colophon (p. 491) captured it for the sake of its trade in
the 7th cent. and added it to their league of twelve cities. About 575
B.C. it was taken by the Lydian king _Alyattes_, who destroyed it and
settled its inhabitants in villages. A new Smyrna, as planned by
Alexander the Great, was founded later on the Pagos (p. 532) by the
diadochi _Antigonos_ and _Lysimachos_, and soon developed into one of
the finest towns in Asia Minor. After the havoc wrought by terrible
earthquakes in 178 and 180 A.D. the emperor _Marcus Aurelius_ caused
it to be rebuilt. For a time it was wrested from the Byzantine
emperors by Turkish pirates (1084) and the Seljuks (p. 542). During
the Latin domination in Constantinople (p. 542) Smyrna remained under
the sceptre of the Greek emperor at Nikæa. In 1344 the Genoese and the
Knights of St. John took the city under their protection, but in 1402
they were unable to save it from the ravages committed by Timur (p.
485), nor could they in 1424 prevent its capture by the Osmans. This
‘eye of Asia Minor’, as the Turks have called Smyrna, has risen to
wonderful prosperity of late years.

The quays were built in 1868–80 and at the same time the HARBOUR, of 50 acres only, was protected by a breakwater 1400 yds. long and 19 yds. in breadth. The entrance is between the N.E. end of this breakwater and the N. pier (Pl. B, 3, 4) near the passport-office, passengers’ custom-house, and telegraph office. The local steamers (p. 531) are berthed between the N. and the S. mole (Pl. A, 4, 5; chief custom-house).

The great business thoroughfare is the QUAY STREET (Greek _Prokymaea_, Ital. _Marina_), over 2 M. long, skirting the Frank quarter (see below). In the S. part of this street, among the motley throng of sailors, dock-labourers, and traders of every nation, are often seen picturesque trains of camels, headed in some cases by a donkey. The N. part of the quay, with its theatres, cafés, and many handsome dwelling-houses, is of an entirely different character.

From the quay several alleys, the Kræmer Passage, the Hœnischer Passage (Pl. B, 3, 4), and others, and the busy street Galatzo Sokak (Pl. B, C, 3) lead to the _Frank Quarter_. The main streets here, running parallel with the quay, are the so-called Parallel St., the Quai Anglais (Turk. Eski Balik Basar; Pl. B, C, 3, 4), the Maltese quarter, and above all the FRANKS’ STREET, in sections bearing different names (Rue des Verreries, Rue Franque, Rue Trassa, etc.), and lined with many European and other shops.

To the E. of Rue Franque, passing the Rom. Cath. cathedral of _St. Jean_ (Pl. C, 4), we come to the _Greek Quarter_, to which the lively streets Bella Vista (Pl. D, 2) and Oroman Sokak (Pl. D, 2, 3) also lead. The Greek Cath. cathedral of _Hagia Photinē_ or _Aï Fotini_ (Pl. B, 4) lies near the S.W. end of the Franks’ Street.

A little beyond Aï Fotini the street ends at the *BAZAAR (Pl. B, 5; open till sunset), which vies in its picturesque variety with the Great Bazaar of Constantinople. Smyrna carpets, mostly from the interior, old embroidery, and modern silks may be bought here at reasonable prices. The so-called antiquities, however, are generally spurious. The bazaar is within the _Turkish Quarter_, on the site of ancient Smyrna, with its quiet streets ascending the Pagos (see below), and extending to the S.W. to the _Moslem_ and the old _Jewish Cemeteries_. Near these, but difficult to find, are traces of the temples of _Asklepios_ and _Vesta_ (Pl. A, 7). Within the Turkish quarter lies the very unsavoury _Jewish Quarter_ (Pl. B, C, 5, 6).

From the church of Aï Fotini we may walk through the _Armenian Quarter_, past the Armenian cathedral of _St. Etienne_ (Pl. C, 5) and the Basma Khâné Station (Pl. D, 5), to the _Caravan Bridge_ (Pl. E, 5), which the busy traffic with the interior crosses.

From the Moslem cemeteries (Pl. A, B, 7) mentioned above, or from the Caravan Bridge, we ascend in ½ hr. to the top of the *PAGOS (525 ft.), which affords a superb view of the city, the bay, and the hills around. The extensive outer wall of the old _Castle_, dating from the Byzantine and Genoese periods, consists partly of the substructures and masonry of the Acropolis of king Lysimachos (p. 531). Of the _Roman Theatre_ (Pl. C, D, 6, 7) and the _Stadion_ (Pl. B, C, 7; p. 509) on the hill-side hardly a trace is left.

*EXCURSIONS. To _Göz Tepeh_ (p. 530) by tramway or by local steamer
(p. 531).—By local steamer or by railway (from the Basma Khâné Stat.,
see p. 532) to _Kordelio_ (cafés; sea-baths), a little town prettily
situated among gardens on the N. bank of the bay. From the steamer, to
the E. of the Punta (p. 531), we see the _Bay of Burnabad_ and the
plain of that name, beyond which, on the _Yamanlar Dagh_ (3202 ft.),
is the site of _Ancient Smyrna_ (p. 531).

* * * * *

Leaving Smyrna the STEAMER passes the Kara Burun (p. 530) and usually steers to the W.N.W. out to sea. Astern we obtain a fine view of Chios. We soon skirt the beautiful S. coast of =Mytilini= or _Mitylene_ (3084 ft.; ancient _Lesbos_; 673 sq. M.), the largest island in the Ægean Sea, and pass the narrow entrance of the far-penetrating _Bay of Kalloni_. Beyond _Cape Sigri_ (_Sigrium Promontorium_) and the islet of _Megalonisi_ (lighthouse) we sight the distant coast of Troas (see below).

Some of the vessels, beyond Arslan Burun (p. 530), steer to the N., close to the Anatolian coast, and past the finely varied scenery, of the _Bay of Chandarli_, the ancient _Sinus Elaeates_. On the N. bank of that bay, to the W. of the estuary of the _Bakyr Chai_ (once _Kaïkos_), rises the _Kara Dagh_ (2559 ft.; _Cane Mons_).

Beyond _Cape Maltepe_, a spur of Kara Dagh, and the _Hagios Georgios Islands_ opens the _Strait of Mytilini_, 9 M. wide, lying between the island and the coast of ancient _Mysia_. On the right, far inland from _Kabakum Bay_, we sight the hills near _Bergama_, the famous _Pergamum_ of the Greeks. On the hill-side to the left, beyond _Cape Malea_, the S.E. point of the island, lies _Mytilini_ or _Kastro_ (Turk. _Midüllü_), its capital, with a Genoese castle.

At the N. end of the strait, beyond the entrance to the harbour of _Aivaly_ (Gr. _Kydonia_), and the _Moshonisia Islands_ (_Hekatonesoi_), opens to the N.E. the broad _Bay of Edremid_ (_Adramyti_), on which rises _Kaz Dagh_ (5807 ft.), the ancient _Ida_. We next steer to the W. through the _Muselim Sound_, between the N. coast of Mytilini and the S. coast of _Troas_ or the _Troad_, where once rose the loftily situated stronghold of _Assos_.

After passing cape _Baba Burnu_ (_Lectum Promontorium_), the S.W. point of Troas, we follow the course of the direct steamers from Smyrna, past _Cape Eski Stambul_ (‘Old Stambul’), the site of _Alexandreia Troas_, a town of the Diadochi, and through the _Strait of Tenedos_ (3 M. broad). The island of _Tenedos_, famed in the Trojan wars, now abounding in windmills, rises in a trachytic double peak to a height of 627 ft.

At the N. end of the strait lies the islet of _Gaïdaronisi_ (lighthouse). Far away to the W., in clear weather, we descry the island of _Limnos_ (ancient _Lemnos_); to the N.W., beyond _Imbros_, towers the mountain-mass of _Samothrake_ (5250 ft.).

Beyond _Besika Bay_, in front of which lie the volcanic islands of _Tavshan Adalar_ (‘rabbit-islands’; once _Kalydnae_ or _Lagussae_), we pass the hills bordering the W. side of the plain of _Troy_, the legendary scene of the Homeric battles. Between _Hagios Dimitrios Tepeh_ (hill of St. Demetrius) and the Greek village of _Yenishehr_ is the site of _Sigeum_ or _Sigeion_. Near it the tumuli of ‘Achilles and Patroklos’ were the burial-places of that Athenian colony.

We now near the strongly fortified =Dardanelles= (p. xxxiv), the ancient _Hellespont_, now named after the ancient town of Dardanos (see below). The straits connect the Ægean Sea with the Sea of Marmora, a distance of 37½ M., and average ¾–4¾ M. in breadth, and 160–295 ft. in depth. They intersect a tableland, 820–925 ft. in height, of tertiary formation (yellow marl and marl-limestone of the upper miocene). The surface current (p. 557), sometimes setting as in the Bosporus at the rate of 5 M. an hour, causes serious difficulty to sailing-vessels, especially if wind and tide are both against them.

At the S.W. entrance to the Dardanelles, scarcely 2½ M. broad, lies a village on the Asiatic side with the ruined fortress of _Kum Kaleh_ (light); opposite, on the _Peninsula of Gallipoli_, the ancient _Thracian Chersonesus_, is the fort of _Sidd el-Bahr Kalesí_.

Beyond Kum Kaleh we sight to the S., rising above the marshy plain of the _Mendere Chai_ (_Skamander_), the low hill which was once the site of _Troy_ (near _Hissarlik_), with the débris of the excavations. On the shore, to the W. of the mouth of the stream, lay the landing-place of the Greeks.

Passing the site of _Dardanos_ (on the right) we soon reach the narrowest part of the straits (about 1475 yds.), commanded by the _Dardanelles Castles_ built by Mohammed II. in 1470, with their new earthworks. On the European side is the picturesque _Kilid Bahr_ (‘key of the sea’); on the Asiatic side is _Kaleh Sultanieh_ or _Boghaz Hissar_, at the mouth of the _Koja Chai_ (_Rhodios_). Under the protection of the latter lies the town of _Chanak Kalesí_ (‘castle of pots’), usually called =Dardanelles= (pop. 16,700). While the steamer stops for way-leave the potters of the place offer their curiously shaped and painted vases for sale.

At the second-narrowest part of the straits (1585 yds.), where they bend to the N.E., once lay the towns of _Sestos_ (left) and _Abydos_ (right), now fort _Nagara Kalesí_ (quarantine station; lighthouse). This was the traditional scene of the romance of Hero and Leander; it was here that Lord Byron swam across in 1810. Xerxes crossed the straits here in 480 B.C., Alexander the Great in 334 B.C., and the Turks in 1357.—On the coast, to the left, is the small plain of _Ægospotamoi_ (now _Karakova Dereh_), off which the Spartans won a decisive victory over the Athenians in 405.

Near the N.E. end of the Dardanelles, on the right, lies the village of _Lampsaki_ (_Lampsakos_) amid olive-groves and vineyards. To the left, on the steep projecting coast, is superbly situated the decayed town of _Gallipoli_ (_Kallipolis_, ‘beautiful town’), the first European town captured in 1357 by Suleiman, son of Orkhân (p. 542).

The Dardanelles expand into the =Sea of Marmora= (p. xxxiv), the ancient _Propontis_, a basin of comparatively recent origin (extreme depth 4450 ft.), which like the Ægean Sea has been formed by the subsidence of large portions of the earth’s surface. On the Asiatic side, beyond _Kara Burun_ (381 ft.), lies the _Bay of Artaki_, on the N. margin of the ancient Troas. Adjoining the bay is the plain of the _Biga Sher Chai_, the ancient _Granikos_, where in 334 Alexander the Great won his first victory over the Persians.

On the coast of ancient _Phrygia_ rises the peninsula of _Kapu Dagh_ (2625 ft.; once _Arktonnesos_ island), flanked by the _Pasha Liman_ islands and _Marmora_ or _Marmara_ (2326 ft.), where white marble for Constantinople has been quarried since ancient times.

On the N. coast soon appear the villages of _Sharkiöi_ (once _Peristasis_) and _Hiraklitsa_ (_Heraklea_); then the town of _Rodosto_ (Turk. _Tekirdagh_), and farther on, _Eregli_, the ancient _Perinthos_.

To the S. we sight the islet of _Kalolimni_ (689 ft.; _Besbikos_); far beyond it are the _Gulf of Mudania_ (or _Gemlek_) and the town of _Brussa_, at the foot of the Bithynian _Olympos_ (8200 ft.), which is generally capped with snow.

Off the beautiful _Gulf of Ismid_ (_Nikomedeia_), to the N.E., lie the =Princes Islands= (_Iles des Princes_; comp. Map, p. 557), the ancient _Demonnesoi_ (Turk. _Kizil Adalar_, ‘red islands’, so called from the colour of their ferruginous rocks).

=Prinkipo=, the ancient _Pityusa_ (‘rich in pines’), the largest and
most populous of these islands, attracts many excursionists from
Constantinople in fine weather (local steamers, see p. 538). On the N.
side of the island lies its capital, _Prinkipo_ (Hôt. Giacomo, déj. 5,
D. 6 fr.; Hôt. Impérial, and others). Pleasant drive thence (2½ hrs.
there and back; 1–2 mejidiehs; or ride, ½–1 mej.) to the highest hill
on the S. side of the island, crowned with the old _Monastery of St.
George_ (656 ft.; *View).

On its way from Constantinople to Prinkipo the steamer first touches
at _Proti_ (377 ft.). To the right we see the small island of _Oxia_,
the most westerly of the group, to which in 1910 the famous
street-dogs of Constantinople were transported, and _Plati_ (‘the
flat’), also called ‘Bulwer’s Island’ after an English Ambassador who
here built two now ruined castles (19th cent.) in the style of
Windsor. The steamer calls also at _Antigoni_ (542 ft.), and _Chalki_
(446 ft.; ‘ore-island’), with a Greek commercial school and a seminary
for priests.

On the flat European shore, beyond the village of _Küchük Chekmekjeh_ on the lagoon of that name, we sight the Russian war-monument with its gleaming tower, a landmark of Constantinople, rising above the cape of _San Stefano_ (lighthouse). A little later appears _Stambul_. Next, beyond the lighthouse (Phare), is seen the white mosque of Ahmed and the yellow Aya Sophia.

On the Asiatic coast, on the promontory which runs out into the beautiful _Bay of Moda_, there is situated, in the ancient _Bithynia_, _Fanar Burnu_ or _Fener Bagcheh_ (lighthouse). Beyond, it is _Kadikiöi_ (Kadi Keuï), a modern suburb of Constantinople, on the site of _Kalchedon_ or _Chalcedon_. Farther on are the little harbour of _Haidar Pasha_ (p. 557), the station of the Anatolian railway, and, at the S. end of _Scutari_ (p. 556), the military school of medicine, the large Selimieh Barracks, and the Selimieh Mosque.

The steamer now rounds the Seraglio Point and enters the _Bosporus_ (p. 557); it passes the Golden Horn, the harbour of Constantinople, and the New Bridge, and casts anchor at the Galata Quay below Pera. Landing, see below.

The DIRECT STEAMERS from Athens to Constantinople steer from the
_Straits of Doro_ (p. 529) to the N.N.E. for Tenedos (p. 533). In
clear weather we descry to the right the distant _Chios_ (p. 492) and
_Psara_ (p. 529), and to the left _Skyros_ (2608 ft.), the S.E. island
of the _N. Sporades_. On the right we next sight _Mytilini_ (p. 533),
and on the left _Hagiostrati_ (971 ft.; _Halonnesos_). From _Tenedos_
to _Constantinople_, see p. 533.

81. Constantinople.[9]

ARRIVAL BY SEA. The French, German, and Rumanian (RR. 76, 82) steamers
are berthed at the Galata Quay (Pl. H, I, 4), near the Dogana or
Douane. Passengers of the French and German steamers have to pay
pier-dues (1st class 5½, 2nd cl. 3½ s. pias). The Austrian, Italian,
and Egyptian steamers also, on their arrival from the Black Sea, are
mostly moored at the quay, but when coming from the S. they usually
anchor in front of it, at the entrance of the Golden Horn (landing or
embarkation, with baggage, 2 fr. or 10 pias.). The porters (hamáls,
mostly Kurds) of the Harbour Co. receive 5 pias. and a gratuity of 1
pias. for conveying baggage from the quay to the hotels. All trouble
with boatmen and porters is avoided by applying at once to the guides
(dragomans) or hotel-agents.

Footnote 9:

In the following description the transcripts ö and ü have
approximately the German value, or the French of eu and u
respectively.

=Money.= The _Turkish Pound_ (_lira_), worth about 23 fr. or 18_s._
5_d._, is divided into 100 piastres. There are gold coins of ¼, ½,
1, 2½, and 5 pounds. The commonest coins are _Silver Piastres_ (s.
pias.; coins of 5, 10, and 20 s. pias.), but at the government,
railway, and steamboat offices, in the tobacco-shops, and on the
tramways they suffer a slight loss (5 s. pias. = 4¾, 10 s. pias. =
9½, 20 s. pias. = 19 piastres in gold). The piastre (worth 2⅒_d._)
is called _Gurúsh_ in Turkish (_grosi_ in Greek), the five-piastre
piece is a _Cheïrek_ (or simply ‘franc’), the twenty-piastre piece
(about 3_s._ 6_d._) is a _Mejidieh_. A piastre is divided into 40
parts called _Paras_; the commonest para-coins are the thinly
silvered bronze _Metalliks_ of 10 paras (about ½_d._); there are
others of 5, 20, 50, and 100 paras. New nickel coins of 1 pias., 20,
10, and 5 paras will in 1912 be brought into circulation.

A French or Greek silver franc passes in ordinary traffic for 4½ s.
pias., and the Napoleon (the most popular of foreign coins) for 95
s. pias. (but the money-changers usually give 93 s. pias. only). The
average exchange for an English sovereign is 120 s. pias.; for bank
and circular notes the exchange is rather higher. French banknotes
can be exchanged only at the banks. Small change, of which there is
always a scarcity, is obtained at the banks (p. 539) or at the
money-changers, the current rate of exchange being ascertained
beforehand. Worn-out coins may be exchanged at the Banque Ottomane.

Accounts are still kept in the provinces in ‘bad (_chürük_)
piastres’; of these there are silver coins worth 1¼, 2½, and 5
pias., and copper coins of 1¼ and 2½ pias.—The Turkish pound
contains 178 bad piastres, the mejidieh 33, and the silver piastre
1⅔. A pound sterling is therefore worth about 209 bad piastres, a
shilling about 10½, and a franc 8⅓.

=Turkish Numbers=: 1, bir; 2, ikí; 3, ütsh; 4, dört; 5, besh; 6,
altí; 7, yedí; 8, sekíz; 9, dokuz; 10, on; 11, on bir; 20, yirmí;
25, yirmí besh; 30, otuz; 40, kirk; 50, elí; 100, yüz; 1000, bin.
‘Katsh pará’, how many paras? ‘Besh gurúsh’, five piastres.

Baggage and passports (p. xvii) are examined in the ‘Salon’ or Bureau
des Passeports. The importation of weapons and ammunition and of
tobacco and cigarettes is prohibited. Cigars, however, if declared,
are admitted at an ad valorem duty of 75 per cent. On showing their
passports passengers must state where they intend to reside; the
passports are then stamped and returned to them. On leaving the
country passports are again examined (_visés_ by consul, p. 539); so
also is luggage, to prevent exportation of antiquities.

On leaving the Salon each passenger has to pay the Harbour Co. 5 pias.
in gold, also 1 pias. for each trunk and ½ pias. for each piece of
hand-luggage.

The =Station= (Pl. H, 5; Buffet, on the side for departure; Rail.
Restaurant opposite) of the Oriental Railway is at Stambul, 7 min. to
the S.E. of the New Bridge (p. 545).—The clock, which gives E.
European time, is an hour in advance of mid-European time. As the
officials understand French, the services of the hotel-agents may be
dispensed with.—Small articles of luggage are examined at the
frontier-station Mustapha Pasha, registered luggage in the hall of
arrival, and passports at the exit.—_Porter_ to hotel 11 pias.—_Cab_
from station to hotel 20–25 pias., incl. bridge-toll of 2½ pias. (from
quay to hotel 10 pias.; tariff, see p. 538).

=Hotels= (all at Pera; charges should be agreed upon beforehand). PERA
PALACE HOTEL (Pl. a; H, 3), near the public gardens of the Petits
Champs (p. 544), R. 10 fr. 10 c.–20 fr., B. 2 fr. 10, déj. 5 fr. 25,
D. 6 fr. 30, pens. 20 fr. 60–30 fr. 60 c. (charges 3–4 fr. lower from
15th June to 1st Sept.); HÔT. TOKATLIAN, Grande Rue de Péra 180,
recently rebuilt, with restaurant and café (see below), R. from 6½, B,
1½, déj. 4½, D. 5½, pens. from 15 fr., well spoken of.—HÔT. BRISTOL,
opposite the Petits Champs (Pl. H, 2), R. from 5, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5,
pens. from 14 fr. (with dépendance GR.-HÔT. MISSIRI, Grande Rue de
Péra 128, plain); HÔT. DE LONDRES (Pl. b; H, 2), also opposite Petits
Champs, R. from 5, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5, pens. from 12½ fr.; HÔT.
BERLINER HOF (Royal & d’Angleterre; Pl. c, H, 2), near the garden of
the British Embassy, R. from 6, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5, pens. 15 (out of
season, 12) fr.; HÔT. CONTINENTAL, opposite the Petits Champs (Pl. H,
3), R. 4–10, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5, pens. 12–20 fr.; HÔT. KRŒCKER (Pl.
e; H, 3), Rue Kabristan 36–40, with garden, R. 4–10, B. 1, déj. 2½, D.
3½, pens. 9–16 fr.

_Second Class_: KHEDIVIAL PALACE HOTEL (Pl. f; H, 3), Grande Rue de
Péra, R. 4–6, pens. 10–12 fr.; HÔT. GRANDE BRETAGNE, Rue Vénédik, R.
2–5, B. 1, déj. 2½, D. 3, pens. 6–10 fr.; HÔT. ST. PÉTERSBOURG,
opposite the Petits Champs (Pl. H, 2), rooms only (from 2 fr.);
CONSTANTINOPLE PALACE HOTEL, Grande Rue de Péra (Pl. H, 2), R. 3–5, B.
1–1½, déj. 3, D. 3½, pens. 7–12 fr.; HÔT. PAULICK, same street,
adjoining the Russian Embassy (Pl. H, 3), R. 2¼–6, unpretending; HÔT.
RUBIN, R. from 2 fr.

=Restaurants= (European cuisine; _à la carte_). AT PERA. *_Tokatlian_,
at the hotel of that name (see above); _Janni_ (Brasserie Viennoise),
Grande Rue de Péra 396; _Nicoli_ (Brass. Suisse), same street, No.
380; _Restaurant Lebon_, same street, No. 434; _Restaurant Anzière_,
near the Baluk Bazaar (p. 545), D. 15 pias., well spoken of;
restaurants in summer in the gardens of the _Petits Champs_, in winter
in the winter-theatre (concerts).—AT GALATA. _Restaurant ‘D.D.’_,
dinner only, well spoken of.—AT STAMBUL. _Railway Restaurant_ (see
above), with garden, well spoken of; _Tokatlian_, in the Great Bazaar.

=Cafés.= _Tokatlian_ and _Lebon_, see above; also in the _Public
Grounds at Pera_, in the _Taxim Park_ (Pl. I, 1), and others in the
Grande Rue de Péra.—There are _Turkish Cafés_, well shaded, opposite
the Aya Sophia and in the small public garden there (Pl. H, 7); also
at the piers of the local steamers, etc.; small cup of coffee 20
paras. Those at Galata should be avoided.—CONFECTIONERS. _Tokatlian_,
_Lebon_, see p. 537; _Mulassier_, Grande Rue de Péra, cor. of Rue de
Pologne.

=Cabs= (_araba_). It is best to fix the fare beforehand according to
the tariff. Drive of ¼ hr. 5, of 25 min. 7½, and of 40 min. 10 pias.;
1 hr. 15, each addit. hr. 10 pias.; two hours after sunset charges are
raised by one-quarter and from midnight till sunrise by one-third; for
the whole day 80 pias.—HORSES (_at_, _begir_) at Top Haneh, near the
Yedikuleh station, etc.; 5–10 pias. per hour, according to bargain
(and small gratuity to horse-boy).

=Tramways= (comp. Plan; electric lines under construction). Most of
the cars have two classes and a compartment for Turkish women. Fare
30–60 or 40–80 paras according to class (printed on the tickets in
French). The passenger states his destination or names the station
nearest to it.—=1.= _Galata_ (at lower end of Yüksek Kaldirim, Pl. H,
4) to Galata Seraï (Pl. H, 2; 40 or 60 paras), Taxim (Pl. I, 2), and
_Shishli_ (to the N. of Pl. I, 1).—=2.= _Asab Kapu_ (Pl. G, 3; at the
Old Bridge) to Galata (Pl. H, 4), Top Haneh (Pl. I, 3), Kabatash (Pl.
K, 2), Dolma Bagcheh, Beshiktash, and _Ortakiöi_ (p. 558).—=3.= _Emin
Önu_ (Pl. H, 5; at S. end of New Bridge) to Sirkeji (rail. stat.),
So-uk Cheshmeh, Kapu (Museum), Aya Sophia (Pl. H, 7), Chemberli Tash
(Colonne Brûlée; Pl. G, 6), Sultan Bayazid (Pl. G, 6), Ak Seraï (Pl.
D, E, 6; change cars), and _Top Kapu_ (Pl. B, 4).—=4.= _Ak Seraï_ (Pl.
D, E, 6) to _Yedikuleh_ (Pl. A, 9).

=Tunnel Railway=, the chief means of communication between the New
Bridge and Pera; lower station (Pl. H, 4) at Galata, Rue Yéni Djami;
upper station (Pl. H, 3), in the Place du Tunnel at Pera. Cars every 5
min.; 30 or 20 paras; book of 10 tickets, 2nd cl., 5 pias.

=Local Steamers= (comp. inset maps on the Plan; time-tables in the
newspapers; ply till sunset). =a.= On the GOLDEN HORN, to _Eyúb_, from
the pier (Pl. H, 4) to the W. of the N. end of the New Bridge, about
every ¼ hr. till sunset; tickets (to Eyúb 30 paras; 20 paras more for
cushioned seat) on the pier. Mid-stations, see p. 555. In spring and
summer smaller steamers ply between Eyúb and _Kiathaneh_ (Sweet
Waters, p. 556; 40 paras).—=b.= On the BOSPORUS, from the pier (Pl. H,
5) at the S. end of the New Bridge, to the E., where tickets are
obtained (to Büyükdereh in 1½ hr.; fare 160 or 100 paras, plus a tax
of 10 paras). There are three lines: European coast, Asiatic coast,
and Zigzag, recognizable by green, or red, or red and green
flags.—=c.= To SCUTARI, from the third pier to the left (E.; Pl. H,
4), coming from the N. end of the New Bridge, about every ½ hr.; fare
50 or 30 paras; to PRINKIPO (p. 535), from the first pier to the left,
five or six times daily in summer, in 2 hrs.; fare 160 or 100
paras.—=d.= On the SEA OF MARMORA (no piers), from the Stambul Quay
(Pl. H, 5) vià Kum Kapu (Pl. G, 7), Yeni Kapu (Pl. E, 8), and Psamatia
Kapu (Pl. B, 8) to the suburbs of Makrikiöi and _San Stefano_ (p.
535).

=Boats= (no tariff; bargain necessary). To or from steamers, see p.
537; otherwise 10 pias. per hour. Ferry, by one of the long
flat-bottomed _Caïques_, with one rower, to Stambul 1–2 pias., to Eyúb
or Scutari, about 10 pias., with two rowers 15 pias.; per hour 15
pias.

=Post Offices.= _British_ (Pl. H, 4); _Turkish International_, Rue
Voïvode in Galata (Pl. H, 4), Grande Rue de Péra, opposite the Galata
Seraï, near the Yeni Valideh Jami (Pl. H, 5) in Stambul, and at the
railway-station. France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia also
have their own post-offices. French is generally understood. Postage
within Turkey ½–2 pias. for 10 grammes, post-card 20 paras; foreign
letters 1 pias. per 20 grammes.

=Telegraph Offices.= The _Turkish International Post Offices_ (see
above) send telegrams to foreign countries as well as within Turkey.
_Eastern Telegraph Co._, at the Turkish post-office, Grande Rue de
Péra (see above), for foreign parts (to Great Britain each word 66
c.).

=Steamboat Agents= (offices mostly behind the custom-house at Galata;
comp. Pl. H, 4). _Messageries Maritimes_, Mumhaneh Street; _N. Paquet
& Co._, T. Reboul; _Società Nazionale_, Barboro, Cité Française:
_North German Lloyd_, Mewes, Mumhaneh Street, Charab Iskelessi 7–9;
_German Levant Line_, Mehemed Ali Pasha-Han; _Austrian Lloyd_,
Mumhaneh Street; _Khedivial Mail_, Silley, Galata Quay, Meimanetli
Han; _Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co._, Petcheneff, Kiretsh
Kapu; _Rumanian State Maritime Service_, Galata Quay.—=Tourist
Agents=, _Thos. Cook & Son_, Rue Kabristan 12, opposite Pera Palace
Hotel.

=Guides.= The _International Courier’s and Guides Office_, near the
Pera Palace Hotel (p. 537), provides reliable guides (10 fr. per day
for Constantinople and its environs, including the Bosporus).

=Embassies and Consulates.= GREAT BRITAIN: Ambassador, _Right Hon. Sir
G. A. Lowther_ (office, Pl. H, 2; in summer at Therapia).
Consul-General, _H. Eyres_ (office, Pl. H, 4); consul, _A. T. Waugh_;
vice-consul, _W. S. Edmonds_.—UNITED STATES: Ambassador, _O. S.
Straus_ (office, Pl. I, 2). Consul-General, vacat; vice-consul, _O. S.
Heizer_.

=Physicians.= English, German, and others (addresses at the hotels or
at the chemists’).—=Chemists.= In the Grande Rue de Péra, _Ehrlich_,
No. 579; _Canzuch & Giannetti_, No. 247; _Matkowitsch_, No. 420;
_Della Sudda_, No. 298; _Liechtenstein_, Helvaji Street, Galata.

=Baths= at the hotels.—Addresses of _Turkish Baths_ may be obtained at
the hotels.—SEA BATHS at the European places on the Bosporus.

=Banks.= _Banque Ottomane_, Rue Voïvode, Galata, and Grande Rue de
Péra 407, with exchange offices; _Crédit Lyonnais_, near the New
Bridge, Galata; also _German_, _German Orient_, _Vienna_, and
others.—MONEY CHANGERS (_sarráf_) abound in the Rue Karakeuï (Pl. H,
4; p. 543), Grande Rue de Péra, etc.

=Booksellers.= _Economic Book Store_, Passage du Tunnel; _O. Keil_,
No. 457, and _S. H. Weiss_, No. 481 Grande Rue de Péra.—NEWSPAPERS (¼
pias.). _Levant Herald_, with Engl. and Fr. editions; _Le Stamboul_,
_Moniteur Oriental_, French; _Osmanische Lloyd_, German and French.
All have steamboat and other time-tables and notices.

=Photographs & Picture Post Cards.= All in Grande Rue de Péra,
_Fruchtermann_, No. 335; _Keil_, No. 457; _Sébah & Joaillier_, No.
439; _Berggren_, No. 414 (line views of the city and environs).
Photographic materials sold by _Caracache Frères_, Nos. 675 and 398,
and _Weinberg_, No. 467.

=Theatre= in the grounds of the Petits Champs (Pl. H, 2).—A BAND plays
on summer evenings in the same grounds and in the Taxim Park (Pl. I,
1); adm. 1–2 pias.

=Churches.= _Church of England_, at the chapel of the British Embassy
(Pl. H, 2), during summer at Therapia (see p. 559); _Christ Church_
(Pl. H, 3), in the Rue Yazidji; _Presbyterian Church_, in the chapel
of the Dutch Legation, Rue des Postes, near the Grande Rue (Pl. H, 3).

=Sights.= _Antiquities, Collection of_, see New Museum.

_Bazaar, Great_ (p. 551), best visited early; closed 1 hr. before
sunset; Frid., Sat., and Sun. are respectively Moslem, Jewish, and
Christian holidays. Inexperienced travellers may bring a guide or the
dragoman of their hotel (but see p. xxvi). Large purchases may be sent
home by a goods-agent.

_Beylerbey Seraï_ (p. 558), adm. as in the case of the Seraglio.

_Chinili Kiosque_ (p. 547), see under New Museum.

_Egyptian Bazaar_ (_Missir Charshi_; p. 545), as the Great Bazaar.

_Galata Tower_ (p. 543), all day, 5 pias. (custodian with light, 2
pias.).

_Mosques_ (Turk. _Jami_; very small, _mesjid_), all open to Christians
till sunset; during Ramadan, the Moslem month of fasting, they are
gorgeously lighted and then open in the evening also (comp. p. 549).
At the inner door the sacristan provides overshoes, or visitors may
take off their own. Hats also are removed (comp. p. xxv). There is no
charge for admission but it is usual to give the sacristan a fee of 5
pias. per person (less for a party) for the loan of overshoes.—The
_Tomb Chapels_ (Turk, _türbeh_) are open on similar conditions; fee
1–5 pias., according to their importance.

_Museum, Janissaries’_ (p. 550), all day, 3 pias.—_Military Museum_,
in the Church of Irene (p. 548), Sun., Tues., & Thurs. 10–4.—_New
Museum_ (p. 546), daily except Frid., 9–5, in winter 10–3, adm. 5
pias.; tickets available for the Chinili Kiosque also.

_Seraglio Palace_ (p. 548). The consulates, to which application
should be made a few days beforehand, arrange for visits to the
_Treasury_ and part of the old Seraglio on Sun & Tues. (small fee).

_Türbeh_, see under Mosques.

TWO DAYS (when time is limited). 1st. Forenoon, *_Galata Tower_ (p.
543), _Yeni Valideh Jami_ (p. 545), *_New Museum_ (p. 546), _Chinili
Kiosque_ (p. 547); afternoon, trip on the *_Bosporus_ (p. 557), or to
_Scutari_ (p. 556); summer evening in the _Gardens of the Petits
Champs_ (p. 544) or the _Taxim Park_ (p. 544).—2nd. Forenoon, *_Aya
Sophia_ (p. 548), _At Meïdán_ (p. 549), *_Great Bazaar_ (p. 551),
*_Suleiman Mosque_ (p. 552); afternoon, _Land-Wall_ (p. 553); _Eyúb_
(pp. 555, 556); _Serasker Tower_ (p. 551).—Visitors should be on their
guard against pickpockets, especially in Galata and Pera.

_Constantinople_, Turk. _Stambul_ or _Stamboul_, Ital. _Costantinopoli_, Slav. _Tsarigrad_ (emperor’s town), capital of the Turkish empire and residence of the Sultan (since 1909 Mohammed V., b. 1844; successor of Abdul Hamid, p. 544), is the seat of the government (the ‘Sublime Porte’), and also of the Sheikh ul-Islam, of the patriarchs of the Greek and Armenian churches, and of a papal legate. It lies on the Sea of Marmora, at the mouth of the Bosporus, in 41° N. lat. and 28° 58′ E. longitude.

The CITY consists of several distinct quarters. _Stambul_, in the narrower sense, forms a nearly equilateral triangle between the Golden Horn (p. 555) and the Sea of Marmora; to the N.E., on the slopes of the opposite bank of the Golden Horn and on the adjacent shore of the Bosporus, lie the Frank quarters of _Galata_ and _Pera_ and their suburbs; and to the E., on the gently sloping Asiatic shore of the Bosporus, lies the Turkish town of _Scutari_ with its suburbs. According to recent estimates Constantinople contains 1,125,000 inhab. (or, without the Asiatic quarters, 943,000), incl. about 500,000 Turks, more than 200,000 Greeks, 180,000 Armenians, 65,000 Jews, mostly Spanish (see p. 542), and 70,000 Europeans. The foreign residents are said to number 130,000.

The SITUATION of Constantinople has justly won the admiration of all ages. The vast city of Stambul curving over the slopes between the Sea of Marmora and the Golden Horn, the suburbs on the Bosporus, its green banks studded with villages, palaces, and mosques, the Golden Horn with its busy bridges and its countless vessels, all combine to form a picture of matchless beauty.

The CLIMATE of Constantinople, which lies in the same latitude as Naples (p. 137), is unsettled and comparatively cool. During the greater part of the year the city is exposed to N.E. winds from the Siberian steppes, which sweep through the Bosporus and in winter occasionally bring snow. The best season for a visit is autumn (end of Sept. to beginning of Nov.). The summer, however, is usually fine and not unbearably hot, the coolest places being those on the Bosporus, a little to the N., which are sheltered from the due S. winds (as Therapia, Büyükdereh, etc.). The mean temperature of the year is 57½° Fahr., that of the hottest month (Aug.) 74°, and that of the coldest (Feb.) 41°. The rainfall averages 28¾ in.

HISTORY. Attracted by the striking advantages of the site, at the
junction of two great portions of the globe and on the great water
highway between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, the Dorians
founded the colony of =Byzantium=, about 660 B.C., on the promontory
(Seraglio Point, p. 536) commanding the entrance to the Bosporus. This
colony, however, like the towns on the coast of Asia Minor, was unable
to withstand the attacks of the Persians; when _Darius I._ crossed the
Bosporus in his campaign against the Scythians the Byzantines were
compelled to supply him with ships; and their town was afterwards
destroyed by the Persians for taking part in the Ionian revolt. The
long but somewhat weak alliance of Byzantium with Athens was succeeded
by closer bonds when the town was threatened by _Philip of Macedonia_.
Being hard pressed by _Phokion_ Philip was compelled to raise the
siege of the town (340–339). Under _Alexander the Great_ and his
successors Byzantium maintained its autonomy, but in 278 it suffered
seriously from an attack by the Gauls (‘Galatians’) settled in Thrace.

In the wars against _Philip III. of Macedonia_ Byzantium became the
natural ally of Rome, and this alliance continued to subsist under the
earlier Roman emperors. In 193–6 _Septimius Severus_ besieged the town
to punish it for siding with the rival emperor Pescennius Niger, and
deprived it of its liberties and privileges; but he afterwards rebuilt
the walls, regarding it as an important bulwark of the empire. In 269
_Emp. Claudius II._ here repelled the attacks of the _Goths_ when they
attempted to force their way south from the Danube.

Having become master of the whole empire by the capture of Byzantium
in 324 _Emp. Constantine_ chose it as his new capital on account of
its admirable situation on the threshold of the East. In 330 it was
officially styled New Rome, but soon became generally known as
=Constantinopolis=. Enclosed by Constantine’s new walls it now
extended to the W. to the region of the present Old Bridge (Pl. F, 4)
and of Psamatia (Pl. B, C, 8). The Romans retained the old division of
the city into fourteen regions, and they even found in it their seven
hills again. The environs as far as the 7th milestone (hebdomon),
called the exokionion, were assigned to the seven milliarii of the
Gothic body-guard. Under _Arcadius_, in 395, Constantinople became the
capital of the new E. Roman empire. The rapid increase of the
population and the necessity of defending it against the attacks of
the _Huns_ and _Goths_ induced _Anthemius_, regent during the minority
of _Theodosius II._ (408–50), to build the new Theodosian town-walls,
½–1¼ M. to the W. of those of Constantine. In 439 sea-walls along the
Sea of Marmora and the Golden Horn were added, and after 447, in
consequence of an attack by Attila and to repair the damage done by an
earthquake, the land-walls were restored and strengthened.

Byzantium attained the zenith of its prosperity under _Justinian_
(527–65). He rebuilt the city, after its almost entire destruction in
532 during the rebellion of the circus parties (Nika revolt), in a far
grander style, and on the site of Constantine’s basilica founded the
famous church of St. Sophia. In the form of Byzantine civilization
antique culture survived until the middle ages, although finally in a
merely torpid state. This Byzantine development, with its Greek
language and independent Oriental church under the patriarchal
government at Constantinople, was an outcome of the late Greek
(‘Hellenistic’) and Roman culture.

After the time of Justinian the empire was shaken to its foundations
by intestine disorders and foreign wars. The attacks of the _Avars_
and _Persians_ (627) were succeeded by the irruption of the _Arabs_
under the Omaiyades (p. 485), who in 673–8 and 717–8 besieged
Constantinople by sea and by land. About the same time the
_Bulgarians_ founded an independent kingdom in the Balkan peninsula,
and they too (in 813 and 924) attacked the city. Russian fleets forced
their way into the Sea of Marmora in 860 and 1048. Economically, too,
Constantinople was on the wane; from the 11th cent. onwards the
_Seljuks_ were gaining ground in Asia Minor, and the Italian maritime
cities were rapidly acquiring wealth and power.

The quarrels of aspirants to the throne during the Angelos dynasty led
in 1204 to the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders and to the
foundation of a new western or ‘Latin’ empire. In 1261 the Greek
emperor _Michael Palaeologos_, who resided at Nikæa, succeeded in
driving the Franks out of Constantinople with the aid of the Genoese,
to whom he presented Galata (see below) as a reward. But the Turkish
peril came ever nearer. The _Osmans_, having conquered Asia Minor in
the 13th cent., crossed the Dardanelles (comp. p. 534) under _Orkhân_
in 1357, and under _Murad I._, in 1361, made Adrianople the residence
of the sultans instead of Brussa. They were weakened for a time by the
attacks of Timur (p. 485), but in 1411 and 1422 they proceeded to
besiege Constantinople.

After a heroic defence by _Constantine XI. Palaeologos_, the last
Greek emperor, the city was at length captured in 1453 by _Mohammed
II._ (Mehemed el-Fatih, ‘the conqueror’), and under the name of
=Stambul= became the capital of the Osmans. Its fortunes were now at
their lowest ebb; it was almost entirely depopulated and reduced to
ruins, as had been its fate when captured by the Crusaders in 1204.
But soon Turkish settlers from all quarters thronged to the new
capital, and many Christians also, their lives and religion being
safeguarded, while numerous Jews banished from Spain in 1492 found a
new home here and have retained their old language and characteristics
ever since. The building enterprise of the Turkish sultans, especially
of _Selim I._ (1512–20), the conqueror of Syria, Mesopotamia, and
Egypt, and of _Suleiman the Great_ (1520–66), as well as of the
Turkish magnates, was directed exclusively to public edifices. They
erected mosques (p. 539) on the model of the earlier church of the
Apostles and of the Aya Sophia (or church of St. Sophia), tomb-chapels
(p. 539), bazaars and warehouses (_han_), and baths and fountains
(_sebil_, with running water; _cheshmeh_, draw-well). In the midst of
these sumptuous buildings lay a labyrinth of crooked streets and
lanes, the brightly painted timber houses with their grated balconies
(kafehs) being often of one story only, while here and there this
strange sea of houses was relieved by gardens and burial-grounds.

To some extent, notwithstanding destructive fires (as in 1865 and
1908) and earthquakes (the last in 1894), the old Oriental
characteristics of the city still survive in the old town of
_Stambul_, the chief seat of the Oriental merchants and the petty
traders, and also at Scutari (p. 556). _Galata_, on the other hand,
the centre of the European trade, is much like an Italian
seaport-town. Above it, to the N., lies _Pera_, a suburb which sprang
up in the 19th cent., and which, since a great fire in 1870, has been
almost entirely rebuilt in quite European fashion.

Of BOOKS on Constantinople may be mentioned: _Grosvenor_,
Constantinople (2 vols., London, 1895); _W. H. Hutton_, Constantinople
in the ‘Mediæval Towns Series’ (London, 1900); and _Van Millingen_,
Byzantine Constantinople, The Walls, etc. (London, 1899).

a. Galata and Pera.

=Galata=, the oldest suburb of Constantinople, rises on the slope of a plateau on the N. side of the entrance to the Golden Horn (p. 555), corresponding with the 13th region of the city of Constantine (p. 541). In the middle ages it was usually called _Peira_. Its inhabitants are chiefly Greeks and Armenians. In 1304 the Genoese (see above) enclosed it with a wall, and down to 1453 held an almost independent position under their own rulers (podestà). The wall was often rebuilt and was at last removed (1864).